DIRE DAWA UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING
INDUSTRIAL CONTROL STREAM
INDUSTRY INTERNSHIP REPORT
INTERNSHIP HOST COMPANY ETHIOPIAN AIRLINE(DIRE DAWA)

PROJECT TITTLE: DESIGN CONTROL SYSTEM OF LANDING AND TAKEOFF OF AN

AIRCRAFT

BY:
1. FATI NASIR………………………………………………………….1200331
2. TADALA NOTE……………………………………………………..1201342
3. GAMACHU WARE……………………………………………….....1200436
4. TSADIKU FIKADU………………………………………………….1201449
5. KALID KADIR……………………………………………………….1204162
6. LULU AYELE………………………………………………………..1204401

Submission Date:
Adviser Name:Mr. Mustafa J.
 Declaration

This is to certify that the internship report is being submitted by our group: In partial
fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Science in Electrical
Engineering to Dire Dawa University uniquely prepared by us after the completion of
two-month work of Ethiopian airlines in Dire Dawa branch. We also confirm that the
report is original and doesn’t contain any plagiarized material unless its property cited
and its only for academic needed not for any purpose.

NAME ID SIGN

1. FATI NASIR………………………………………….1200331
2. TADALA NOTE………………………………….…..1201342
3. GAMACHU WARE…………………………………..1200436
4. TSADIKU FIKADU…………………………………..1201449
5. KALID KADIR………………………………………..1204162
6. LULU AYELE………………………………………...1204401

This report has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university
Advisor.\
Adviser Name Sign
Mr. Mustafa J.

I
 Acknowledgments
At the very beginning, we would like to express our gratitude to the almighty God for
giving us Strength and composure to complete our internship program and this report
within the scheduled Time. During this period of our internship work, we have
received generous help from many Quarters, which we like to put on record here with
deep gratitude and great pleasure. First and foremost, we are grateful to mentor Mr.
Mustafa. And we would like to thank and take an opportunity to express our gratitude
to the Ethiopian Airlines Dire Dawa branch, Aviation Authority. People from this
department helped us to gain more practical knowledge, which made us our internship
program more fruitful. In addition to express our gratitude to those who may have
contributed to this work, even though anonymously.

II
 Executive Summary

This report is the outcome of the internship we completed at the Dire Dawa
branch of Ethiopian Civil Aviation during our internship time. We got the
chance to use the theoretical knowledge we had learned throughout the
course of our five years of academic education. The purpose of this report
is to capture in writing the work experience and lessons we learned from
carrying out particular activities while working in a professional setting. In
our report, we provided a brief overview of the history of Dire Dawa Civil
Aviation Company, the company that hosted our internship, as well as the
company's primary services, overall structure, and workflow. Furthermore,
we give a brief overview of the overall internship experience we have
obtained throughout our practical sessions. We began by outlining how we
entered the organization, the department we have been working in, and the
environment in which we have been working. Additionally, we have
outlined the fundamental structure of our website's workflow. This section
of the report also includes the processes that we employed to complete our
tasks. Moreover, we made an effort to clarify the evaluation of the
communication process as well as the overall goal of daily work. We also
briefly discuss the overall advantages of our internship in terms of
enhancing our practical skills. Talents, organizational problem-solving
capacity, teamwork, leadership, increasing our theoretical knowledge,
comprehension of work ethics, and entrepreneurial skills.

III
 Table of contents

Declaration ............................................................................................................................................................................ I
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................................................II
Executive Summary ...........................................................................................................................................................III
Table of contents ................................................................................................................................................................ IV
List of figure ....................................................................................................................................................................... VI
ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................................................... XII
Part 1 ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 1
CHA PTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................................................1
1. Background of hosting Company ................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Brief History ............................................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Service of ECAA .....................................................................................................................................................3
1.3. Objective ................................................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4 Vision ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Mission ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.6. Values ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1.7. Major responsibilities and duties of ECAA ............................................................................................................ 7
1.8 Organization Structure and workflow .................................................................................................................... 11
1.9 Work Flow of Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority ................................................................................................ 12
1.10 CNS ...................................................................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................................................15
OVER ALL INTERSHIP EXPEIENCE ..........................................................................................................................15
2.1 Objective of the internship ..................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 How did I get the company? ...................................................................................................................................15
2.3 Work section of ECAA .......................................................................................................................................... 16
2.4 Overallsystemcomponentsand operations .............................................................................................................. 19
Transmitter Control :-Audio inputs .............................................................................................................................. 26
VHF Receiver ............................................................................................................................................................... 27
Frequency selection ...................................................................................................................................................... 28
2.4 .5 Recorder .................................................................................................................................................................... 31
2.5 VCSS ..............................................................................................................................................................................33
2.6 Light gun signal ............................................................................................................................................................ 35
2.7 .8 VSAT ......................................................................................................................................................................... 37
2.8 Data Communication ................................................................................................................................................... 40
2.9 AMHS ............................................................................................................................................................................ 40
2.9.6. Cavity filter ............................................................................................................................................................... 42
2.9.7. Navigational aid system ........................................................................................................................................... 44
2.9.8. Wind sock .................................................................................................................................................................. 44
2.9.9. VOR ........................................................................................................................................................................... 46
Principle of operation ................................................................................................................................................... 48
Receivers Display .........................................................................................................................................................49
2.9.10. DME .........................................................................................................................................................................52
Principle of operation of DME ..................................................................................................................................... 53
2.9.11. Surveillance ............................................................................................................................................................. 55
ADS-B Out ................................................................................................................................................................... 58
ADS-B In ......................................................................................................................................................................59
2.5. Aviation power supply .......................................................................................................................................... 61
2.5. 3. Solar system .......................................................................................................................................................62
2.5.4. UPS Battery ........................................................................................................................................................ 63
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................................................... 64
THE OVERALL BENEFIT GAINED FROM THE INTERNSHIP PROGRAM .......................................................64
3.1 Overall Internship Benefits .................................................................................................................................... 64
3.1.7. Entrepreneur skill ............................................................................................................................................... 69
CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................................................................. 71

IV
CONCLUSION AND RECOMANDATION ................................................................................................................... 71
4.1. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................71
4.2. Recommendation ...................................................................................................................................................72
PART TWO ........................................................................................................................................................................ 73
PROJECT WORK ............................................................................................................................................................. 73
DESIGN CONTROL SYSTEM OF LANDING AND TAKEOFF OF AN AIRCRAFT ............................................ 73
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................................................ 74
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................................................................76
1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................................... 76
1.1. Principle of Flight Control ..........................................................................................................................................76
1.2. Flight Control Surfaces ......................................................................................................................................... 77
1.3 Problem Statement of the Project ........................................................................................................................... 79
1.3 Objective Of The Project ........................................................................................................................................80
Specific objectives include: ................................................................................................................................................ 81
1.4 Scope Of The Project ............................................................................................................................................. 81
1.5. Aircraft Actuation System .....................................................................................................................................82
1.6. Introduction of Aircraft Flight Instruments ...........................................................................................................84
1.7 Take-off of an Aircraft .......................................................................................................................................... 90
1.8 Landing of an Aircraft ............................................................................................................................................ 92
1.9 Equations of Motion ...............................................................................................................................................93
1.10 6DOF Model: Wind Axes .................................................................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................................................95
2.REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................................................................ 95
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................................................................... 99
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS ....................................................................................................................................99
3.1 Critical situations in takeoff and Landing Flight Phase ......................................................................................... 99
3.2 Accidents of aircraft during the takeoff and landing phases ................................................................................ 100
3.3 Analysis of Phases of Aircraft ..............................................................................................................................111
3.4 Shortcoming in older system ................................................................................................................................ 111
3.5 New Approach to Improvement for takeoff and Landing ...................................................................................113
3.6 Pitch Control System(Classical Method) ............................................................................................................. 113
3.7 Simulink Blockset for takeoff and Landing of Aircraft (New Model) .................................................................115
3.8 Simulink Model for Takeoff of an Aircraft ..........................................................................................................117
h.delete(); ...........................................................................................................................................................................120
3.9 Simulink Model for Landing of an Aircraft ......................................................................................................... 120
3.10 Aircraft Control and Instruments ....................................................................................................................... 123
3.11. Extract Gauges .................................................................................................................................................. 124
3.12. Aerospace Coordinate Systems ......................................................................................................................... 130
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................................................ 133
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION .....................................................................................................................................133
4.1 Simulink Result of Takeoff of the Aircraft .......................................................................................................... 133
4.2 Simulation Result for Landing of an Aircraft ...................................................................................................... 137
5. SUMMARY ,CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................. 145
REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................................................... 146
18, (5), pp. 893-905, 2010. .................................................................................................................................................146

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List of figure

Figure 1.1: Organization of Ethiopian Civil [4]..........................................6

Figure 2.1: CNS contents.............................................................................9

Figure.2.2: Console......................................................................................9

Figure 2.3 ATC room............................................................................... 10

Figure 2.4: Aeronautical radio system [3].................................................10

Figure 2.5: HF radio Coverage area in Ethiopia....................................... 11

Figure 2.6: VHF line of sight range.......................................................... 12

Figure 2.7: PAE transmitter and receiver radios in ECAA.......................14

Figure 2.8: Receiver front panel................................................................15

Figure 2.9: Flight voice recorder...............................................................16

Figure 2.10: VCSS.....................................................................................17

Figure 2.11: Light gun............................................................................... 19

Figure 2.13: satellite station component................................................... 20

Figure2.14: Outdoor VSAT.......................................................................21

Figure 2.15:Cavity filter............................................................................ 22

Figure 2.16 : wind sock............................................................................. 24

Figure 2.17: DVOR................................................................................... 25

Figure 2.18: Antenna for VOR..................................................................25

Figure2.19: Magnetic direction of DVOR degrees...................................26

VI
Figure2.20: VOR sensitivity......................................................................27

Figure 2.21: principle of operation DME..................................................28

Figure 2.22: Digital readout in the cockpit of the aircraft........................ 28

Figure 2.23: Surveillance...........................................................................29

Figure 1.1:forces acting on aircraft .......................................................... 41

Figure 1.2: control surface.........................................................................42

Figure 1.3.Axes of aircraft ........................................................................42

Figure 1.4: Actuation system.....................................................................43

Figure1.5: Air speed indicator................................................................... 44

Figure 1.6: Altitude indicator.................................................................... 45

Figure 1.7: Climp rate indicator................................................................ 45

Figure 1.8:Vertical speed indicator .......................................................... 53

Figure 1.9: Takeoff of an aircraft.............................................................. 57

Figure 1.10:landing of an aircraft .............................................................41

Figure 3.1:takeoff and landing phase of aircrafts..................................... 42

Figure 3.2 airfrance accident during takeofff............................................42

Figure 3.3: graphs between year of accidents and causalities.................. 43

Figure3.4: crash of fokker f27 in silgo...................................................... 44

Figure 3.6: worst accidents in asia............................................................ 45

Figure 3.7: pitch control system................................................................ 45

Figure 3.8:fuzzy application...................................................................... 53

VII
Figure 3.9:simulink model of takeoff of an aircraft .................................57

Figure 3.10:virtual reality animation of object......................................... 42

Figure 3.11 animations from airplane 1.................................................... 42

Figure 3.12: simulink model of landin of an aircraft................................ 43

Figure3.13: 6DOF subsystem.................................................................... 44

Figure 3.14: aircraft control instrument.................................................... 45

Figure 3.15: subsystem of extract gauges................................................. 45

Figure 3.16:rotational degres of freedom .................................................53

Figure 3.17:flight gear coordinates........................................................... 42

Figure 4.1first stages for takeoff of an aircraft in model.......................... 42

Figure 4.2:second stages for takeoff of an aircraft in model ................... 43

Figure4.3: third stages for takeoff of an aircraft in mode......................... 44

Figure 4.4: first stage of landing of an aircraft in model.......................... 45

Figure 4.5:role AoA AoS in first stage of landing ...................................45

Figure 4.6:altitude , acceleration,mach first stage of landing...................53

Figure 3.17:flight gear coordinates........................................................... 42

Figure 4.1first stages for takeoff of an aircraft in model.......................... 42

Figure 4.2:second stages for takeoff of an aircraft in model ................... 43

Figure4.3: third stages for takeoff of an aircraft in mode......................... 44

VIII
Figure 4.7: height flight pass angel ,velocity,vs in first stage of landing.45

Figure 4.8:first stage for landing of an aircraft in model..........................45

Figure 4.9:results in second stage of landig.............................................. 53

Figure 4.10:results in third stage of landig................................................53

IX
X
 List of tables

Table 1: Meaning light gun signal colors………………….35

Table 2:parameter used…………………………………….99

Table 3.1 Takeoff flight phase accidents.........................….103.

Table 3.2 Accidents and causalties during landing................106

Table 3.3 10 Worst accidents in Asia..........................……...123

Table 3.4 Airspeed (kts) parameter..........................……...…124

Table 3.5 Bus selector parameter.............................…………125

Table 3.6 Climprate(ft/min) parameter..................……...........126

Table 3.7 Climprate parameter...........................……………...127

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ACRONYMS

AC Alternative Current
ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast
AFTN Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication
AMHS Aeronautical Message Handling System
ANS Air Navigation Services
AOA Angle of arrival
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATM Air Traffic Management
ATS Air Traffic System
BIT Built-in-test
CNS Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance
CMS Control and monitoring system
CVOR Conventional VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range
DC Direct Current
DME Distance Measuring Equipment
DME/P Precision Distance Measuring Equipment
DVOR Doppler VHF Omni-Directional Radio Range and Distance
Measuring
Equipmen
t
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ECAA Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority
EEP Ethiopian electric power
GDP Gross Domestic Product HF High Frequency
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IDU Indoor Unit ILS Instrumental Landing System
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LAN Local Area Network
LPS Local positioning system
MARC Multi Access Remote Control System
METAR Metrology Report
MLAT Multilateration
MRO Maintenance, Repairs and Overhaul

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NAV Navigation
OBS Operation Site
ODU Outdoor Unit
PAE Park Air
PSR Primary Surveillance System
PTT Press to transmit
RF Radio Frequency
RX Receiver
SSR Secondary Surveillance System
TDOA Time difference of arrival
TOA Time of arrival
TX Transmitter
UPS Uninterrupted power supply
UHF Ultra High Frequency
VCCS Voice Communication Control
System
VHF Very High Frequency
VOR VHF Omni-directional Radio
Range
VSAT Very Small Aperture Terminal

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Part 1

CHA PTER ONE

1. Background of hosting Company

1.1. Brief History

The ECAA was founded in 1944 and initially tasked with overseeing all
airport and civil aviation holdings. Ethiopia ratified the convention of
the international civil aviation organization in the same year. ECAA also
joined the ICAO founding members. With assistancefrom United Nation
Development Program.

The ECAA also founded the Ethiopian Civil Aviation Technical School
in 1951. This training facility instructs students in a variety of
occupational fields, including aircraft maintenance, air traffic control,
radio technician, and CNS technician (which stands for CNS technician).
Additionally, the agency grants full licenses to pilot trainees who have
completed their training at the Ethiopian Airlines Pilot Training Center.
This decision is made only after the aviation department determines that
the pilot is qualified to operate the aircraft.

One of the two flying subcategories, civil aviation includes both private
and commercial, non- military flight. Due to its significant contribution
to the growth of a nation's economy, this sector is widely regarded as
one of the most significant service industries. It is also a significant
catalyst for improving productivity and effectiveness in the flow of
people, products, and services. The Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority
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 is dedicated to provide the most secure, dependable, effective, and
environmentally responsible air transportation service sector that
satisfies customers' needs as well as legal and constitutional
requirements [1].

The sector of civil aviation significantly contributes to both direct and

indirect job possibilities.An array of sectors, including airports, airlines,
cargo, and MRO, as well as non-aeronautical enterprises like ANS,
CNS/ATM, ground handling, and retail, can find potential in this area.
As a member of the African Aviation Association (AFRAA) since 1968
and the International Air Transport Association (IATA) since 1959,
Ethiopian became a Star Alliance member in December 2011 [1].
(2011-12). As of right present, Ethiopian aviation is one of the
continent'stop-performing aviation sectors.

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At the time the Dire Dawa civil aviation authority was established, the
airport was known as the "Dejazmach Yilma" airport. One of the
divisions of the Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority, Dire Dawa
International Airport is made up of qualified managers, engineers,
technicians, pilots, cabin crews, and other support staff in order to make
aviation in assuring a safe, effective, and affordable operation so that it
can meet its growth requirements. Another significant industry in
Ethiopia and a true institution in Africa is aviation. Using the newest
and youngest fleet, Ethiopian presently offers service to more than 100
foreign and 20 domestic destinations

Ato Mesfin Tesaw is both the owner and the CEO of Aviation. Under
the CEO, there are top officers, managers, directors, and other personnel
who are grouped according to their department. Giving transportation
and making money are the two main goals of Ethiopian aviation. The
tourist industry of an economy is one of the most significant indirect
benefits of air transportation. Additionally, the industry makes a sizable
contribution to GDP and foreign exchange revenue [2]

1.2. Service of ECAA

 Personnel certification

 Air traffic services

 Aerodrome Certification

 Flight Information services

 Over flight permit and landing authorization services

 Air operator Certification

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  Installation, commissioning and testing of NAV systems

 Certification of Airworthiness

 Operating or Investment permit service

 Communication, Navigation, and Surveillance Engineering Service

 Air Certification of registration

 Aviation Security and Crew Member Certification

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1.3. Objective

1.3.1 General objective

The primary goal of Dire Dawa International Civil Aviation Airport has
been to serve our community's residents with effective and safe aviation
amenities.

1.3.1.1 Specific Objectives

 To develop domestic and international air transportation

network and to ensure a reliable and sustainable air transport

system.
 To implement and enforce laws, regulations, and directives

relating to civil aviationas well as treaties to which Ethiopia is

a party.
 To promote and maintain efficient and affordable civil air

service and general civilaviation service system.

1.4 Vision

 To have a fully developed civil aviation that offers the general

public services that are safe, effective, and dependable, and to

have built a secure and competent civil aviation on an
international scale by 2025.

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  By 2025, create a globally competitive and secure civil aviation

industry.

1.5 Mission

 In order to provide the general public with access to

dependable air transportation, it is necessary to ensure aviation

safety and security through effective regulatory function,
environmental protection, the provision of air navigation
services, and by fostering international cooperation and
partnership.

1.6. Values

An ECAA is a high performance and learning organization that fosters

innovation, exchange of information, and ongoing improvements. The
following is a list of the core values of EthiopianCivil Aviation:

 Professional-excellence

 safety is our first priority

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

 Integrity

 respect

 self-discipline commitment and Teamwork

 Highest customer satisfaction and service for customer

 Innovation and creativity

 Learning Institution with the objective for continuous quality

improvement,innovation and sharing knowledge etc.

1.7. Major responsibilities and duties of ECAA

Under the mentioned proclamation major duties and responsibilities

given to the authorityincludes:-

1.7.1 Regulatory responsibilities:

1.7.1.1 Technical regulation

 To ensure the provision of highest degree of safety, secure and

adequate air transportservice to the public.

 To register all civil aircraft’s and; issue registration marks;

inspect and issue air worthiness certificates, specify the type

of service for which air craft may be used; prescribe
conditions and to the maintenance and repair of aircraft.
 To audit, inspect, license and regulate all aerodromes and air

navigation facilities and services.

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 1.7.1.2. Economic and air transport regulation

 To certify and control services related to general aviation and air

travel.
 To establish and sustain a successful general aviation and air

transportation systemacross the country.

 To identify the circumstances under which people, things, and

mail may betransferred by airplane.

 In the capacity of (representing) the Ethiopian government,

signing bilateral airtransport agreements.

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1.7.2 Service delivery responsibilities

 To specify the terms of their utilization and to determine the

Ethiopian air routesthat should be employed.

 To offer communication, navigation, surveillance, and
structured air trafficmanagement.
 To give flight information and refreshments to the pilots.

 To decide the conditions for air navigation and admission to

and departure fromEthiopian land.

 Offering consumers a safe, effective, and affordable air
transportation service

1.7.3 ECAA Powers and Duties

 license aviation personnel check, license, and control aerodromes.

 Regulates the legality of production, possession, operation,

sale, import, and exportof any aircraft.

 License aviation personnel.

 Any license or certificate may be revoked or suspended for reason.

 Offer services for air traffic control, navigation, aeronautical

communication, and information both inside and outside of

Ethiopian airspace.
 Determines the conditions under which people, products, and mail

may be carried.

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  Licenses and regulates the operation of air service and general

aviation services.
 Conduct research on the growth of Ethiopia's aviation sectors,

create plans and programs, establish policies for the use of

navigable airspace, and work on other aviation-related
initiatives.

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ETHIOPIAN CIVIL AVIATION GENERAL DIIRECTORATE

1.8 Organization Structure and workflow

AVIATION AIR NAVIGATION AUDITING SUPPORT SERVICE
GENDER
REGULATION DIRECTORATE SERVICE DIRECTRERATE
DIRECTIRATE

Human
Resource

Finance &
ATS CNS AIS SARS ASM
Procuremen
t Informatio
n
Technology

Legal
Service

Transpor
tRervice

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Air Aircraft Aviatio Aerodro Air Air Security
operator registrati n me transp Navigati and
certificat on and personn Safety ort and on Facilitat
ion and air el and planni Registrat ion
surveilla worthles Standar ng ion
nce s and d
training

Figure 1.1 Organization of Ethiopian Civil [4]

1.9 Work Flow of Ethiopian Civil Aviation Authority

The Ethiopian civil aviation authority’s air navigation service

directorate has different and broad services to implement the regional
air navigation plan (over the territory of Ethiopia). These services help
to grant over flight and landing authorization for civilian flight, stablish

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 a safety management system, administer air traffic services facility and
the like.

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1.10 CNS

Communication navigation and surveillance engineering directorate is one

of its service swhich:

 Create technical specifications for each facility that the CNS

requires.
 Install, test, and commission newly acquired CNS equipment.

 Study operational aspect of all equipment

 Check, keep an eye on, and maintain the dependability and

accessibility of CNSfacilities.
 Flight-test all NAV aids and calibrate them.

 Assuring the availability of replacement parts for all CNS

machinery will increase the operability and effectiveness of

CNS facilities.
 Perform preventative and corrective maintenance on all CNS

machinery.
 Upkeep of all ATS navigation, communication, and surveillance

systems.

Therefore, in order to ensure safe flying for all types of aircraft, the
employees go through theitems outlined above.

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CHAPTER TWO

OVER ALL INTERSHIP EXPEIENCE

2.1 Objective of the internship

2.1.1 General Objective

This internship program's main goal is to help engineering students turn

their academic knowledge into practical skills that they can use in the real
world.

2.1.2 Specific objective

 To improve theoretical understanding and practical knowledge.

 To enhance teamwork skills.

 To comprehend the value of timeliness and work ethics.

 To address issues and difficulties and offer potential answers.

 To increase communication capacity.

2.2 How did I get the company?

According to Dire Dawa University's curriculum, every undergraduate

engineering student must participate in a one-semester internship
program at the corporate level. We had the chance to contact with
Ethiopia's civil aviation authority thanks to the institute-industry linkage
and technology transfer office because we wanted to learn more about
how communication betweenthe pilot and ATC functions.
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 2.3 Work section of ECAA

We have been working on our internship program at the Ethiopian Civil

Aviation Authority, specifically in the communication, navigation, and
surveillance division.

We learned about aeronautical communication during the first two

weeks of our internship, began workingwith the navigation teams during
the following two weeks, and then dealt with surveillance during our
final two weeks. We learned how these three sections interact to provide
safe, secure, and well-organized air traffic management and guidance.
We have made an effort to write a succinct introduction and
understanding of each of these three sections, all of which include broad
ideas and guiding principles.

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COMMUNICATION
CNS

NAVIGATION SURVEILLANCE

DVOR & DME ADS-B

AMHS
VOICE DATA

HF VHF

Figure 2.1 CNS contents

The air traffic controller system is seen in the console that appears
below. By giving guidance or advise, details on the aircraft, and
information about the weather at the airport, this system functions as a
conduit between the Air Traffic Control institution and aircraft to ensure
their safety and mobility. Here, orders are sent to the aircraft by
providing the pilot with informationregarding the fly routine, whether the
weather is clear to fly or not, and which routine the aircraftshould fly. In

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 addition, ATC frequently accepts recently updated information from the
aircraft.

Metrology about the weather, such as whether it is clear, foggy, cloudy,

or thunderous, as it is crucial for pilots to understand the weather
prediction.

Figure.2.2 Console

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Here, the pilot must contact ATC at each predetermined interval to

ensure a secure and safeflight.

Figure 2.3 ATC room

2.4 Overall system componentsand operations

2.4.1 Communication

Between the pilot and air traffic controllers, communication refers to the
verbal and dataexchange of information. Both ground to ground and ground
to air communication are possible.

Thus communication is divided into two

 Voice communication

 Data communication

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 2.4.2 Voice Communication

Much of aviation communication and navigation is accomplished through the

use of radio wave [3] Communications by radio was the first use of radio
frequency transmission in aviation

Figure 2.4 Aeronautical radio system [3]

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2.4.3 HF Communication

 High frequency communication is known as HF. HF was

actually the first type of aircraft utilized for communication.

Its range is 2MHz to 30MHz. However, the ICAO standard
states that the frequency range for the aviation sector is
between 2MHZ -22MH.
 Is mostly used for international communication in the ECAA.

In HF radio transmission addition to data, we can use HF radio

communication to speak with Khartoum, Nairobi, Djibouti,
and Sana.
 High frequency (HF) radio offers a reliable method of

communication for airplanes traveling on lengthy oceanic and

transpolar routes.
 On specific frequencies in the HF spectrum, an aircraft HF radio

system functions.

The equipment of HF was easy to make with reasonably high-power

amplifiers With HF radio communication, we can communicate longer
distance, it is based on ionosphere and the antennasystems were and still
today are highly efficient but it has hush and noise. So, as a distance get
longer it is difficult to achieve reliable communication through HF. As a
result, some HF communication is covered by VHF communication.

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 Figure 2.5 HF radio Coverage area in Ethiopia

2.4.4 VHF Communications

Very high frequency (VHF) radio transmission is mostly employed in ECAA. Four
VHF radios, each with a backup radio, are placed in the CNS equipment room of
the aviation authority. The aeronautical frequency band covers the range from
118 to 136 MHz, whereas the VHF

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

frequency band ranges from 30 to 300 MHz. Each of the four VHF radios
has an own frequencyband that it uses for a particular purpose. Typically,
nautical miles are used to calculate distance. In aviation, the phrase
"nautical mile" is commonly used. It is easily convertible to kilometers.
1NM=1.852Km. Long used as the main method of communication
between aircraft and the ground, very high frequency (VHF) radio. The
following occur frequently:

 Frequency that are used when something happen like accident

to the 5.2 MHz frequency band: is a radio frequency band used

for communication between the DireDawa CNS tower and the
Addis Ababa tower. Unlike the other radios this one is located
in different room and has connection with the VSAT.
 121.5 MHz frequency band: is called an emergency
frequency band. It is used by pilots for emergency calling in
case of emergency. It is used for receiving purpose only.
 118.3 MHz frequency band: is used for the communication

between the pilot and ATC technician with in 20 nautical mile

distance. This is a frequency band which is used to send
whether condition information to the aircraft. It has receiver
radio, transmitter radio and back up radio.
 121.9 MHz frequency band: is a radio frequency band which

is used to control ground motions such as: communication

with fire track controllers and ambulance using walky-talky. It
has receiver radio, transmitter radio and back up radio.

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 Figure 2.6 VHF line of sight range

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

Elements in a VHF Radio System

 Each station has a primary and backup PAE (park air)

transmitter and receiver radio. MARC is used to monitor and

control every radio station. Additionally, a ricochet recorder
was used for the recording.
 Transmitters, receivers, and antennas are the three main

categories of parts in a VHFradio system.

 Signal amplified to the point that it can be fed to the

demodulate. The transmitter must process only the desired

signal, whereas the receiver must filter out the desired signal
from the antenna, clearly indicating the distinct demands
imposed on the transmitter and receiver.

VHF Transmitter

The fixed ground environments are where the 50W VHF transmitter is
intended for operation. The transmitter uses frequencies between 118
and 136.975 MHz to transmit data and voice in accordance with ICAO
standards. The process for choosing a frequency for a VHF transmitteris
the same as that used for a VHF receiver. The method for altering the
operating frequency isthe same as well. In contrast to the reception radio,
the transmitter radio uses a fan to dissipate the heat created by its 50W
high output power. Both local and distant operations can be
programmed for the transmitter. Using a headset and microphone, the
transmitter is controlled locally from the front panel. The control

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 equipment's audio and PTT signals end on the MARC connector for
remote operation.

Transmitte
r Control :-
Audio
inputs

Using the front panel microphone connector, analog audio can be

connected to the transmitter. PTT ;-An appropriate microphone
connected to the front panel of the transmitter can be used to key it.
Direct PTT input can also be used to key the transmitter. Any audio port
can be chosenas the source of the audio by keying at it. First come, first
served dictates the order of priority for keying.

RF power output :-The average RF power output (random data) is

adjustable in 1W steps from5W to 50W.

Channel spacing;-The transmitter has 25 KHz channel spacing only

VHF Radios in Ethiopian Aviation

INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

In Aviation History in Ethiopia different Radios technology has been

used. The one we were working on was PARK AIR. Mechanical
installation, frequency selection, maintenance, environmental
specifications and the like are adjusted carefully according to the
manual.

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 Figure 2.7 PAE transmitter and receiver radios in ECAA

There are around 23 Airports in Ethiopia including International

Airports, Domestic Airports, Military and Private Airports. Every
Aviation equipment’s have main and standby or master and slave.

VHF Receiver

The fixed ground environments are where the VHF receiver is meant to
be used. For extended frequency model, the receiver operates at
frequencies between 118 and 136 MHz in voice and ICAO-defined data
modes. Like the transmitter, the receiver can be set up for both local and
remote operations. In VHF communication, an enormous variety of
antennas are employed. The vertical antenna, the whip antenna (reduced
to 1/4), the directive 1/2 antenna, the folding antenna, and others are a
few of them.
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 Frequency selection

The receiver is a single-frequency synthetic radio that can function with

channel spacing of

8.33 kHz and a bandwidth of 25 kHz. When frequencies are input using
the ICAO format, the radio recognizes them and automatically changes
the channel spacing. Any combination of 8.33 KHz and 25 KHz
channel spacing can be saved in the radio for multi-channel
operation,

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allowing for the quick recall of up to 100 preset frequency channels. On

the radio's front panel, you can choose among the legal working
frequencies.

Figure 2.8 Receiver front panel

Scroll /select switch and LCD:-The scroll/select switch is used in

conjunction with the LCD to select most of the receiver’s operational
settings. During normal operation, the LCD shows the operating
frequency, the channel number (if the channel store facility is used) and
displays a graphical representation of the audio volume.

Ready indicator:-Ready indicator is a green indicator that lights when

the receiver is ready foruse and no BIT faults have been detected.

Alarm indicator:-Alarm indicator is a red indicator that either flashes

or lights when a fault has been detected. Receive indicator Receive
indictor is an amber indicator that lights when a signal is receiver that is
above the squelch threshold.

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 Standby indicator:-Standby indicator is a red indicator that lights when
the receiver is in standby mode. Headset (diagnostics connector)
Headset is a dual purpose connector that allows either a headset or a PC
to be connected to the receiver.

Setting up:-The switch has three actions: it can be turned clockwise,

anticlockwise or momentarily pushed in. The switch is turned clockwise
to scroll through fields from left to right and from top to bottom. The
switch is turned anticlockwise to scroll through fields from right to left
and from bottom to top. The switch is pressed to make a selection.

Procedure:- changing the receiver’s operating frequency the receiver’s

frequency can be changed in two ways: either from the frequency screen
or by recalling a preset channel. This procedure details using the
frequency screen.

 From the control screen, select frequency to display the frequency

screen.

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 Turn the switch to highlight the digit to be changed, then press the

switch.
 Turn the switch until the required light is shown, then press the

switch.
 Repeat until the required frequency is shown, then highlight

OK and press theswitch.

 Only frequencies that fall between the band edge settings can be

selected.

Additional communication facilities:-

 Ricochet Recorder

 Voice Communication switching System (VCSS)

 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)

2.4 .5 Recorder

This is a recording device that captures all communications and records

them. If a problem arises, we may listen to the stored recordings to
identify who or what is at fault. Both Recorder A and Recorder B are
present. We can hear it on the recorder display computer at a frequency
of 111.2 MHz. Radio for meteorology is also on 5522 KHz. Additionally,
it includes a playbackbutton, however for the recording device's security,
we are unable to make a copy using a CD or flash drive.

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 Figure 2.9 Flight voice recorder

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

2.5 VCSS

VCSS is Controls and connects together various voice communication

systems used for Air Traffic Management such as UHF and VHF radios
(TX/RX), telephone, intercoms and other ATC communications. The
receiver/ transmitter system is connected through a 4 wire connection.
The audio levels are adjustable from -20dBm till +5dB into 600 ohms.
Remote radios can be connected by IP lines. Most of the internal
parameter settings of the connected transmitters and receivers can be
changed with the control and monitoring tool (software) CMSpro.
CMSpro (control and monitoring system) is web server application
running on standard PC’s. VCSS distributes non-blocking digital voice
and digital data switch and it is easy to configure and service by using
CMSpro. It has touch screen display on the front part which is used for
control purpose. VCSS as its name indicates it is used for switching
purpose.And also used as amplifier for the ATC room.

Power:-The maximum power consumption is 50W, and it use both AC and

DC power.

Signal levels:-All audio connections have adjustable audio levels -20 till
+ 5 dBm into 600ohm impedance. The level can be adjusted by the
CMSpro system.

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 Connections:-All analog and digital ports use standard RJ45 plugs.
This allows for cheap and reliable connections that can be used with
industry standard patch panels.

Figure 2.10 VCSS

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2.6 Light gun signal

Different meaning to aircraft in flight and on the ground. The signals are
defined in the table below Nowadays visual signals are still used at
aerodrome control towers as a backup in case of radio failure. The
controller uses a light gun or a flare gun to send the messages. There are
3 different colors of lights; red, green and white. These colors can be
flashed or steady, and theyrepresent.

Table 1: Meaning light gun signal colors

signals Aircraft in flight Aircraft on the Ground vehicles

ground or

personnel
Flashing white ICAO-land at this Return to Return to
airport and starting starting
proceed to apron point on airport point on airport
(this is not a
clearance to
either land or taxi
clearance to land
and taxi will
follow)
FAA-Not
applicable

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 Steady green Clear to land Cleared for takeoff Cleared to cross

proceed or go
Flashing green Return for landing Cleared to taxi Not applicable
Steady red Give way to Stop Stop
other
aircraft and
continuecircling
Flashing red Airport unsafe do Taxi clear of the Clear the
not runway in use taxiway/runway
land
Alternating red Exercise Exercise Exercise
and extrem extrem extrem

green e e e

caution caution caution

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

Figure 2.11 Light gu

2.7 .8 VSAT

VSAT is a telecommunication system based on wireless satellite

technology. VSAT technology makes use of small dish, high speed
satellite communications to send and receive information. VSAT
Terminal Equipment consists of two units - an indoor unit (IDU) and
an outdoor unit

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(ODU). The outdoor unit is placed outdoors for a line-of-sight to the satellite
and the indoor unit interfaces with the user's communications device. The
outdoor unit consists of a small antenna, mount and electronics for signal
reception and transmission. The indoor unit consists of a satellite modem and
modulator/demodulator and a network access device to interface with data
LANs. The VSAT system is advantageous because of its global and
immediate coverage, easy and fast deploys, easy remote control, ability to
handle voice, data and videos. Its requirement of clear line of sight between
the dish and satellite and outage in some cases because of weather makes it a
little disadvantageous.

Figure 2.13 satellite station component

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 Figure2.14 Outdoor VSAT

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2.8 Data Communication

It is anticipated that data interchange will be the primary method of

everyday communication for ground-based aeronautical users and
systems.

2.9 AMHS

AMHS is a new technology that is used to support ground to ground

communication for services such as flight plans and meteorological data
and has better performance than AFTN. AFTN is one of the Data
Communication System in Ethiopia. It is an old system with a fixed
telecom network. ECAA were using AFTN for 15 Years and now it
replaced by AMHS. Specification and Purchasing process of AMHS is
done by ICAO Procurement office. Data types can be flight plan, delay
and dispatch of an aircraft, arrival of an aircraft, cancelation ofa flight,
NOTAM, ASHTAM, SNOWTAM, BIRDTAM, METAR and the like.

NOTAM (Notice to Air Men) include necessary and additional

information’s the pilot and other countries should know other than the
flight plan. NOTAM has its own database server. METAR (Metrology
Report) includes temperature, visibility, wind direction and the like.

The AMHS is provided by a set of end systems. The systems co-operate

to provide users (human or automated) with a data communication
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 service. The AMHS network is composed of interconnected message
servers that perform message switching at the application layer. The
Dire Dawa civil aviation authority uses the following AMHS addresses
to transfer data:

 Meteorology: HADR YMYX

 NOTAM: HADR YNYX

 Flight information: HADR YFYX

Addressing format it has 8 characters addressing a position, and with that

address we can acceptand send data’s. For example-HADRYNYX

H indicates
East Africa
A indicates
Ethiopia

DR indicate Dire Dawa (the region)

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YNYX indicates NOTAM (specific positions)

AMHS Networks in Ethiopia Installed in Four International Airports and the

training center

 Addis Ababa

 Bahir Dar

 Dire Dawa

 Mekele

AMHS internationally connected with: -

 Nairobi Using Satellite system

 Khartoum

 Niamey

 Jeddah

 Djibouti

2.9.6. Cavity filter

Cavity filter is used to avoid transmitter broadband noise interference and

receiver blocking.Cavity filter has two functions:
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  To pass the desired frequency

 To reject as much of the undesired frequencies as possible

the cavity filter isconnected to the receiver’s antenna.

Figure 2.15 Cavity filter

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2.9.7. Navigational aid system

The facilities known as navigational aids (NAV Aids) are utilized to

give aircrafts navigational information. The discipline of navigation
focuses on how to monitor and manage a craft's journey from one
location to another. Position and direction determination are involved.
The following are the main categories of ground-based aeronautical
navigation aid equipment.

 Wind sock

 VOR (Very high frequency Omni-directional Range)

 DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)

2.9.8. Wind sock

A windsock is a connicol-shaped textile tube that looks like a large sock.

As a result, it was given the term windsock. It's intended to show wind
direction and relative wind speed. It is usually situated near the runway
or a helipad so that pilots can see it after landing or coming infor landing.
Most airport ground charts also display a symbol that resembles the
shape of a fullyblown windsock. To ascertain the wind direction, glance
at your compass, check your heading, and then estimate the pointing
angle of the windsock relative to your heading. The wind direction is
the inverse of the direction in which the windsock is pointing. For is, if
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 the wind is blowing from the West at 270 degrees and 10 knots, the
windsock will point East because of the direction it is blowing.

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Figure 2.16 wind sock

2.9.9. VOR

VOR is an abbreviation for “VHF Omni directional Radio Range”,

which implies that it operates in the VHF band, VOR is a short range
radio navigation system that transmits a signal which contains precise
azimuth information. VOR has been the main short-range navigational
aid that ranges up to 200 NM and operates on frequencies between 108
MHz and 117.95MHz. Frequencies between 108 MHz and 111.95 MHz

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 are primarily used for the localizer part of the ILS and the frequencies
from 112.00 to 117.95 MHz are solely used by VOR. The signals havea
horizontal polarization. VOR is free from static and night effect,
providing continues magnetic bearing. The principle on which the VOR
operates is based on the measurement of the phase angle of 30Hz
variable and reference signals. VOR provides the pilot with azimuth, left
or right preselected course and “from/to” whether the aircraft is flying
toward or away from VOR beacon. VOR can be remotely controlled
and monitored. VOR is classified into two, CVOR/DME and
DVOR/DME. The DME (distance measuring equipment) collocated
with theVOR tells the aircraft how many miles is left from VOR station,
and it is displayed visually on easily read and interpreted cockpit
instruments. Conventional VHF Omnidirectional radio range and
Distance Measuring Equipment (CVOR/DME) is found at bole
international airport (AddisAbaba) for terminal air navigation service.
Doppler VHF omnidirectional radio range and

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distance measuring Equipment (DVOR/DME) is found at Dire Dawa

out of the airport for en-route air navigation service.

Figure 2.17 DVOR

Principle of operation

The VOR operates on a fairly straightforward fundamental premise. The

VOR facility simultaneously sends out two signals. One signal is always
present, while the other rotates around the station. The airborne
equipment receives both signals, analyzes the difference between the
two signals (electronically), and interprets the result as a radial from the
station. Airplane equipment components:

Antenna:-VOR have 48 antennas putting the one at the center as carrier

antenna and the rest at360 degrees as side band antennas.

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 Figure 2.18 Antenna for VOR

Receivers Display

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

A VOR display has four elements. Thus are:

 A rotating course card, calibrated from 0 to 360 degrees,

which indicates the VOR bearing chosen as the reference to

fly TO or FROM.
 Omni bearing selector (OBS) knob, used to manually rotate the

course card.
 CDI, or course deviation indicator: this needle swings left or

right indicating the direction to turn to return to course.

 Ambiguity indicator (TO/FROM): this arrow will point up or

towards the nose of the aircraft, when flying away TO the

VOR station. The arrow reverses direction, points down ward,
when flying away FROM the VOR station. If the equipment
on the airplane says the airplane is on 360 degrees’ radial, then
the airplane is north ofthe VOR. An airplane on a 90 degrees’
radial is east of the VOR. An airplane on 180 degrees' radial is
due south of the station. Since pilots relay on the compass for
directional guidance the radials transmitted by VORs are
aligned with magnetic north.

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 Figure 2.19 Magnetic direction of DVOR degrees

VOR Sensitivity Since the radials a VOR transmits all originates at the
VOR station itself, the distance between radials increases further the
airplane is from the station. Radials are closer toeach other nearer to the
NAV aid.

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Figure 2.20 VOR sensitivity

2.9.10. DME

DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) is a radio aid for short and

medium-distance navigation. It is a secondary type of radar that allows
several aircraft to simultaneously measure their distance from a ground
reference (DME transponder). The distance is determined by measuring
the propagation delay of a radio frequency (RF) pulse that is emitted by
the aircraft transmitter and returned at a different frequency by the
ground station [3]. The DME can provide distanceto a runway when the
DME is collocated with an instrument landing system station; it is
referred to as an ILS/DME. Aircraft’s DME antenna sent out signal to
ground DME antenna. Ground DME antenna receives and respond back
the signal with its own UHF pulses. In order for this process to occur

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 both ground station and aircraft are equipped with a transmitter and
receiver (transceiver).

In the DME system the interrogating equipment, known as the

‘Interrogator’, is installed in the aircraft and the target, located on the
ground, is referred to as the ‘Transponder’ or ‘Ground Beacon’. The
DME will measure the distance in a straight line to the ground beacon
(the slant range), not the distance from a point on the ground vertically
below the aircraft (ground range). DME equipment does not have its
own unique identifier instead it uses the identifier of the VOR to which
it is attached. DME transmits its audible identifier code every 30
seconds.

Principle of operation of DME

The time it takes for a radio signal to go from the aircraft to the NAV
aid and back is what theDME uses to calculate flight time. The pilot sees
the outcome in nautical miles. The DME won'tmeasure the distance from
a location on the ground directly below the airplane; instead, it will
measure the distance in a straight line to the ground beacon (the slant
range) (ground range).

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Except when passing exactly over a beacon, where the distance shown
will be height over the beacon, the difference is often negligible.

Figure 2.21 principle of operation DME

It provides distance in nautical miles, ground speed in knots and flying

time to the station in minutes.

Figure 2.22 Digital readout in the cockpit of the aircraft

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 2.9.11. Surveillance

The term "surveillance" refers to close observation. The ICAO defines a

surveillance system as one that "provides the aircraft position and other
associated information to ATM and/or airborne users." The surveillance
system tells its user who is in the sky, where they are, and when they
were there, which is utilized for visual air traffic management. In order
to influence, manage, control, or protect individuals, surveillance
involves keeping an eye on their actions and other changing
information. The idea behind surveillance is to have a sensor or (or
network of

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sensors) that finds aircrafts, determines their position, and collects

additional data (suchidentification, level, etc.) before showing it to the
controller on a situation display.

Figure 2.23 Surveillance

2.10 ADS-B

ADS–B (Automatic dependent surveillance-broadcast) is a surveillance

technology in which anaircraft determines its position via satellite navigation and
periodically broadcasts it, enabling it to be tracked [4]. It can also be received by
other aircraft to provide situational awareness andallow self-separation. ADS–B is
"automatic" in that it requires no pilot or external input. It is "dependent" in that it
depends on data from the aircraft's navigation system. It Broadcasts, in the sense

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that it continuously broadcasts aircraft position and other data to any aircraft, or
ground station equipped to receive ADS-B. ADS-B could replace radar as the
primary surveillance method for controlling aircraft worldwide. ADS-B enhances
safety by making an aircraft visible, real-time, to air traffic control (ATC). ADS-
B data can be recorded and downloaded for post-flight analysis. ADS-B also
provides the data infrastructure for inexpensive flight tracking, planning, and
dispatch. ADS-B provides many benefits to both pilots and air traffic control that
improve both the safety and efficiency of flight. Those are traffic, weather and
flight information. ADS-B ground stations are significantly cheaper to

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install and operate compared to PSR and SSR. ADS-B technology

provides a more accurate report of an aircraft's position. This allows
controllers to guide aircraft into and out of crowded airspace with
smaller separation standards than it was previously possible to do safely.
ADS-B enables increased capacity and efficiency by supporting: Better
ATC traffic flow managementand Merging and spacing.

Principle of operation

The ADS-B system has three main components. Thus are:

 Ground infrastructure

 Air born component

 Operating procedures

A transmitting subsystem that includes message generation and

transmission function at the source, example: aircraft

A transport protocol, example: VHF A receiving subsystem

That includes message reception and report assembly functions at the

receiving destination, example: other aircraft, ground system.

The ADS-B has two functionalities, referred to as ADS-B Out and ADSB In
(ICAO, 2003) [4]

ADS-B Out

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 Periodically transmits through an on-board transmitter details about
each aircraft, such as identification, current position, attitude, and
velocity. It instructs the ADS-B equipped aircraft to broadcast its
position, velocity, and identification information to ground station and
other ADS-B equipped aircraft [4]. Compared to the information
available with current radar-based systems, it gives air traffic controllers
more precise real-time position information. ATC will be able to
position and separate aircraft with more accuracy and timing if the
information it hasis more accurate.

ADS-B In

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The receiving of ADS-B data by an aircraft, such as direct

communication from neighboring aircraft, is known as ADS-B In. The
value of exclusively ADS-B In devices is limited because the ground
station broadcast data is often only made available in the presence of an
ADS-B Outbroadcasting aircraft. An aircraft's position is reported more
accurately when ADS-B is supported. This enables controllers to safely
direct airplanes with smaller separation requirements into and out of
congested airspace than was previously possible. As a result, lesstime is
required for airplanes to wait for permissions. Benefits of ADS-B
provide an increase in traffic capacity of

 Better ATC traffic flow management

 Improved air traffic control service in non-radar airspace

 Enhanced visual approaches

 Reduced aircraft separation

 Closely spaced
parallel approach ADS-B
enables improved safety by
providing
 ATC final approach and runaway occupancy, reducing

runaway incursions on theground.

 Helps pilots to see and avoid other aircraft.

By making an aircraft visible in real time to ATC and other adequately

equipped ADS-B aircraft, as well as by transmitting location and
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 velocity data every second, ADS-B improves safety. It is possible to
capture and download ADS-B data for post-flight analysis. Additionally,
ADS-B offers the necessary data infrastructure for low-cost flight
monitoring, scheduling, and dispatch. The system depends on two
avionics parts: a data link and a high integrity GPS navigation source
(ADS-B unit). When compared to primary and secondary radar systems
usedby ATC for aircraft separation and control, ADS-B ground stations
are substantially less expensive to establish and maintain.

2.5. Aviation power supply

Dire Dawa aviation center is provided power from different suppliers:

 Commercial power supply

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 Generator

 Solar system

 UPS Battery

2.5.1. Commercial power station

The Ethiopian Electric Power (EEP) Dire Dawa station is the source of
this power. And we receive this supply from two substations:
Nemberwan and Sabian substations, which each have three phases of
220V AC. Transformers will be used to disperse this incoming power as
necessary by stepping up or stepping down the voltage. The reason for
using these two substations is that if the supply to one is cut off, we can
still get power from the other.

2.5.2. Generator

Generators work by transforming mechanical energy into electrical

energy. When the commercial electricity is turned off, the backup power
source immediately turns on. There must be a quick backup in case the
center's electricity is cut off because doing so could result in significant
harm from the blackout.

2.5. 3. Solar system

Solar energy is a highly affordable and dependable choice in places like

Ethiopia where we have 13 months of daylight. In aviation, the

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 extended VHF is powered primarily by solar energy. 40 solar panels at
the tower's entryway are used to harvest solar energy from the sun,
which is then stored in a battery at the powerhouse. We have 12 batteries,
each of which stores2V, for a total of 24V DC, which we then convert to
220V AC using an inverter before using it by controlling it using a
regulator.

2.5.4. UPS Battery

Uninterrupted Power Supply is known as UPS. According to what its

name implies, UPS is used when there is a blackout and a switchover
occurs between the primary power supply and the backup power supply.
At this point, there will be a delay as takeover occurs between the
power supplies. To prevent this delay and prevent the power supply from
being interrupted, the UPS stores some power in its battery and
immediately supplies the stored power to prevent the interruption as
takeover occurs.

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

CHAPTER THREE

THE OVERALL BENEFIT GAINED FROM THE INTERNSHIP PROGRAM

3.1 Overall Internship Benefits

This internship has been really beneficial to us and has taught us a lot.
By taking part in the internship, we can receive expertise and training in
the sector of our choice. Experience enables us to calculate for the
position we seek. We learned a great deal about radio spectrum ranges,
satellites, surveillance, future innovations, monitoring tools, air traffic
management, air traffic control, and monitoring aids throughout our
internship.

3.1.1. Benefits on practical knowledge

This program provided us with lots of chances to practice and hone our
talents. An internship is often a student's first chance to put what they've
learned into practice outside of the classroom, to interact with a diverse
group of talented, seasoned department members, and to gain a deeper
understanding of the department's overall operations. For many students,
university can be quite theoretical. Therefore, this internship program
assisted us in visualizing and comprehending thevarious communication
methods and components that we are familiar with in theory, such as
TX/RX radios, telephones, intercom, satellite, modulation/demodulation,
multiplexing/de-multiplexing, and the like. Among the things that aid in
honing our practical aptitude are:

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DDUOT SCHOOL OF ECE 2023
  Different site tests are regularly conducted, and the knowledge

we gained intheoretical sessions has been quite helpful.

 The theoretical teachings made it easier for us to understand the

actions.
 Our desire for and enthusiasm for novel concepts and objects.

 Innovation and creativity in problem-solving.

 Effective risk assessment and management of time, money,

and resources.Interpersonal sensitivity and teamwork skills.

 Effective oral and written communication abilities.

 Being aware of moral dilemmas and the overall effects of your

work.

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

3.1.2. Benefit on theoretical knowledge

The internship program gives us the opportunity to put the knowledge

we have acquired in theclassroom to practice in a practical situation. As
a result, it forces us to apply what we have learned in the classroom to
the actual world. We had a wonderful, approachable mentor and
supervisor at ECAA who gave us excellent instruction. Even when we
asked a foolish inquiry, they never seemed annoyed to respond, and we
were able to understand all they were saying. Thus, the internship
program enhances both our theoretical and practical knowledge, and we
would like to thank the staff once more.

3.1.3. Benefits on interpersonal Communication skill

We collaborate with CNS technicians during this internship. Since CNS

work is teamwork by nature, one may encounter a variety of people
with various professions and personalities who will work together and
interact with one another to solve various problems and manage the
entire work. Over time, we came to feel that building strong
relationships and having effective communication skills was the key to
obtaining the skills and knowledge we needed for the internship
program. In light of this, we made an effort to modify the way we dealt
with coworkers. As time goes on, we might perceive improvements in
ourselves. While working with the authorities for the internship program,
we can state that we learned a valuable lesson about communication.

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 3.1.4. Benefits on team playing skill

The internship helped us improve our ability to operate in a team.

Participating in the department's many teams, such as communication,
navigation, and surveillance, allowed us tomeet new people and develop
good relationships. The ability to come to a consensus on the work that
has to be done from different points of view is the most crucial teamwork
skill. Every task requires the participation of a team. Therefore,
developing good teamwork skills is crucialfor efficiently finishing tasks
and boosting production.

3.1.5. Benefits on leadership Skill

Although we did not hold a leadership role, this did not prevent us from
learning how to lead well because leadership encompasses all spheres of
life, no matter how small. As a result, someof the leadership abilities we
learned through the internship program are listed below.

 Gain trust

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

 motivation

 Accountability

 Respect others experience and ability

 Seeks optimal solution to problems

 professionalism

 Hold the individual’s interest

 Transparency and openness

 Recognize that everyone is unique

3.1.6. Benefits on understanding Work Ethics and Related Issues

The company's rules and regulations have served as our guide and our
command. Among the work ethics are:

Punctuality:-We will be more productive and save time and money if

we come on time and complete the work as planned.

Office disciplines:-In work place one doesn’t have to disturb the

working atmosphere. For example, abstain from opening loud voice,
loud music, songs and things which disturb others worker's working
mood.

Cooperation: - While working, each employee should converse with and

assist the others. This is so that issues could be quickly resolved with
such a system. In general, we can state that participating in the
Engineering internship program has provided us with the possible
benefits.Honesty: - Regarding this value, every employee, regardless of
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DDUOT SCHOOL OF ECE 2023
 status, should refrain from unethical actions including lying,
discrimination, and corruption.

Reliability: - For the duties that Part One is expected to carry out, the
employees should be qualified. He or she needs to possess the necessary
information and skills for the job at hand.

3.1.7. Entrepreneur skill

Whether it is new or not, being an entrepreneur means producing your

own work. We developed entrepreneurial skills through this internship
program. The ability to establish one's own share company with others
falls under this kind of competence. Such a talent has made it feasible
for us to provide simple problem-solving suggestions and to understand
the authority's current situation just a little bit better as our theoretical
and practical abilities have improved. Our

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 INTERNSHIP REPORT 2023

development of our interest goals was aided by the self-motivation, self-

assurance, and time management skills we acquired via this experience.

3.1.8. Challenge during the internship period

Time limitation: - sometimes completing aims, achieving learning

outcome, and gaining proficiencies can take time, but unfortunately, the
duration of the internship is limited to the volume prescribed by the
curriculum.

Large number of students: - This puts extra workload on the

internship places, lowers motivation, tires supervisors.

Insufficient feedback:- The supervisor(s) have no the time to provide

feedback in a manner sothe student would understand their strengths and
need for development.

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CHAPTER FOUR

CONCLUSION AND RECOMANDATION

4.1. Conclusion

We gained self-confidence and exposure to the aviation industry through

the internship. It has given us the tools we need to interpret the theory we
learnt in class practically. It also taught usthe skills needed to supervise in
such a workplace environment. One should move at the fastest possible
pace in order to comprehend and actively participate in the situation
because aviationand its supporting technology are constantly evolving. As
a result, we can now perceive and reason more clearly than ever about how
to adapt to and integrate ourselves in a given environment.

During our internship, we were able to learn more about what a

communication engineer does and to get ready to grow up to be a
responsible, creative person. During the course of our internship, we came
to the conclusion that observation is the key to determining the origin of a
problem, even in routine everyday tasks, since this is how we were able to
complete our project. In general, the internship program has shown to be a
link between the worlds of academia andthe workplace. We gained a lot of
knowledge from our internship experience and truly loved it.

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 4.2. Recommendation

Every component of the puzzle has been revealed. So we attempted to

identify some issues from the outside.

 Generator for VOR system must be automatic.

 Additional wireless network between remote site and monitoring

position is more preferable

 Each station has a log book to write an incident report during

their shift time. Its hand written but digitalizing it is would be

more convenient for them. It’ll indirectlyassist communication;

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 PART TWO

PROJECT WORK

DESIGN CONTROL SYSTEM OF LANDING AND TAKEOFF OF AN

AIRCRAFT

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ABSTRACT

This paper going to design the two important stages of aircraft – takeoff and landing. In
physical form it is to difficult the study of takeoff and landing stages of aircraft. In this
paper we will include a new way to analysis the takeoff and landing of aircraft by
Simulink which is the branch of Matlab. On matlab simulator we can see the takeoff and
landing position of aircraft and analysis the graphs on different parameters.
The take-off and landing of an aircraft is often the most critical and accident prone
portion. This paper describes the design of an aircraft take-off and landing algorithm
implemented on an existing low-cost flight control system. This paper also describes the
takeoff and landing algorithm development and gives validation results from matlab in
the loop simulation. The scope of the paper is reaches to the best situation to the design
of aircraft control systems in most common high risk phases at important two stages with
use simulink programme and development it and transfer design from conventional and
classical design into advanced design with low cost, high performance in short runway
and how change the classical design used control system from mechanical to
hydromachanical into electrical control system as used in modren aircraft with FlyBy-
Wire but in the future design technology Fly-By-Light may be used.
The takeoff and landing control system is designed under constraints as degree of
freedom and
equation of motion to improvement in many situations. The research is achieved by
MATLAB/Simulink. The simulation results show that the control system performs well.
We get the information of attitude and altitude by using aircraft model and various

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indicators shows the actual reading in aircraft model. The three classes of models and
simulations are virtual, constructive, and live.
Key words: Control System, MATLAB, aircraft, Flight Control

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 CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Principle of Flight Control

The four basic forces acting upon an aircraft during flight are lift, weight, drag and thrust
as shown in Fig.1.1

Figure 1.1 Forses acting on an aircraft

1.1.1. Lift

Lift is caused by the flow around the aircraft. Lift is the upward force created by the
wings, which sustains the airplane in flight. The force required to lift the plane through a

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stream of air depends upon the wing profile. When the lift is greater than the weight then
the plane raises.

1.1.2. Weight

Weight is the downward force created by the weight of the airplane and its load; it is
directly proportional to lift. If the weight is greater than lift then the plane descends. 8
1.1.3. Drag
“The resistance of the airplane to forward motion directly opposed to thrust”. The drag of
the air makes it hard for the plane to move quickly. Another name for drag is air
resistance. It is created or caused by all the parts.

1.1.4. Thrust

The force exerted by the engine which pushes air backward with the object of causing a
reaction, or thrust, of the airplane in the forward direction.

1.2. Flight Control Surfaces

An aircraft requires control surfaces to fly and move in different directions. They make it
possible for the aircraft to roll, pitch and yaw. Figure 1.2 shows the three sets of control
surfaces and the axes along which they tilt axes.

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 Figure 1.2 Control Surface

The ailerons, operated by turning the control column [Figure 1.3], cause it to roll. The
elevators are operated by moving the control column forward or back causes the aircraft
to pitch. The rudder is operated by rudder pedals that make the aircraft yaw. Depending
on the kind of aircraft, the requirements for flight control surfaces vary greatly, as
specific roles, ranges and needed agilities. Primary control surfaces are incorporated into
the wings and empennage for almost every kind of aircraft as shown in the . Those
surfaces are typically: the elevators included on the horizontal tail to control pitch; the
rudder on the vertical tail for yaw control; and the ailerons outboard on the wings to
control roll.

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 Figure 1.3 Axes Of Aircraft

These surfaces are continuously checked to maintain safe vehicle control and they are
normally trailing
edge types.

1.2 Problem Statement of the Project

The problem statement for designing a control system for the landing and takeoff of an
aircraft is as follows:
The Dire Dawa Aviation Authority is responsible for ensuring the safe and efficient
operation of aircraft within its jurisdiction. To fulfill this responsibility, it is crucial to
have a robust and reliable control system in place for managing the landing and takeoff
procedures of aircraft.
Currently, the existing control system has several limitations and inefficiencies that need
to be addressed. These include:

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1. Lack of real-time monitoring: The current system does not provide real-time
monitoring of aircraft during landing and takeoff. This hinders the ability to detect
potential issues or deviations from standard procedures promptly.
2. Manual coordination: The coordination between air traffic controllers, pilots, and
ground staff during landing and takeoff is primarily done manually, leading to potential
mis communications and delays.
3. Limited automation: The current system lacks automation features that can streamline
the landing and takeoff processes. This results in increased workload for air traffic
controllers and higher chances of human error.
4. Inadequate data analysis: The existing system does not effectively collect and analyze
data related to landing and takeoff operations. This limits the ability to identify trends,
patterns, and areas for improvement.
5. Insufficient contingency planning: The current system does not have a comprehensive
contingency plan in place for handling emergency situations during landing or takeoff.
This can lead to delays, safety risks, and confusion in critical situations.

1.3 Objective Of The Project

The objective of designing a control system for the landing and takeoff of an aircraft is to address the
limitations of the existing system and create a more efficient, safe, and reliable process. The new system
should incorporate advanced technologies such as real-time monitoring, automation, data analysis, and
contingency planning to enhance operational efficiency and safety.

1.3.1 General Objective:

The general objective of designing a control system for the landing and takeoff of an aircraft is to
improve the overall safety and efficiency of these critical operations. This includes minimizing the risk
of accidents, reducing delays, optimizing resource utilization, and enhancing the passenger experience.
The control system should be able to effectively manage and coordinate all aspects of the landing and

80
takeoff process, from communication between air traffic controllers and pilots to monitoring and
analyzing data for continuous improvement.

1.3.2 Specific objective

Specific objectives include:
1. Real-time monitoring: Implement a system that provides real-time monitoring of aircraft during
landing and takeoff to detect potential issues or deviations from standard procedures promptly.
2. Automation: Integrate automation features into the system to streamline the landing and takeoff
processes, reducing the workload for air traffic controllers and minimizing human error.
3. Data analysis: Develop a system that effectively collects and analyzes data related to landing and
takeoff operations to identify trends, patterns, and areas for improvement.
4. Contingency planning: Create a comprehensive contingency plan for handling emergency situations
during landing or takeoff to minimize delays, safety risks, and confusion in critical situations.
5. Seamless communication and collaboration: Prioritize clear and concise communication between air
traffic controllers, pilots, and ground staff, enabling effective decision-making in real-time.

1.4 Scope Of The Project

The scope of the project includes designing a control system that encompasses various
components and processes involved in the landing and takeoff of an aircraft. This
includes:
1. Communication: The control system should facilitate effective communication
between air traffic controllers and pilots. It should provide real-time updates, instructions,
and alerts to ensure smooth coordination during landing and takeoff.
2. Navigation: The control system should incorporate navigation systems to guide pilots
during landing and takeoff. This may include instruments like GPS, radar, and runway
lighting systems to ensure accurate positioning and safe navigation.
3. Safety measures: The control system should integrate safety measures to minimize the
risk of accidents during landing and takeoff. This may include monitoring weather
conditions, runway conditions, and aircraft performance parameters to identify potential
hazards and provide timely warnings or instructions.

81
4. Resource utilization: The control system should optimize the utilization of resources
such as runways, gates, and airspace. It should consider factors like aircraft size, weight,
and fuel efficiency to allocate resources effectively and reduce delays.
5. Data analysis: The control system should collect and analyze data related to landing
and takeoff operations. This data can be used to identify trends, patterns, and areas for
improvement. It can also help in identifying any operational inefficiencies or safety
concerns.
6. Passenger experience: The control system should aim to enhance the overall passenger
experience during landing and takeoff. This may include minimizing waiting times,
providing accurate information about flight status, and ensuring a smooth and
comfortable transition between the aircraft and the terminal.
7. Continuous improvement: The control system should support continuous improvement
by providing feedback mechanisms for pilots, air traffic controllers, and other
stakeholders. It should enable them to provide suggestions, report issues, and contribute
to the ongoing enhancement of the control system.

1.5. Aircraft Actuation System

Actuation systems are a vital link in the flight control system, providing the motive force
necessary to move flight control surfaces. Whether it is a primary flight control, such as
an elevator, rudder, aileron, spoiler or fore plane, or a secondary flight control, such as a
leading edge slat, trailing edge flap, air intake or airbrake, some means of moving the
surface is necessary. Performance of the actuator can have a significant influence on
overall aircraft performance and the implications of actuator performance on aircraft
control at all operating conditions must be considered during flight-control system design
and development programmes.

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Figure 1.4 Actuation System

83
Overall aircraft performance requirements will dictate actuator performance requirements,
which can lead to difficult design, control and manufacturing problems in their own right.
An overview of current actuation system technologies as applied to modern combat
aircraft is presented, and their performance and control requirements are discussed. The
implications for aircraft control are considered and an overview of selected modeling and
analysis methods is presented.

1.6. Introduction of Aircraft Flight Instruments

1.6.1 Airspeed Indicator

This device measures the difference between STATIC pressure (usually from a sensor not
in the airstream) and IMPACT or stagnation pressure from an aircraft's PITOT TUBE
which is in the air-stream.
During flight greater pressure will be indicated by PITOT TUBE and this difference in
pressure from the
static sensor can be used to calculate the airspeed.
V = √ ( pstg - pstat) / ρ

Figure 1.5 Airspeed Indicator

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 Primary Flight Group Instruments:
Airspeed Indicator, Rate of Climb , Altimeter Linkages and Gears are designed to
multiply the movement of the Diaphragm & provide indication on the dial of the
Instrument. Instrument measures differential pressure between inside of diaphragm and
instrument case.
True Airspeed adjusts the IAS for the given temperature and pressure. The F-15E
receives TAS from the
Air Data Computer which measures the outside temperature & pressure. True airspeed is
calculated
incorporating pressure and temperature corrections corresponding to flight altitude.
VT = Vi √ (Pstd Tactual / Tstd Pactual)
VT= True airspeed, V= Indicated airspeed, p & T are pressure and temperature with
subscripts std and actual indicating standard and actual (altitude / ambient) conditions
True Air Speed and Ground Speed will be the same in a perfectly still air. Ground Speed
It is another important airspeed to pilots. Ground-speed is the aircraft's actual speed
across the earth. It equals the TAS plus or minus the wind factor. For example, if your
TAS is 500 MPH and you have a direct (180 degrees from your heading) tail-wind of 100
MPH, your ground-speed is 600 MPH. Ground-peed can be measured by onboard Inertial
Navigation Systems (INS) or by Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) receivers. One "old-
fashion" method is to record the time it takes to fly between two known points. Then
divide this time by the distance. For example, if the distance is 18 miles, and it took an
aircrew in an F-15E 2 minutes to fly between the points, then their ground-speed is:
18 miles / 2 minutes = 9 miles per minute.
1.6.2. Altimeter

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It is one of the most important instruments especially while flying in conditions of poor
visibility. Altitude
must be known for calculating other key parameters such as engine power, airspeed etc.
Altimeter works
on the principle of barometer. In a sensitive altimeter there are three diaphragm capsule
with two or three
different dials each indicating different slab of altitude. Altimeter should be compensated
for atmosphere
pressure change.

Figure 1.6 Altitude Indicator

Altimeter senses normal decrease in air pressure that accompanies an increase in altitude.
The airtight
instrument case is vented to the static port. With an increase in altitude, the air pressure
within the case
decreases and a sealed aneroid barometer (bellows) within the case expands. The
barometer movement is transferred to the indicator, calibrated in feet and displayed with

86
two or three pointers. Different types of indicators display indicated altitude in a variety
of ways,
Altitude Definitions
• Indicated altitude is read directly from the altimeter when set to current barometric
pressure.
• Pressure altitude is read from the altimeter when set to the standard barometric pressure
of 29.92 in. Hg.
• Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for non- standard temperature.
• True altitude is the exact height above mean sea level.
• Absolute altitude is the actual height above the earth’s surface.

1.6.3. Rate of Climb Meter

This is also called vertical speed indicator which is again useful in blind flights.
Level flights could be indicated by keeping the pointer on zero and subsequent changes
are indicated in
terms of ft/minute

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 Figure 1.7 Climb Rate Indicator

This is also differential-pressure instrument -atmosphere and chamber pressure which is

vented through a small capillary. Response of VSI is rather sluggish and is also sensitive
to temperature changes. Mechanical stops prevent damage due to steep dives or
maneuvers.

1.6.4. Vertical Speed Indicator

Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) displays vertical component of an aircraft's flight path. It
measures the rate of change of static pressure in terms of feet per minute of climb or
descent. VSI compensates for changes in atmospheric density. VSI is in a sealed case
connected to the static line through a calibrated leak (restricted diffuser)

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 Figure 1.8 Vertical Speed Indicator

Diaphragm attached to the pointer by a system of linkages is vented to the static line
without restrictions. With climb, the diaphragm contracts and the pressure drops faster
than case pressure can escape through restructure, resulting in climb indications.

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 1.7 Take-off of an Aircraft
The take-off segment of an aircraft trajectory is shown in Fig.1.11. The aircraft is
accelerated at constant
power setting and at a constant angle of attack (all wheels on the ground) from rest to the
rotation speed
VR. For safety purposes, the rotation speed is required to be somewhat greater than the
stall speed, and it is
taken here to be
VR = 1.2Vstall

Vo=0 Ground Run Distance VLo

Figure 1.9 TakeOff of an aircraft

When the rotation speed is reached, the aircraft is rotated over a short time to an angle of
attack which enables it to leave the ground at the lift-off speed VLO and begin to climb.
The transition is also flown at constant angle of attack and power setting. The take-off
segment ends when the aircraft reaches an altitude of h = 35 ft. Because airplanes are
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designed essentially for efficient cruise, they are designed aerodynamically for high lift-
to-drag ratio. A trade- off is that the maximum lift coefficient decreases as the lift-to-drag
ratio increases. This in turn increases the stall speed, increases the rotation speed, and
increases the take-off distance. Keeping the take-off distance within the bounds of
existing runway lengths is a prime consideration in selecting the size (maximum thrust)
of the engines. The same problem occurs on landing but is addressed by using flaps. A
low flap deflection can be used on take-off to reduce the take-off distance.

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1.8 Landing of an Aircraft

The landing segment of an aircraft trajectory is shown in Fig. 1.12. Landing begins with
the aircraft in a
reduced power setting descent at an altitude of h = 50 ft with gear and flaps down. As the
aircraft nears the ground, it is flared to rotate the velocity vector parallel to the ground.
The aircraft touches down on the main gear and is rotated downward to put the nose gear
on the ground. Then, brakes and sometimes reverse thrust, spoilers, and a drag chute are
used to stop the airplane. The landing ends when the aircraft comes to rest. For safety
purposes, the touchdown speed is required to be somewhat greater than the stall speed
and is taken here to be
VTD = 1.2Vstall.

VTD Landing Distance Vf

Figure 1.10 Landing of an aircraft

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1.9 Equations of Motion

The term flight mechanics refers to the analysis of airplane motion using Newton’s laws.
While most aircraft structures are flexible to some extent, the airplane is assumed here to
be a rigid body. When fuel Is being consumed, the airplane is a variable-mass rigid body.
Newton’s laws are valid when written relative to an inertial reference frame, that is, a
reference frame which is not accelerating or rotating. If the equations of motion are
derived relative to an inertial reference frame and if approximations characteristic of
airplane motion are introduced into these equations, the resulting equations are those for
flight over a nonrotating flat earth. Hence, for airplane motion, the earth is an
approximate inertial reference frame, and this model is called the flat earth model. The
use of this physical model leads to a small error in most analyses.
A general derivation of the equations of motion involves the use of a material system
involving both solid and fluid particles. The end result is a set of equations giving the
motion of the solid part of the airplane subject to aerodynamic, propulsive and
gravitational forces. Introduction to Airplane Flight Mechanics for the forces are
assumed to be known. Then, the equations describing the motion of the solid part of the
airplane are derived. The airplane is assumed to have a right-left plane of symmetry with
the forces acting at the center of gravity and the moments acting about the center of
gravity. Actually, the forces acting on an airplane in fight are due to distributed surface
forces and body forces. The surface forces come from the air moving over the airplane
and through the propulsion system, while the body forces are due to gravitational effects.
Any distributed force can be replaced by concentrated force acting along a specific line of
action. Then, to have all forces acting through the same point, the concentrated force can
be replaced by the same force acting at the point of interest plus a moment about that
point to offset the effect of moving the force. The point usually chosen for this purpose is
93
the center of mass, or equivalently for airplanes the center of gravity, because the
equations of motion are the simplest. The equations governing the translational and
rotational motion of an airplane are the following:
• Kinematic equations giving the translational position and rotational position relative to
the earth reference frame.
• Dynamic equations relating forces to translational acceleration and moments to
rotational acceleration.
• Equations defining the variable-mass characteristics of the airplane (center of gravity,
mass and moments of inertia) versus time.
• Equations giving the positions of control surfaces and other movable parts of the
airplane (landing gear, flaps, wing sweep, etc.) versus time.
These equations are referred to as the six degree of freedom (6DOF) equations of motion.
The use of these equations depends on the particular area of flight mechanics being
investigated.

1.10 6DOF Model: Wind Axes

The translational equations have been uncoupled from the rotational equations by
assuming that the aircraft is not rotating and that control surface deflections do not affect
the aerodynamic forces. The scalar equations of motion for flight in a vertical plane have
been derived in the wind axes system. These equations have been used to study aircraft
trajectories (performance). If desired, the elevator deflection history required by the
airplane to fly a particular trajectory can be obtained by using the rotational equation. In
this chapter, the six-degree-of-freedom (6DOF) model for non-steady flight in a vertical
plane is presented in the wind axes system. Formulas are derived for calculating the
forces and moments. Because it is possible to do so, the effect of elevator deflection on
the lift is included. These results will be used in the next chapter to compute the elevator
deflection required for a given flight condition. Finally, since the equations for the

94
aerodynamic pitching moment are now available, the formula for the drag polar can be
improved by using the trimmed polar.

CHAPTER TWO

2.REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Zhao, Y. and Bryson, A.E. (1990) Presented Dynamic optimization and feedback control
system design techniques are used to determine proper guidance laws for aircraft in the
presence of downbursts, and insensitivity to downburst structures is emphasized.
Avoidance is the best policy. If an inadvertent encounter occurs when the aircraft is
already close to or even in the downburst, the pilot should concentrate on vertical flight,
unless he is sure which direction to turn for winds of less intensity. If such an encounter
happens on takeoff, maximum thrust should be aggressively and a lower climb rate or
even descending flight is recommended. Similar strategy is applicable for abort landing.
If an encounter happens on landing and encounter height is low, landing should proceed.
It is recommended that the nominal horizontal and vertical velocities w.r.t. the ground
should be maintained, subject to a minimum airspeed constraint. Dominique Britxe and
Pascal Traverse (1993) This paper deals with the digital electrical flight control system
of the Airbus A32O/A33O/A340. The A320 was the first civil aircraft equipped with
such a system. It was certified and entered into service in the first quarter of 1988. The
A330 and A340 have identical systems, closely related to the A320 system. These
systems are built to very stringent dependability requirements both in terms of safety (the
systems must not output erroneous signals) and availability. The basic building blocks are
fail-safe control and monitoring computers. The control channel performs the function
allocated to the computer (control of a control sulfate for example). The monitoring
channel ensures that the control channel operates correctly. A high level of redundancy is
built into the system. Special attention has been paid to possible external aggression. The
system is built to tolerate both hardware and software design faults. The A320 system is

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described together with the significant differences between the A320 and the A330iA340,
and A320 in service experiences. The first electrical flight control system for a civil
aircraft was designed by Aerospatiale and installed on Concorde. This is an analog, full-
authority system for all control surfaces and copies the stick commands onto the control
surfaces. A mechanical back-up system is provided on the three axes. The first generation
of electrical flight control systems with digital technology appeared on several civil
aircraft at the start of the 1980’s including the Airbus A310. These systems control the
slats, flaps and spoilers. These systems have very stringent safety requirements (the
runaway of these control surfaces must be extremely improbable). However, loss of a
function is permitted as the only consequences are a supportable increase in the crew’sw
orkload. Breslin, S.G. and Grimble, M. (1994) Presented The control of an advanced
short take-off and landing ( ASTOVL) aircraft presents a very challenging problem to the
control systems engineer. The problem is especially difficult at low speeds in the
transition from jet-borne to fully wing-borne flight. In this flight condition, the aircraft is
unstable in the longitudinal axis and there is very poor decoupling between the pilot
commands and the aircraft response. This results in very poor handling qualities and a
very high pilot workload. Modern multi variable control theory provides an ideal
framework in which to address these problems. Chang-Sun Hwang and Dong-Wan Kim
(1995) This paper deals with the robust two-degree-offreedom multivariable control
system using H∞ optimization method which can achieve the robust stability and the
robust performance property simultaneously. The feedback controller is designed using
H∞
optimization method for mixed sensitivity function. The feedforward controller is
designed using H2
optimization method to minimize the error of both the transfer function of the optimal
model and the

96
overall transfer function. The feedback controller can obtain the robust stability property.
The feedforward controller can obtain the robust performance property under modelling
error. The robust two-degree-offreedom multivariable control system is applied to the
nonlinear multivariable boiler-turbine system. The boiler turbine system is analyzed at
various operation points. Breslin, S.G. and Grimble, M.J. (1997) Presented A robust
controller is designed for the pitch rate control system of an advanced combat aircraft for
a section of the flight envelope over which there is asignificant variation in the aircraft
dynamics. The QFT methodology is reviewed and the links between H∞ control theory
explored. Calise A.J. (1998) The effectiveness of a controller architecture, which
combines adaptive feed forward neural networks with feedback linearization, has been
demonstrated on a variety of flight vehicles. The boundedness of tracking error and
control signals is guaranteed. The architecture can accommodate both linear-in-the-
parameters networks, as well as single-hidden-layer perceptron neural networks. Both
theoretical and experimental research is planned to expand and improve the applicability
of the approach, and to demonstrate practical utility in the areas of cost reduction and
improved flight safety Ochi, Y. and Kanai, Kimio (1999) Presented Describes the design
of a flight control system for propulsion controlled aircraft (PCA), which are controlled
using thrust only. Particularly, the approach and landing phase is considered because it is
the most critical one in flight control. The ILS-coupled automatic approach and landing
flight control system is designed for a large transport aircraft, B-747 via H∞
statefeedback control. In the design, the guidance and control loops are designed at the
same time, which makes it easy to optimize the whole system performance unlike one-
by-one loop closure in classical control. Jafarov, E.M. (1999) In this paper a new variable
structure control law for uncertain MIMO systems is investigated. The conditions for the
existence of a sliding mode are derived. The asymptotic stability of the VSS is studied
by using the Lyapunov V-function method. By using these conditions we have
successfully designed a longitudinal position and tracking variable structure control

97
system for the F-18 aircraft MIMO model with parameter perturbations. The longitudinal
dynamics of F-18 aircraft with parameter perturbations is considered. Finally, simulation
results for VSS both with chattering and free of chattering cases are presented to show
the effectiveness of the design methods

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 CHAPTER THREE

3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 Critical situations in takeoff and Landing Flight Phase

Figure 3.1 Takeoff and landing phase of aircrafts

A critical situation during the takeoff phase or a landing phase could be an engine out
condition. In this case, the operative engine will create a force moment that has to be
balanced by a side aerodynamic force created by the rudder deflection. In a normal
airplane landing the vertical speed towards the ground is about 2 to 4 m/s. If the vertical
speed is between 6 m/s and 8 m/s, we have a hard landing, and the problem just a matter
99
of a control maintenance of the landing gear. If the landing vertical speed is higher than
8m/s, we have a crash problem occur. This situation can happen because pilot error in
landing procedures (vertical speed too high or not the correct position of the plane with
rapport to the ground), special meteorological phenomena, as turbulence (vertical speed
towards the ground) or wind shear (wind velocities parallel to the ground, that decrease
suddenly the relative on the speed of the airplane wind reference to the air). Some times
its occur due to incorrect reading of the control instruments. Flight control problems
include gross weight and center-of-gravity problems, jammed or locked controls, aircraft
stall, instrument error or false indications (like airspeed indicator). Airspeed Indicator
Problems when stop working. Basically at taxiing and taking off the speed indicator
works fine. When aircraft in the air it sometime stop working. This situation is very
critical for a pilot. A review of some of the general aviation reports seems to indicate that
pilot error in responding to the situation caused more of a problem than the electrical
problem. Because many of the reports had little or no damage reported, the narrative of
the reports were very brief without a lot of details. For example, one report about a
Cessna 182 stated, Electrical problem, Alternator field wire loose. The following incident
is even more common. The air taxi "departed alternators off. Drained batteries. Used
manual gear. Not locked down. Folded landing." Another report said, "Alternator failed
en route. Diverted. In confusion landed gear up." Again, minor damage was done to the
aircraft. Another pilot while descending from altitude did a "long cruise descent with the
engines at a very low power output. the aircraft had generators instead of alternators, and
that the engine speed was using for the descent was below the speed required to keep the
battery charged." After landing the commercial pilot and flight instructor discovered the
aircraft's battery was too low to start the aircraft.

3.2 Accidents of aircraft during the takeoff and landing phases

Data is collected from aircraft accident in different phases of aircraft during takeoff and
landing.
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3.2.1 Statistical information regarding the Takeoff flight phase
The number of fatal hull-loss accidents and fatalities per year is given from 2001 - 2015.
The table include corporate jet and military transport accidents.

Figure 3.2 Airfrance accident during takeoff

Year Accidents Casualties

2015 0 0
2014 0 0
2013 3 33
2012 1 4

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2011 1 1
2010 0 0
2009 4 10
2008 4 16
2007 1 1
2006 1 49
2005 2 8
2004 2 13
2003 5 169
2002 2 17
2001 3 131

Table 3.1 Takeoff flight phase accidents

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103
 Causalities during takeoff flight phase accidents

Figure 3.3 Graphs between year of accidents and causalities

3.2.2 Statistical information regarding the Landing flight phase

The number of fatal hull-loss accidents and fatalities per year is given. The table include
corporate jet and military transport accidents.

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Figure 3.4 Crash of Fokker F27 in Silgo

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 Table 3.2 accidents and casualties during landing
Year Accidents Causalties
2015 0 0
2014 2 3
2013 4 18
2012 3 7
2011 3 115
2010 5 212
2009 4 20
2008 4 64
2007 7 138
2006 5 160
2005 4 114
2004 3 64
2003 0 0
2002 2 6
2001 1 1

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Landing and flight phase accidents

107
108
3.2.5 10 worst accidents in Asia

List of the 10 worst aviation occurrences excluding ground fatalities, including collision
fatalities.

Table 3.3 10 worst accidents in Asia

Fatalities Date Type Registration Operator Location
520 12-AUG- Boeing JA8119 JAL Japan
1985
747SR-46
349 Boeing 747- India
12-NOV- 168B HZ-AIH Saudi
1996 Arabian

349 Ilyushin UN-76435 Kazakhstan India

12-NOV- 76TD Airlines
1996

301 Lockheed L- HZ-AHK Saudi Saudi Arabia

19-AUG- 1011TriStar Arabian
1980 200
275 19-FEB- Ilyushin 15-2280 Iranian Iran
2003 76MD Revolutionary
Guard

264 26-APR- Airbus B-1816 China Japan

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 1994 A300B4- Airlines
622R
261 11-JUL- DC-8-61 C-GMXQ Nationair, Saudi Arabia
1991 opf. Nigeria
Airways
234 26-SEP- Airbus PK-GAI Garuda Indonesia
1997 A300B4-
220
223 26-MAY- Boeing 767- OE-LAV Lauda Air Thailand
1991 3Z9ER
213 01-JAN- Boeing 747- VT-EBD Air-India India
1978 237B

Figure 3.6 worst accidents in Asia

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3.3 Analysis of Phases of Aircraft

3.3.1 Analysis of Takeoff phase

The evaluation of takeoff performance can be examined in two phases, the ground and air
phase. The
ground phase begins at brake release, includes rotation, and terminates when the aircraft
becomes airborne. The air phase is the portion of flight from leaving the ground until
reaching an altitude of 50 ft. In the case where stabilizing at a constant climb speed
before reaching 50 ft is possible, the air phase is divided into a transition phase and a
steady state climb phase. From table 3.1 and fig 3.3, we have observed that the more
accident during takeoff phase in year 2003 and more casualties in this year.

3.3.2 Analysis of Landing Phase

The evaluation of landing performance can be examined in two phases, the air phase and
the ground phase.
The air phase starts at 50 ft above ground level and ends on touchdown. The ground
phase begins at touchdown and terminates when the aircraft is stopped. From the table
3.2 and Fig. 3.4. Shows that in 2007 more accidents held during landing phase and more
casualties.

3.4 Shortcoming in older system

In takeoff and landing phases, two controller are discussed in older methods. H∞ and
LQG method are used to improve the safe takeoff and landing but these methods have not
sufficient to ensure safe takeoff and landing. The aim of these controllers is to achieve
robust stability margins and good performance in step response of the system. LQG
method is a systematic design approach based on shaping and recovering open-loop
singular values while mixed-sensitivity H∞ method is established by defining appropriate
weighting functions to achieve good performance and robustness. Comparison of the two

111
controllers show that LQG method requires rate feedback to increase damping of closed-
loop system, while H∞ controller by only proper choose the weighting functions, meets
the same performance for step response. Output robustness of both controllers is good
but H∞ controller has poor input stability margin. The net controller order of H∞ is
higher than the LQG method and the control effort of them is not in suitable range.

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3.5 New Approach to Improvement for takeoff and Landing
To eliminate the accidents during takeoff and landing of aircraft, we should improve the
tools of treatments of degree of freedom and equation of motion. By use advanced
methods to obtain high performance and low cost in short time and in short runway. In
older method longitudinal and lateral motion have discussed separately to improve. In
this paper we have discuss new concept to treat these problem by using simulink in
matlab to find the optimum solution form using multi methods. In the model of aircraft
give the virtual reading near the actual reading. We have overcome the problem of the
lose of control during takeoff and landing. Autopilot has ensure the takeoff and landing
advanced airport but in many county they dont have advance airport. when aircraft
instruments reading is correct then no need of autopilot to safe takeoff and landing. Our
research are going on to improve the passive safety of the aircraft, both in takeoff and
landing by experimental methods (Simulink).

3.6 Pitch Control System(Classical Method)

We have give to brief description on the modelling of pitch control longitudinal equation
of aircraft, as a basis of a simulation environment for development and performance
evaluation of the proposed controller techniques. The system of longitudinal dynamics is
considered in this investigation and derived in the transfer function and state space forms.
The pitch control system considered in this work is shown in Figure 3.10 where Xb, Yb
and Zb represent the aerodynamics force components. θ, ф and δ represent theorientation
of aircraft (pitch angle) in the earth-axis system and elevator deflection angle.The
equations governing the motion of an aircraft are a very complicated set of six nonlinear
coupled differential equations. Although, under certain assumptions, they can be
decoupled and linearized into longitudinal and lateral equations. Aircraft pitch is an
autopilot that controls the pitch are shown in the figure given below.

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 Figure 3.7 pitch control system

Figure 3.10 shows the forces aircraft system. The aerodynamics and N. The term p, q, r
represen represent the velocity components and side slip.

114
 Figure 3.8 fuzzy application

A few assumption need to b aircraft is steady state cruise at co the lift and weight balance
out each an aircraft under any circumstance.

3.7 Simulink Blockset for takeoff and Landing of Aircraft (New Model)

The aircraft control toolbox, used in matlab, provides all of the tools needed to design
and test control system for aircraft. The toolbox is used worldwide by leading research
and industrial organization. The latest version brings many new features including
Newtonian aerodynamics, airship modeling function. new aircraft models and new
aircraft performance tools. A paper to upgrade the aircraft model withenhanced controls
and an aero-brake was initiated, and while the scope of the project was small enough to
be undertaken by individuals without a rigorous configuration management system, it
was decided that this project should leverage recent work done to provide a reference
implementation of a Simulink based CM system. The aircraft model consists of an

115
integrated six-degrees-of-freedom (6-DOF) vehicle model. avionics and sensor models as
well as an environment model, and an interface to the third-party, open- source software
FlightGear for visualization of simulation results. The vehicle model contains the vehicle
airframe dynamics, including landing gear and control surface components. The avionics
model provides a guidance control system distributed on three redundant processors. All
of the components within the model are built up from more than 11,000 blocks. The
model, shown in Figure 3.28, is configured to provide a simulation of the final 60
seconds of approach and landing of the aircraft. The model has the full 6-DOF dynamics
of the plant as well as the guidance controls implemented within it. We use this collection
of files as an executable specification, working with it to understand the behavior of the
system. This, in turn, helps us analyze, design and implement the controls system with
Model-Based Design.

116
3.8 Simulink Model for Takeoff of an Aircraft

Visualize airplane takeoff and chase airplane with the virtual reality animation object.
Virtual Reality Animation object to set up a virtual reality animation based on the
astikuff.wri file. The scene simulates anairplane takeoff.

Figure 3.9 Simulink model of takeoff of an aircraft

117
3.8.1 Initialize the Virtual Reality Animation Object

The initialize method loads the animation world described in the 'VRWorld Filename
field of the animation object. When parsing the world, node objects are created for
existing nodes with DEF names. The initialize method also opens the Simulink 3D
Animation viewer. h.initialize():

Figure 3.10 virtual reality animation object

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 3.8.2 Set Coordinate Transform Function
The virtual reality animation object expects positions and rotations in aerospace body
coordinates. If the input data is different, we must create a coordinate transformation
function in order to correctly line up the position and rotation data with the surrounding
objects in the virtual world. This code sets the coordinate transformation function for the
virtual reality animation. In this particular case, if the input translation coordinates are
[x1, y1, z1], they must be adjusted as follows: [X, Y, Z] = - [y1, x1, z1]
Node Information
1 _V1
2 Lighthouse
3 _V3
4 Terminal
5 Block
6 _V2
7 Plane
8 Camera1

3.8.3 Play Animation from Airplane

This code sets the orientation of the viewpoint via the virtual reality node object
associated with the node object for the viewpoint. In this case, it will change the
viewpoint to look out the right side of the airplane at the plane.
h.Nodes{1}.VRNode.orientation = [0 1 0 convang(160,'deg','rad')];
set(h.VR Figure,'Viewpoint','View From Aircraft');

119
 Figure 3.11 animations from airplane 1

3.8.4 Close and Delete World

To close and delete
h.delete();

3.9 Simulink Model for Landing of an Aircraft

This section gives an introduction to aircraft modeling for landing. The equations of
motion are linearized using perturbation theory and the results are state-space models for
the longitudinal and lateral motions. The models can be used for aircraft simulation and
design of flight control systems. In this model we have to use Blockset for degree of
freedom and equation of motion but in classical way which is discussion earlier they were
using the program to write equation of motion. But in modern way matlab provide us
build-in program in the form of Blockset which is more accurate than previous work.

120
121
 Figure 3.12 simulink model of landing of an aircraft

6DoF (Euler Angles) Subsystem

The 6DOF (Euler Angles) subsystem contains the six-degrees-of-freedom equations of
motion for the airframe. In the 6DOF (Euler Angles) subsystem, the body attitude is
propagated in time using an Euler angle representation. This subsystem is one of the
equations of motion blocks from the Aerospace Blockset library.

122
 Figure 3.13 6DOF (Euler Angles) Subsystem

3.10 Aircraft Control and Instruments

This model simulates approach and landing flight phases using an auto-landing controller.
Simulink model for landing of aircraft is sub divided into subsystems. Here we have
discussed the subsystems of the model and furthers discussion of its block and parameters
required inside the block of the subsystem.

123
 Figure 3.14 Aircraft Control Instruments

3.11. Extract Gauges

Path: CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTS/Visualization/Extract Gauges

124
Figure 3.15 Subsystem of Extract Gauges

125
Blocks Parameters

3.11.1. "Airspeed (kts)" (Outport)

Airspeed is an output port which we can see on the right top of this subsystem and it will
be further pass to the next section. In this section we can calculate the airspeed and pass it
to next section of the model. The following parameters are required.

Table 3.4 “Airspeed (kts)”Parameters

Parameter Values
Port number 1
Icon display Port number
Specify properties via bus objec Off
Bus object for validating input bus BusObject
Output as nonvirtual Off

bus in parent model

Port dimensions (-1 for inherited) -1
Variable-size signal Inherit Sample time (-1 -1
for

inherited)
Minimum []
Maximum []
Data type inherit auto
Sourse of initial output value Dialog

126
Output when disabled held
Initial Output []

3.11.2. "Bus Selector" (BusSelector)

Bus Selector block is used to separate the modulated signal which have done by bus
creator. The following parameters are required.

Table 3.5 Bus Selector Parameter

Parameter Value
Output signals Vb,phi,theta,psi,Xe,Ve
Output as bus off

127
3.11.3. "Climb Rate (ft/min)" (Outport)

This is an output port. In this section we have to calculate climb rate of aircraft in ft/min.
The number of port used to measure it is 4 and the following parameters are required

Table3.6 “Climbrate(ft/min)” parameters

Parameter value
Port number 4
Icon display Port number
Specify properties via bus object Off
Bus object for validating input bus Busobject
Output as nonvirtual -1

Port dimensions (-1 for inherited) -1

Variable-size signal Inherit Sample time (-1 []

for inherited)

Minimum []

Maximum auto
Data type Inherit Dialog
Output when disabled held

128
Initial output []

3.11.4. "Climbrate" (Selector)

This is a selector block of Simulink library. Number of input dimension is 1 and the
following parameters are required.

Table 3.7 Climbrate parameters

Parameter Value
Number of input dimensions 1
Index mode One-based
Index option Index vector (dialog)
Index [3]
Output size 1
Input port size 3
Sample time (-1 for inherited) -1
Index option index vector(dialog)
Index [3]
Output Size 1

129
3.12. Aerospace Coordinate Systems

3.12.1 Coordinate Systems for Modeling

Modeling aircraft is simplest if we use a coordinate system fixed in the body itself. In the
case of aircraft,
the forward direction is modified by the presence of wind, and the craft's motion through
the air is not the same as its motion relative to the ground.

3.12.2 Aircraft Body Coordinates

The noninertial body coordinate system is fixed in both origin and orientation to the
moving craft. The craft is assumed to be rigid. The orientation of the body coordinate
axes is fixed in the shape of body.
The x-axis points through the nose of the aircraft. The y-axis points to the right of the x-
axis (facing in the pilot's direction of view), perpendicular to the x- axis.

130
 Figure 3.16 Rotational Degrees of Freedom

3.12.5 MATLAB Graphics Coordinates MATLAB Graphics uses this default

coordinate axis orientation:
• The x-axis points out of the screen
•. The y-axis points to the right.
•The z-axis points up.

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 3.12.6 Flight Gear Coordinates

Figure 3.47 Flight Gear Coordinates

Flight Gear is an open-source, third-party flight simulator with an interface supported by

the blockset
The Flight Gear coordinates form a special body-fixed system, rotated from the standard
body coordinate system about the y-axis by -180 degrees:
• The x-axis is positive toward the back of the vehicle.
• The y-axis is positive toward the right of the vehicle.
• The z-axis is positive upward, e.g.. wheels typically have the lowest
values.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Simulink Result of Takeoff of the Aircraft

We have discussed in chapter 3 about the design of takeoff of the aircraft simulation
model. In this model different view of the aircraft takeoff are discussed. This model of
simulink is more important for low cost and perfomance and planning to optimum design
of modern aircraft. We have divided takeoff stage into three stage in our model.

4.1.1 First stage for takeoff of an aircraft

Simulink model for takeoff of the aircraft show the different position of the aircraft in a
figure window of the matlab and we have the value of height, altitude, airspeed and
vertical airspeed at different positions. This is the initial stage of takeoff of the aircraft. In
this stage, speed of aircraft increase rapidally and reach to where aircraft is going to leave
the ground. In this part of simulation aircraft is nearly 15 m from the start point and
aircraft is on the ground. The attitude measure is -0.03 rad.

133
Figure 4.1 First stage for takeoff of an aircraft in model

134
4.1.2 Second stage for takeoff of an Aircraft

When aircraft reach the suitable speed (for small aircraft near 260 km/h, for large aircraft
near 300 km/h) all extra power will be disconnected and aircraft going to leave the
ground. This is the critical time of the aircraft. In this model aircraft nearly 35 m from
start point and height is nealy L5 m from the ground. The attitude at this stage is -0.09 rad
which show the least stability of the aircraft. On this stage all power is used by the
aircraft to leave the ground.

Figure 4.2 Second stage for takeoff of an aircraft in model

135
4.1.3 Third stage for takeoff of an Aircraft

In this stage aircraft reach to steady level flight and in this model distance from initial
stage of the aircraft is near 78m and height of aircraft is near 12m and attitude is near to 0.

Figure 4.3 Third stage for takeoff of an aircraft in model

136
4.2 Simulation Result for Landing of an Aircraft
The landing process is always consider a complex phase, because the accidents of aircraft
sometime occurs within this stage. So the insure flight safety and comfort is very more
important. In this model we will analysis the landing stage of an aircraft to form different
view point to improve the landing stage. We have divided landing of an aircraft into three
stages.

4.2.1 First stage for Landing of an Aircraft

The descent portion of flight is simply the aircraft lowering its altitude in the preparation
to land at an airport or runway of some sort. Most the airports today one equipped with an
instrument landing system (ILS).

Figure 4.4 First stage for landing of an aircraft in model

137
From the following indicator when aircraft near about 6000 ft form the ground, we can
observe that the airspeed is more than 350 m/s and altitude indicator read near about 6000
ft, climb rate of the aircraft is nearly -20 ft/min. Attitude indicator shows that aircraft is in
stable position because it is near 0 deg.

138
 Figure 4.5 Roll, AoA, AoS in first stage of landing

Stability and control are much more complex for an airplane. Imagine three lines running
through an airplane and intersecting at right angles at the airplane's center of gravity.
Rotation around the front-to- back axis is called roll. On the outer rear edge of cach wing,
the two ailerons move in opposite directions. up and down, decreasing lift on one wing
while increasing it on the other. This causes the airplane to roll to the left or right. To turn
the airplane, the pilot uses the ailerons to tilt the wings in the desired direction. At this
situation the graph shows the roll angle between the -1 to 0.5 degree. An angle-of-attack
indication system, on the other hand, provides an instantaneous readout of stalling margin
regardless of how heavily loaded we are, what spot of bank we've got dialed in or what
the wind is doing. In this way, we should change the old maxim to "angle of attack equals
life." For those of us who fly without an AOA indicator, at least for now, the key is to
unload the wing, which is easy enough to do in the pattern. Hint: point the nose down, we
lose a little altitude in the process. but greatly reduce AOA, even if there isn't a gauge
there to tell we as much. If there's no altitude to lose and sense we'll need to pull some Gs
to make that turn, keep it wide, overfly the airport and live to get it right on the next
circuit. From the Graph of AoA it varies for 5.5 to 7.5 degree and AOS angle varies form
-0.5 to 1 degree.

139
 Figure 4.6 Attitude, Acceleration, Mach first stage of landing

The ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the gas determines the
magnitude of many of the compressibility effects. Because of the importance of this
speed ratio, aerodynamicists have designated it with a special parameter called the Mach
number. Subsonic conditions occur for Mach numbers less than one. M. For the lowest
subsonic conditions, compressibility can be ignored. In aircraft simulation the mach
number between 57 to 62. That's mean aircraft is this simulation is subsonic.
Mach Number = Object Speed / Speed of Sound

140
 Figure 4.7 Height, Flightpath Angle. Velocity, VS in first stage of landing

At this stage of aircraft height become nearly 6000ft from the ground, the flight path
angle varies from -17.8 to -18.2 degree and velocity of aircraft decreases from 400 knots
to 360 knots. At the same time vertical speed decreases from 205 ft/sec to 190 ft/sec. In
this simulation work of landing of aircraft we can analyses all the result at the different
inputs. We can change the parameters of the block which is discussed in the table of
chapter 3. 4.2.2 Second stage for Landing of an Aircraft In second stage of landing the
when aircraft reach near the ground, we have observe the actual reading from the
indicator of the model. In this stage the airspeed of aircraft decreased up to 270 km/h and
altitude indicator shows near about 3km from the ground, climb rate indicator shows the
result -20 ft/min. From the graph we have observed that acceleration is continuously
decreased and roll angle lies between optimum level (-0.5 to 0.5). The angle of attack of
the aircraft will increase while velocity,vertical speed, height will continuously decreases.
This is the more critical stage of aircraft but by optimum condition of this model, its
shows that the safe landing with high performance.

141
Figure 4.8 First stage for landing of an aircraft in model

142
 Figure 4.9 Results in second stage of landing

4.2.3 Third stage for Landing of an Aircraft

In this stage aircraft will touch the runway with the speed 200km/h. All indicators shows
the optimum result. We have observed from the following graph height and flight path
angle is decreased to 0. Climb rate of the aircraft is nearly 9 ft/min.

143
Figure 4.11 Results in third stage of landing

144
5. SUMMARY ,CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The present work provides a background to the matlab simulink model used in the anlysis
and design of flight control system, reviewing instrument systems, altitude equipment, air
speed indicator and vertical speed. Research has also shown that new technologies can
be both cost effective and providing additional safety margins. Such technical
improvements, when mature, are incorporated in aircraft design. The aim of a flight
control system of an aircraft is to maintain a safe and economic operation. Thus, the
desired flight missions can be accomplished even under unexpected events. In the early
days of flight, safety was the main concern of a flight control system. Since the number
of flights and number of people using planes for travel has increased, safety is even more
important. Aircraft dynamics are in general nonlinear, time varying, and uncertain.
Generally, the dynamics are linearized at some flight conditions and flight control
systems are designed by using this linearized mathematical model of the aircraft.
However, some aerodynamic effects are very difficult to model resulting to uncertainties
in the aircraft dynamics and the dynamic behavior of an aircraft may change in a short
period of time as a result of internal and/or external disturbances.
The developed system described here is intended to be used as test platform to aircraft
controllers. The system is made of two different blocks executing different tasks: one
block implements the controllers necessary to the desired movement and the other block
implements the model of the aircraft when performing the desired movement.
Traditionally, the aircraft movements are classified as longitudinal and lateral movement
and under specific flight conditions these movements are considered uncoupled, which
makes possible to study them separately. The structure of the developed system should be
used for both movements in an aircraft, changing the controllers and the aircraft model
depending on the case in study. Here it will be described the development of a digital
control system for the longitudinal movement of an aircraft. The dynamic model to
represent the target aircraft is a 6 degrees of freedom model, describing the ascending
145
and descending movement, the velocity variation in the vertical movement and the
altitude change as a function of the aircraft climbing or descent. The longitudinal
dynamic model is characterized by the pitch angle. The reference value of the pitch angle
depend on the desired values of the aircraft altitude and velocity. The aircraft dynamic
equations were implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Longitudinal controllers were designed with the objective of maintaining the aircraft
stability through the specified operations conditions.

REFERENCE
[1]
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