HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF COMPUTING AND INFORMATICS

BASIC COMPUTER SKILL OF MICROSOFT

APPLICATION HANDOUT

Prepared By: Abebe Sh.(MSc.)

Haramaya University, 2023

 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
1.1 Definition of a Computer
Definition 1:
Computer is an Electronic data processing device which is capable of performing
Arithmetic and Logical operations. More than that a computer can choose, copy, move,
position and perform other non-arithmetic operations on the many alphabetic, numeric
and other symbols that humans use to represent things.
Arithmetic operations are:
Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division, etc.
Logical operations are:
And, Or, Not, Compare, etc.
Definition 2:
An electronic symbol manipulating system that’s designed and organized to
automatically accept and store input data, process them and produce the output, that
results under the direction of a detailed step-by-step stored program.
Definition 3: Artificial Intelligence the fast growing computer research division defines
the same computer as “Computer is similar to human being but, without thinking
power ".
That means computer can think equivalent to human being in certain aspects, the major
difference between computer and human being is thinking power, by giving this power as
set of instructions to computer, called ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, human can find
solution to any of his problems.
A computer is a digital electronic machine that can be programmed to carry out
sequences of arithmetic or logical operations (computation) automatically. Modern
computers can perform generic sets of operations known as programs. These programs
enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks.

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1.2 Characteristics of computers
Computers can be described by the following characteristics.
1. Storage
Computes can handle large amount of data. Once recorded, information can never be
forgotten and can be retrieved with a fraction of a second.
Its storage capacity is measured as follows:
Bit = smallest information stored in a computer (0 or 1).
 Byte = character = 8 bits.
 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes.
2. Speed
Computers are very fast devices. They work at an incredible speed and perform millions
of calculations and comparisons in a second.
Its speed is measured by:
Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
Microsecond = 1/1000,000 of a second.
Nanosecond = 1/1000,000,000 of a second.
Pico second = 1/1000,000,000,000 of a second.
3. Accuracy
Computers are very accurate. They process vast amount of data in a very high speed
without committing errors. However, the computer is capable of doing what is instructed
to do. If the input data is correct and program instructions are reliable, then the output of
a computer is accurate.
Errors can occur mainly due to humans’ incorrect input data, and program instructions
with a problem. Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable program
is often called garbage-in-garbage out (GIGO).
4. Diligence
Computers are not bored or become tired of performing many thousands of calculations
repeatedly. Human beings suffer from weakness like tiredness, lack of concentration,

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become sad, depressed, bored and negligent; and it will reflect on the work they do.
Moreover, humans cannot perform similar tasks over and over, again and again with the
same precision and accuracy.
Being a machine, computers are not getting tired or bored, not loose concentration etc.
They perform the tasks given to them irrespective of whether it is interesting, creative,
monotonous, boring, irrespective of whether it is the first time or the millionth time with
exactly the same accuracy and speed.
5. Versatility
One of the most wonderful things about the computer is its versatility. A computer is
capable of performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a series of
logical steps.
6. Automation
When a task is assigned to the computer, it continues its task (Automation) without
interruption until the completion. For example, when we instruct the printer to print 100
pages from the computer files, it continuously prints until the entire 100 pages are done.
Another example, you can keep downloading any files or programs and go away from
them; the computer will automatically download all the files in the background.
We use many types of automatic machines in our daily life. The computer is one of them
that intuitively completes its entire work. The computer keeps doing its job automatically
once the proper instructions are given and the program is loaded.
7. Secrecy and Agile
Setting up password and pin codes for essential computer files and data makes it more
secrete and private. The person who has the authority or knows the password can only
view or change or delete the files or programs saved on the computer.
Many computer scientists and app developers are working on AI (Artificial Intelligence)
to make computers more robust and accurate against hackers to maintain the finest
secrecy. Such growth and incredible features of computers enhance the user experience.
1.3 Computers vs. Human beings
Humans have rather poor memory; he needs certain support apart from his abilities and
capacities. Because of poor memory and mental tiredness humans lack in accuracy,
speed, and reliability, that is why, human needs computer as their additional support.

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 Differences between Human Attitude and computer Attitudes
Human Computer
Can Think Cannot think by itself
Gets Mental Tiredness Never gets Tiredness
May do mistake Can’t do mistake by itself
Has limited speed Very High Speed
Has limited Memory More Amount of memory
Accuracy may be missing Never missing
“Ability of a Human to do anything a computer can do but a computer cannot do
everything a human can do” is a true statement based on the above table.
1.4 Applications of computers
Educational
 Prepare notes and presentation
 Distance education through e-learning
 To conduct online examinations.
Entertainment
 Download and view movies
 Play game
 Chat
Sport
 Watch a game, view the score, play a game.

Advertizing
 To produce visually attractive videos.
 To produce quality audio.
Medicine
 Store history of patients
 Store the profile of doctors and other workers of the hospital.
 Care patients through Tele-medicine.

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Science and engineering
 Performing complex scientific calculation
 For designing and making drawings.
 For simulation
 Launch of the rocket.
Government
 Providing information to the users.
 Paying taxes.
 Water and electricity bills.
1.5 Importance of Computer
 Computers are very important in every aspect of our lives.
 Computer usage is growing and bounds in business, industry, government,
colleges, schools and other places.
 The offices where we work, the stores in which we shop, the schools we attend,
the banks that handle our money, even the device we use in our homes are being
radically altered by computers.
 Computers are now used in all aspects of education, both administration and
teaching.
 Whether it is for school or home , work or play, computer can save your time and
money, increase your productivity, and process information with speed and
accuracy.
1.6 History of Computers
1. The earliest mechanical computing device was the Abacus, named after the
Chinese scientist Abacus, during 1200 A.D.
2. Later during 1614 a Scottish nobleman John Napier developed a tool called
Napier’s Bones as an aid for multiplication.
3. By 1642, the French philosopher and mathematician, Blaise Pascal developed a
rotating wheel calculator, the predecessor of the later desk calculator.
4. During the period 1792 – 1871, a British mathematician and engineer, who is
considered to be the Father of today’s computer – Charles Babbage built a

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 working model of a machine – the Difference Engine. Later the design of the
Difference Engine was developed as Analytical Engine.
5. During 1880s, a statistician Herman Hollerith designed and developed Hollerith
machine for processing the census data. The Hollerith machines used punched
cards for data processing.
6. The first Electronic Calculator was developed by John Vincent Atanasoff in the
late 1930s and along with Clifford Berry a prototype of the Atanasoff-Berry
computer was constructed during 1939.
7. A fully electronic computer, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And
Calculator) was built during 1943 to 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania.
8. In 1953, IBM announced a medium sized computer, IBM650.
9. In the Middle of 1960s, the Digital Equipment Corporation released its first
PDP-1 computer.
In general the introduction of electric power in the 19th century led to the rise of
electrical and hybrid electro-mechanical devices to carry out both digital (Hollerith
punch-card machine) and analog (Bush’s differential analyzer) calculation. Telephone
switching came to be based on this technology, which led to the development of
machines that we would recognize as early computers.
1.7 Generations and Classification of Computers
1.7.1 Generations of Computers
Generation in computer language is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the
growth of the computer industry. The computer is often described as having gone through
five distinct generations. Each of these generations is based on the type of technology
used during the period. The major characteristics that distinguish the various generations
are:
 Dominant type of electronic circuit element used,
 Major secondary storage media used,
 Computer language used,
 Type or characteristic of operating system used,
 Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word of data from memory).

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Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware,
typically tenfold or better increases in speed and reliability.
Over generations, computers have shown:
 Increasing speed
 Reduced size
 Increasing reliability
 Reducing cost
A. FIRST GENERATION (1944 – 1958)
Computers of this generation were manufactured using vacuum tubes. These computers
were highly unreliable as the vacuum tubes failed very frequently. Punched cards were
used for input and output. These computers were very huge in size, produced enormous
amount of heat, very slow and very, very expensive. ENIAC and UNIVAC (UNIVersal
Automatic Computer) were the examples of first generation computer. ENIAC used
18,000 vacuum tubes for producing the results.
B. SECOND GENERATION (1959 – 1963)
By the early 1960s, transistors were developed and used in manufacturing computers.
Transistor is an electronic switching device that alternatively allows or does not allow
electronic signals to pass and it was comparatively smaller than vacuum tube. Transistors
consumed less power and produced less heat when compared to the vacuum tubes. This
second generation computer tended to be smaller in size, more reliable, and considerably
faster than first generation of computers. Magnetic cores and disk packs were introduced
as storage devices. Programming languages like BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, etc. were
used.
C. THIRD GENERATION (1964 – 1970)
During this period, the Integrated Chips very popularly known as ICs started replacing
the usage of individual transistors in manufacturing computers. Integrated Circuit is a
complete circuit packed with hundreds of transistors and other electronic components on
a small silicon chip. The size of the computers still got reduced with improved reliability
and speed when compared to the previous generation of computers. The usage of RAM
(Random Access Memory) and magnetic disks as the storage media became wide spread.

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 D. FOURTH GENERATION (1971 – Now)
Due to the technological development the Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large
Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits were developed which contained thousands to millions
of transistors on a tiny chip. In 1971, Intel developed the microprocessor, which
contained the entire CPU (the Control Unit, Memory Unit, and ALU) on a single chip,
leading to the process of miniaturization – the development of smaller and smaller
computers. As a result, the computers main memory capacity increased, the cost got
decreased and speed also increased, which directly affected the types and usefulness of
software that could be used.
Software applications like Word Processing, Electronic Spreadsheets, Database
Management Programs, Painting and Drawing programs, and so forth became
commercially available giving more people reasons to use a computer.
E. FIFTH GENERATION
The fifth generation computers are under development. These computers function with
the Artificial Intelligence provided to it. Due to the artificial intelligence the computer
will have the ability to learn by itself, can reason and make decision with the knowledge
it posses.
1.7.2. Classification of Computers
There are different types of computers. Their differences depends on different categories
of characteristics.
Classification by the method of operation (processing)
Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. They are
classified into three:
Analog, Digital and hybrid Computer
Analog computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables, they don’t
compete directly with numbers; rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude
such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter

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  Speedometer
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of
pumped fuel into two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the
quantity of pumped fuel.
They are special purpose computers.
However, analog computers have limited accuracy
Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than
measuring. They operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers,
letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
 Abacus
 Desk & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers
Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than the analog ones.
Hybrid computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to
form a hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input
data with analog method, convert it into digital quantities, processes the digital values
and convert the output from digital to analog form.
Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function,
temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into
numbers and supplied to a digital component in the system.
This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an immediate
signal to the nurse’s station if any abnormal readings are detected.
Classification by purpose of application
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application,
they are classified as special purpose or general purpose computers.
Special purpose computers

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They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and their
functions are uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system
 Ticket machines (used in grocery, super market etc.)
 Pocket-calculators etc.
 Counters
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
General purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program
concept”. A program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored
into the memory and then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can
be applied to solve another set of problem using different program. General computers
are more flexible and versatile.
Examples
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.
Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
A. Micro computers: - are the most widely used type of computers. They are
single users, can fit on desktops, are of varying capacity and easy to handle.
Microcomputers are sometimes referred as personal computers. They have video
display unit for output purpose. Data is entered through the keyboard and by the
help of floppy disk.
 Microcomputers come in a variety of sizes and shapes for a variety of purposes.
Basically they can be grouped into three: Laptop, Palmtop and Desktop
computers.
 Laptop computers are smaller versions of microcomputers about the size of a
briefcase designed for portability. People can easily carry these personal

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 computers with them in their car, on airplane, or when walking from one location
to another.
o Unlike desktop PCs that have mostly detachable components, laptops
include all their components (except their printer) in a single unit
 Palmtop computer is the smallest microcomputer that is about the same size as a
pocket calculator. It is the most portable computer and is growing in popularity
among the latest entries in the microcomputer market.
o Palmtops are typically used for a limited number of functions, such as
maintaining personal calendar, name and address files, or electronic
worksheets.
 Desktop computer is the most widely used type of personal computer
(microcomputers).
o Unlike laptop and personal computers, desktop computers have detachable
parts. However, since its size is larger than the other types of personal
computers, it is not easily portable.
In general, microcomputers are used for
a. Word processing (automated, electronic typing and editing) to prepare letters,
reports, memos and other documents.
b. Computerized worksheet analysis and modeling. This computerizes business
planning, budgeting, and analysis of business performance and assists decision-
making activities.
c. Graphics in the generation of charts and other graphic images. This visually
enhances both the analysis and presentation of information in reports and group
presentations.
d. Engineering activities. Computer-aided design and analysis can be performed by
the use of powerful microcomputers.
e. Personal and home use. Entertainment, home management, personal finances,
education, and other activities can easily supported by the use of personal
computers.

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 B. Mini computers:
Minicomputers are midrange computers that are larger and more powerful than most
microcomputers but are smaller and less powerful than mainframe computer systems.
 The minicomputers' size prevents it from being easily portable although it can be
moved more easily than a mainframe computer.
 Minicomputers cost less to buy and maintain than mainframe computers. Most
minicomputers can function in ordinary operating environments, as they do not
need special air conditioning or electrical wiring.
 Minicomputers are being used for a large number of business and scientific
applications.
 They are popularly used in scientific laboratories, research centers, universities
and colleges, engineering firms, industrial process monitoring and control, etc.
C. Mainframe computers
 Mainframe computers are large, powerful computers that are physically larger
than micros and minis and usually have processors with faster instruction
processing speeds.
 For example, they may be able to process from 10 to 200 million instructions per
second (MIPS).
 A mainframe computer is generally found in a special computer room where
environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, dust and air conditions are
closely monitored.
 Because of the computer's cost and the value of the information stored there, the
rooms in which mainframes are located have security systems allowing only
authorized personnel to enter.
 Mainframe computers are designed to handle the information processing needs of
organizations with many employees and customers or with complex
computational problems.
 To give some examples, mainframes can handle the processing of thousands of
customer inquiries, employee paychecks, student registrations, sales transactions,
and inventory changes.

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  They are also used as the center of computer networking. These computers are
used by organizations that have enormous and complex data processing
assignments.
D. Supercomputer
 The term supercomputer has been coined to describe a category of extremely
powerful computer designed for high-speed processing. A supercomputer is
generally characterized as being the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive
computer.
 As many as sixty miles of wiring are closely packed inside supercomputers, and
tremendous amounts of heat are generated. Because of this, supercomputers
demand special cooling requirements and the room itself should be air-
conditioned.
 Some supercomputers require extra floor support to hold the extreme weight of
the complete system that includes storage units.
 In addition, highly trained data processing professionals are required to operate
supercomputers. These computers can take inputs from over 10,000 individual
computers and users at the same time.
 Super computers are largely used by research organizations, military defense
systems, national weather forecasting agencies, large corporations, aircraft
manufacturers, etc.
1.8 Data Processing
Definition1: Data Processing can be defined as ‘one or more operations performed on
data to achieve a desired objective is called as Data Processing’
 It is the activity of converting raw facts [data] into information.
 Therefore, Information is data that have been processed using the data
processing functions.
 Difference between DP and IP IS ‘In data processing the various functions
apply to raw data, But, in information processing the same functions apply to
information ‘

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That is,
 Data to one person, may be information to another person, once the data have
been processed even a little, they become information.
 Therefore, finally we can say, Data Processing is the activity converting raw facts
into information. Information is the result of processing data so that they become
useful.
Functions of Data Processing
 Data Collecting
 Data Recording
 Sorting
 Classifying
 Calculating
 Storing and Retrieving
 Summarizing and Communicating
Processing Methods
Information system uses two Processing Techniques
 Batch Processing
 Real Time Processing
Batch processing:
 Where data to be processed is accumulated over a period of time. The
accumulated batch of transaction is processed periodically.
 Otherwise, Gathers transactions and saves them for processing all at once.
 Very efficient but always delay in Processing.
Online Processing [ Also Online Real-Time Processing ]
 Each transaction is processed as soon as it is received. There is no waiting to
accumulate. Such as, a computerized Reservation system where an immediate
responsible is useful.
 Otherwise, by contrast, Process transaction as they occur, Ex: Air Line reservation
system

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Time Sharing
 Is the concurrent use of a single computer system by many users, each of which
has an I/O device and can access the same computer at the same time.
 The computer gives each user a small, but frequently repeated, since of the time,
so that each user gets almost immediate response.
 Therefore, if a computer is shared by many unscheduled users simultaneously it is
called time sharing

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 CHAPTER TWO
COMPUTER SYSTEM
2.1 What is a system?
In general, a system is a group of components that work together in coordination to
achieve a common goal.

2.2 Components of Computer System

Computer system is a system that has two fundamental components: Hardware

component and Software component. The primary purpose of computer systems in most
businesses today is to transform data into information that can be used by people to make
decisions, sell products, and perform a variety of other activities. Data can be considered
the raw material - whether in paper, electronic, or other form - that is processed by the
computer. In other words, data consists of the raw facts and figures that are processed
into information. Information is summarized data or otherwise manipulated (processed)
data. For example, the raw data of employees' is hours worked and wage rates are
processed by a computer into the information of paychecks and payrolls.

Hardware is the physical component of the computer system that we can see, touch and
sense. It includes devices the computer system use to interact with the external world, to
process the data it has received, to store the data it has received and processed. Software,
on the other hand, is the set of instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task.
Without software, the hardware is useless. Hardware and Software are analogous to Flesh
and Soul of human beings respectively.

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 2.3 Hardware Component
Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as Input devices,
CPU, data storage, and output devices

2.3.1 Input devices

The function of input devices is to accept data and convert it into a form suitable for
computer processing. In other words, input hardware allows people to put data into the
computer in a form that the computer can use. It may include: keyboard, mouse, scanner
and so on.

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2.3.1.1 Keyboard

A computer keyboard is a peripheral modeled after the typewriter keyboard. Keyboards

are designed for the input of text and characters and also to control the operation of a
computer.

Physically, computer keyboards are an arrangement of rectangular or near-rectangular

buttons, or "keys". Keyboards typically have characters engraved or printed on the keys;
in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to
produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously or in
sequence; other keys do not produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the
computer or the keyboard itself. Roughly 50% of all keyboard keys produce letters,
numbers or signs (characters). Other keys can produce actions when pressed, and other
actions are available by the simultaneous pressing of more than one action key. The keys
on the keyboard are grouped according to their functions as follows:

 Alphanumeric keys

The group of keys which comprises alphabets, punctuation marks and digits. These keys
are used to enter text, digit, and punctuation marks.

 Function keys

The group of keys found at the top of keyboard labeled from F1 to F12. These keys
execute different commands based on the applications that are running.

 Numeric keypad

Found at the right most of the keyboard, is the numeric keypad. These keys work with the
special key called NumLock – located at the left-top corner of the numeric keypad. when
NumLock is on, the numeric keypad is used to enter digits and arithmetic operators.
However, when NumLock is off, the numeric keypad is used as cursor movement keys.

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  Cursor movement keys

Cursor movement keys: The Cursor, also called the insertion point, is the symbol on the
display screen that shows where data may be entered next. The cursor movement keys,
or arrow keys, are used to move the cursor around the text on the screen. These keys
move the cursor left, right, up or down. The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down move
the cursor, the equivalent of one page, up or down on the screen. Similarly, the keys
labeled Home and End move the cursor to the beginning and end of the same line
respectively.

 Editing keys

Editing keys are the keys which are used to make our text stylish. They change what has
been entered. Editing keys include: Spacebar, Enter (Return), Delete, Backspace, etc.

 Special keys

Special keys are keys that are used to execute some commands. They also work in
combination with other keys to execute commands. These keys include: Shift, Alt, Ctrl
etc.

2.3.1.2 Mouse

A mouse is a device that is rolled about on a desktop to direct a pointer on the computer’s
display screen. The pointer is a symbol, usually an arrow that is used to select items from
lists (menus) on the screen or to position the cursor. The cursor, also called an insertion
point, is the symbol on the screen that shows where data may be entered next, such as
text in a document.

Mouse consists of:

o Primary button (Left button)
o Secondary button (Right Button)

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The following operations can be performed using the mouse.
o Selection (Single click)
o Giving Commands (Double click)
o Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button and moving the mouse)
o Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)
2.3.1.3 Scanner

Scanners - which are often used in desktop publishing - translate images of text, drawings
and photos into digital form. The images can then be processed by a computer, displayed
on a monitor, inserted in documents, stored on a storage device, or transmitted to another
computer. Scanners are useful for data entry in that they save time wasted for typing and
also they avoid errors that may occur during typing.

Based on the technology they use to scan, scanners are of the following types:

 BCR – Bar Code Reader

A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is a computer peripheral for reading
barcodes printed on various surfaces. It generally consists of a light source, a lens
and a photo conductor translating optical impulses into electrical ones.
Additionally, nearly all barcode readers currently produced contain decoder
circuitry analyzing the barcode's image data provided by the photo conductor and
sending the barcode's content to the scanner's output port.
 OCR – Optical Character Reader
OCR is a character recognition technology that is used to recognize typewritten or
handwritten characters.
 OMR – Optical Mark Recognition
OMR technology detects the absence or presence of a mark (a mark made by
graphite), but not the shape of the mark. The accuracy of OMR is a result of
precise measurement of the darkness of a mark, and the sophisticated mark
discrimination algorithms for determining whether a mark is an erasure or a mark.
 MICR – Magnetic Ink Character Recognition

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 MICR is a character recognition technology adopted mainly by the banking
industry to facilitate the processing of checks. MICR characters are printed with a
magnetic ink or toner. Magnetic printing is used so that the characters can be
reliably read into a system, even when they have been overprinted with other
marks such as cancellation stamps.
2.3.1.4 Joystick
Joystick is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle mounted on a base
containing one or two buttons. The vertical handle of the joystick can be rotated around
360 degrees. As the handle is rotated the cursor also moves on the screen. Joystick is
often used for playing games.
2.3.1.5 Microphone
The word "microphone" (Greek mikros "small" and phone "voice" or "sound") originally
referred to a mechanical hearing aid for small sounds. Therefore, microphones have a
great role in inputting sound or voice data into the computer for processing. Without the
microphone computers could not have produced any sound nor could they have been
used to manipulate music and sound.
2.3.1.6 Touch screen
Touch screens or touch panels or touch screen panels are display overlays which have
the ability to display and receive information on the same screen. The effect of such
overlays allows a display to be used as an input device, removing the keyboard and/or the
mouse as the primary input device for interacting with the display's content.

Fig. 1 An Example Display in Touch Screen

Touch screens have become commonplace since the invention of the electronic touch
interface in 1971 by Dr. Samuel C. Hurst. They have become familiar in retail settings,
on point of sale systems, on ATM (Automated Teller Machines) and on PDA (Personla

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Digital Assistant) where a stylus is sometimes used to manipulate the GUI (Graphic User
Interface) and to enter data. Touch screen can also be considered as output device as it
displays selectable commands.
2.3.1.7 Touch pad
In Touchpad the cursor is controlled with the fingers. About the same size as a mouse,
touchpad is a flat, rectangular device. As fingers are moved over the surface of the
touchpad the cursor moves on the screen. The click operation is performed by tapping
the fingers on the surface of the pad.
2.3.1.8 Track ball
Track Ball is another pointing device and a variant of the mouse. It contains a rotating
ball on top of the stationery device. On rotating the ball the cursor moves on the screen.
The track ball also contains two buttons and the operations are as similar for the mouse.
It requires less desk space when compared to the mouse.
2.3.1.9 Light pen
The Light Pen is a light sensitive stylus or pen like device, connected by a wire to the
computer. There is a button in the Light Pen. When the user brings the pen to the
desired location in the screen and presses the button, the computer identifies the
command and executes accordingly. It is mainly used for CAD (Computer Aided
Design) applications.

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2.3.2 Processing devices
2.3.2.1 CPU
Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is
the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central
processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power,
the CPU is the most important element of a computer system. Many people wrongly call
the system case (chassis) as CPU. But the chassis is housing for devices like CPU, RAM,
disks, and motherboard and expansion cards.

On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal
computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a
microprocessor.

CPU has three components, namely:

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic (addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and division) and logical (comparison, negation,
conjunction, and disjunction) operations.
 The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and
executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.
 The Memory unit or registers, which store intermediate results of ALU

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2.3.3 Storage devices
2.3.3.1 Storage Capacity Measurement

Bit (Binary Digit): A bit of storage is like a light switch; it can be either on (1) or off (0).
A single bit is a one or a zero, a true or a false, a "flag" which is "on" or "off", or in
general, the quantity of information required to distinguish two mutually exclusive states
from each other. Gregory Bateson defined a bit as "a difference that makes a difference".

The bit is the smallest unit of storage used in computing.

Byte: A byte is a contiguous sequence of a fixed number of bits. In recent years, the use
of a byte to mean 8 bits has become nearly ubiquitous.

KB (Kilo byte): A kilo byte is 210 bytes = 210 x 8 bits

MB (Mega byte): A mega byte is 220 bytes = 220 x 8 bits

GB (Giga byte): A giga byte is 230 bytes = 230 x 8 bits

TB (Tera byte): A tera byte is 240 bytes =240 x 8 bits

Example: If a storage device is 23 GB, find the memory capacity in

a. byte
b. bit

Solution:

a) 1 GB = 230byte

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 230 byte/1 GB

y = 23x230 byte

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 b) 1GB = 8 x 230 bit

23 GB = y

y = 23 GB x 8 x 230 bit/1 GB

y = 23 x 8 x 230 bit

2.3.3.2 Primary storage

2.3.3.2.1 Cache memory
Small memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster than the much
larger RAM (main memory). Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more
caches, and modern general-purpose CPUs inside personal computers may have
as many as half a dozen, each specialized to a different part of the problem of
executing programs.
2.3.3.2.2 RAM (Random Access Memory)
Generally, RAM in a computer is considered main memory or primary storage:
the working area used for loading, displaying and manipulating applications and
data. This type of RAM is usually in the form of integrated circuits (ICs). These
are commonly called memory sticks or RAM sticks because they are manufactured
as small circuit boards with plastic packaging and are about the size of a few
sticks of chewing gum. These days, most personal computers have slots for
adding and replacing memory sticks. RAM is also volatile, losing the stored
information in an event of power loss, and quite expensive.
2.3.3.2.3 ROM (Read-only Memory)

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage media used in computers and

other electronic devices. Because it cannot (easily) be written to, its main uses lie
in the distribution of firmware (software that is very closely related to hardware
and not likely to need frequent upgrading).

Modern semiconductor ROMs typically take the shape of IC packages, i.e.

"computer chips", not immediately distinguishable from other chips like RAM but

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 for the text printed on the chips. "ROM" in its strictest sense can only be read
from, but all ROMs allow data to be written into them at least once, either during
initial manufacturing or during a step called "programming". Some ROMs can be
erased and re-programmed multiple times, although they are still referred to as
"read only" because the reprogramming process involves relatively infrequent,
complete erasure and reprogramming

Types of ROM

Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are written to during production and cannot
change content afterwards. But there are other types of non-volatile solid-state memory:

 PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be written to (programmed) via

a special device, a PROM programmer. The writing often takes the form of
permanently destroying or creating internal links (fuses or anti fuses) with the
result that a PROM can only be programmed once.
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) can be erased by
exposure to ultraviolet light then rewritten via an EPROM programmer. Repeated
exposure to ultraviolet light will eventually destroy the EPROM but it generally
takes many (greater than 1000) exposures before the EPROM becomes unusable.
EPROM can be easily identified by the circular 'window' in the top which allows
the UV light to enter. Once programmed, this window is typically covered by a
label to prevent accidental erasure.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) allow the
entire ROM (or selected banks of the ROM) to be electrically erased (flashed
back to zero) then written to without taking them out of the computer (camera,
MP3 player, etc.). Flashing is much slower (in milliseconds) than writing to RAM
(in nanoseconds) (or reading from any ROM)

2.3.3.3 Secondary storage

In computer storage, secondary storage, or external memory, is computer memory that is
not directly accessible to the central processing unit of a computer, requiring the use of

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computer's input/output channels. Secondary storage is used to store data that is not in
active use. Secondary storage is usually slower than primary storage, or internal memory,
but also almost always has higher storage capacity and is non-volatile, which makes it
perfect for the preservation of stored information in an event of power loss.
 Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a non-volatile storage medium consisting of a magnetic coating on a thin
plastic strip. Nearly all recording tape is of this type, whether used for video, audio
storage or general purpose digital data storage using a computer. It has large storage
capacity but it is slow to access because it is sequentially accessed.
 Magnetic disk
o Floppy Disk
A floppy disk is a data storage device that is composed of a disk of thin, flexible
("floppy") magnetic storage medium encased in a square or rectangular plastic shell.
Floppy disks are read and written by a floppy disk drive. Floppy disk is cheap, and
portable, but it has small storage capacity (1.44 MB) and is unreliable.
o Hard disk
A hard disk drive (HDD, also commonly shortened to hard drive and formerly known as
a fixed disk) is a digitally encoded non-volatile storage device which stores data on
rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, "drive" refers to an
entire unit containing multiple platters, a read/write head assembly, driver electronics,
and motor while "hard disk" (sometimes "platter") refers to the storage medium itself.
Hard disks were originally developed for use with computers. In the 21st century,
applications for hard disks have expanded beyond computers to include video recorders,
audio players, digital organizers, and digital cameras. In 2005 the first cellular telephones
to include hard disks were introduced by Samsung and Nokia.
 Optical disk
o CD-R
A CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a variation of the Compact Disc invented by
Philips and Sony. CD-R is a write once, read-only optical magnetic media commonly
known as optical disc (though the whole disk does not have to be written in the same
session) and retains a high level of compatibility with standard CD readers (unlike CD-

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RW which can be rewritten but has much lower compatibility and the discs are
considerably more expensive).
o CD-RW (Compact Disc Re Writable)
CD-RW is a rewritable optical disc format. Known as CD-Erasable (CD-E) during its
development, CD-RW was introduced in 1997.
o DVD(Digital Versatile Disc)
DVD (sometimes called "Digital Versatile Disc", or "Digital Video Disc") is an optical
disc storage media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high
video and sound quality. DVDs resemble compact discs as their physical dimensions are
the same but they are encoded in a different format and at a much higher density.
 Flash Memory
USB flash drives -thumb drives, handy drives-, which are used for general storage and
transfer of data between computers. It has also gained some popularity in the gaming
market these days. Flash memory is highly portable and it can store much data but it is
expensive.
2.3.4 Output devices
2.3.4.1 Display devices – softcopy output
 CRT
Abbreviation of cathode-ray tube, the technology used in most televisions and
computer display screens. A CRT works by moving an electron beam back and
forth across the back of the screen. Each time the beam makes a pass across the
screen, it lights up phosphor dots on the inside of the glass tube, thereby
illuminating the active portions of the screen. By drawing many such lines from
the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an entire screenful of images. It is
large in size and requires a lot of space. Moreover, it consumes much power.
But it produces a sharp output.

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 LCD
Short for liquid crystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and
many portable computers. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing
material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed
through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through
them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter, either allowing light to pass
through or blocking the light.

Monochrome LCD images usually appear as blue or dark gray images on top of
a grayish-white background. Color LCD displays use two basic techniques for
producing color: Passive matrix is the less expensive of the two technologies.
The other technology, called thin film transistor (TFT) or active-matrix,
produces color images that are as sharp as traditional CRT displays, but the
technology is expensive. Its advantage is that it does not consume a lot of space
since it is thin and that it does not consume a lot of power hence it is ideal for
portable computers.

 ELD
A technology used to produce a very thin display screen, called a flat-panel
display, used in some portable computers. An ELD works by sandwiching a
thin film of phosphorescent substance between two plates. One plate is coated
with vertical wires and the other with horizontal wires, forming a grid. When
electric current is passed through a horizontal and vertical wire, the
phosphorescent film at the intersection glows, creating a point of light, called
pixel.

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2.3.4.2 Printer – hardcopy output
Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper. There are many different types
of printers. In terms of the technology they utilize, printers fall into the following
categories:
 Daisy-wheel: Similar to a ball-head typewriter, this type of printer has a
plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out in
relief. A hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon, which in turn makes an
ink stain in the shape of the character on the paper. Daisy-wheel printers
produce letter-quality print but cannot print graphics.
 Dot-matrix: Creates characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon. Each
pin makes a dot, and combinations of dots form characters and illustrations.
 Ink-jet: Sprays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers produce high-quality
text and graphics.
 Laser: Uses the same technology as copy machines. Laser printers produce
very high quality text and graphics.
 LCD & LED: Similar to a laser printer, but uses liquid crystals or light-
emitting diodes rather than a laser to produce an image on the drum.
 Line printer: Contains a chain of characters or pins that print an entire line
at one time. Line printers are very fast, but produce low-quality print.
 Thermal printer: An inexpensive printer that works by pushing heated pins
against heat-sensitive paper. Thermal printers are widely used in calculators
and fax machines.

Printers are also classified by the following characteristics:

 Quality of type: The output produced by printers is said to be either letter quality
(as good as a typewriter), near letter quality, or draft quality. Only daisy-wheel,
ink-jet, and laser printers produce letter-quality type. Some dot-matrix printers
claim letter-quality print, but if you look closely, you can see the difference.
 Speed: Measured in characters per second (cps) or pages per minute (ppm), the
speed of printers varies widely. Daisy-wheel printers tend to be the slowest,
printing about 30 cps. Line printers are fastest (up to 3,000 lines per minute). Dot-

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 matrix printers can print up to 500 cps, and laser printers range from about 4 to 20
text pages per minute.
 Impact or non-impact: Impact printers include all printers that work by striking
an ink ribbon. Daisy-wheel, dot-matrix, and line printers are impact printers. Non-
impact printers include laser printers and ink-jet printers. The important difference
between impact and non-impact printers is that impact printers make physical
contact with the paper and are much noisier whereas non impact printers do not
make physical contact and are too noisy.
 Graphics: Some printers (daisy-wheel and line printers) can print only text. Other
printers can print both text and graphics.
2.3.4.3 Plotter – hardcopy output
A Plotter is also a printer that produces hard copy output. Plotters produce high
quality color graphics output by using pens for creating images. Plotters help to
draw maps from stored data. Plotters are ideal for Engineering, Drafting and many
other applications that require intricate graphics.
2.3.4.4 Speaker – voice output
Speaker is an electro-acoustic transducer that converts electrical signals into
sounds loud enough to be heard at a distance. It is used in computer system to
produce sound or voice output. The sound is input from external world into
computer system via microphone and is output to external world via speaker.
2.3.4.5 Robot – physical output
Robot is the most intriguing output device. Robotic device consists of arms that
can perform a preprogrammed task. Robots are mostly used in manufacturing
tasks such as spray painting or assembling parts. Advanced robots are used in
scientific research such as space and undersea exploration.

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 2.4 Software Component
Computer software is a set of step-by-step instructions given to the computer in the form
of programs or procedures or routines in order to accomplish any specified task or to
process the raw data and convert it into meaningful information. In short the software is
the intelligence of the computer. Software is “Soft” because you can’t touch the
instructions, the way you touch the computer equipment – the “hard” ware.
If software is stored on non-volatile storage such as integrated circuits, it is usually
referred to as firmware.
2.4.1 System software
System software is a generic term referring to any computer software that is an essential
part of the computer system. An operating system is an obvious example, while device
driver and language software are less obvious examples.
2.4.1.1 Operating system
An operating system (OS) is a computer program that manages the hardware and
software resources of a computer. At the foundation of all system software, the
OS performs basic tasks such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing
system requests, controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking, and
managing files. It also may provide a graphical user interface for higher level
functions. The operating system is considered as the boss of the whole system.
Basic functions of operating system are:
 input /output management
Controls spooling and buffering, multitasking and overlapping, time sharing and
network.
 memory management
Control the allocation of RAM for various purposes like background and
foreground program execution priorities and virtual memory system.
 file management
Under which files are stored on secondary storage devices, where can be copied,
sorted, displayed and removed among other functions.
 job control (process scheduling)

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 Which include executing programs on demand from the user using utilities and
other programs, and developing batch programs of command statement for
automatic execution for the OS function.
2.4.1.2 Device driver

Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to

control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating
systems essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The
function of the device driver is then to translate these OS mandated function calls
into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new
manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver
will ensure that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating systems'
point of view.

In short, device driver is a type of system software that introduces a new device to
the operating system and facilitates the communication between the operating
system and the device.

2.4.1.3 Language software

Languages
Languages are used for writing instructions or software. Basically, computer languages
range from very complicated to human but clear to computers to very easy for human but
un-understandable by computers. The following are some of the examples.
o Machine Language
Machine language is the only language the computer directly understands. It is in the
form of strings of binary numbers. A machine language instruction has at least two
parts:
o opcode – function code which specifies the function performed and
o operand address – which specifies location of data and other instructions
Though it is the only language the computer understands, machine language is not only
tedious but also difficult to debug and maintain for human beings.
o Assembly Languages

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 Assembly language is easier to use than machine language. It is done by representing
some of the most commonly used instruction codes with some symbols. But it needs
special translating program. It is machine dependent.
o High Level Languages
High level languages resemble some human languages such as English and are easier
for human programmers to write. It allows users to write in a familiar notation, rather
than numbers or abbreviations. It includes application and system development
languages, report generators, or AI system development languages. Most of high level
languages are machine independent. E.g. FORTRAN, BASIC, Pascal, C, C++, Java …
 Language translators
Depending on the language, the translator for high level languages is either a
compiler or an interpreter. However, code written using assembly language is
translated to machine language by a program called assembler. Compiler and
interpreter are discussed as follows:
Compiler – is a language translator that converts the entire program of a high level
language into machine language before the computer executes the program. The
programming instructions of a high-level language are called source code. The
compiler translates it into machine language, which in this case is called the object
code. The object code can be saved. Thus, it can be executed later (as many times as
desired). Examples of high-level languages using compiler are: FORTRAN, Pascal,
C, C++, and Java.
Interpreter – execute immediately: an interpreter is a language translator that
converts each high-level language into machine language and executes immediately,
statement by statement. No object code is saved, as with compiler. Therefore,
interpreted code generally runs more slowly than compiled code. However, code can
be tested line by line
Examples of high level languages using interpreter are BASIC, and Visual Basic
2.4.1.4 Utility software
Utility Programs are generally used to support, enhance or expand existing programs in a
computer system. Examples of utility programs are
 Backup – to duplicate the data or information for safety.

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  Data Recovery – to restore data that is physically damaged or corrupted.
 Virus Protection – Antivirus software which will eliminate viruses from affected
files or protect files from being infected from viruses.
2.4.2 Application software
Unlike system software, application software, consists of are programs that help the end-
user to perform specific, productive tasks, such as word processing or image
manipulation. Basically, there are four categories of application software.
 Productivity Software: The purpose of this software is to make the users more
productive at performing general tasks. For example, word processing, spread
sheets, presentation, database managers, accounting etc.
 Home / Personal software: The purpose of this software is mainly for domestic
and personal use. For example, cook books, medical guide, gardening, etc.
 Education / Reference software: The purpose of this software is mainly to learn
any subject or to refer for additional information.
 Entertainment software: The purpose of this software is for entertainment and
time passing. Example: Games

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 Chapter Three
Number System
The decimal number system with which everyone is familiar uses the number 10 as its
base or radix and has 10 symbols or digits 0-9. For example, a decimal number X is
written as
an an-1… a1 a0.a-1a-2… a-m, where a’s are one of 10 possible digits.
The standard form (general form) and usual interpretation of this number is:
10n… 101 100. 10-110-2... 10-m
An… a1 a0 . a-1 a-2 … a-m
Therefore, the general form of the given number is:
X= an x 10n + … + a1x101+a0x100 + a-1 x 10-1 + … + a-m x 10-m
n

= ∑ ai x 10i
i= -m

Example:
The general form of the decimal number 852.37 is equal to
8x102 +5 x101+ 2x100 +3x10-1 + 7x10-2
Likewise, substituting any base in place of 10 will give the general form of a number to
that radix or base.
In general, the standard form of a number (anan-1an-2…a1a0)m where n, n-1, n-2, …1 and 0
is the position or weight of the digits an, an-1, an-2, … a1, and a0 respectively and m is the
base of the number is equal to:
an x mn + an-1 x mn-1 + an-2 x mn-2 + … + a2 x m2 +a1 x m1+a0 x m0
Example
(3462)8=3x83 + 4x82 + 6x81 + 2x80

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In computer science, there are four commonly used bases - namely: base 2, base 8, base
10 and base 16. And the number systems in these bases are binary, octal, decimal and
hexadecimal respectively. The following table summarizes these bases, their respective
number systems and the possible digits (symbols) for each base.
Base Number System Possible Symbols(digits)
2 Binary 0 and 1
8 Octal 0-7
10 Decimal 0-9
16 Hexadecimal 0-9 and A-F
Summary of Number systems
Note that: base n number system has n possible digits and the digits are 0 to n-1

Decimal Binary Octal Hexa-decimal

0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1
2 10 2 2
3 11 3 3
4 100 4 4
5 101 5 5
6 110 6 6
7 111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F
Equivalence of the number systems

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 Conversion from One Base to Another
A. Conversion of any-base Number to a Decimal Number
A number that is represented in any base can be converted to decimal using the following
steps:
Step 1. Represent the given number in its general form
Step 2. Using decimal arithmetic simplify the general form

Example: convert the following numbers to decimal

a) (101.1)2
Solution
(101.1)2 = 1x22 + 0x21 +1x20+1x2-1
= 1x4 + 0x2 + 1x1 + 1x ½
= 4 + 0 + 1 + 0.5
= 5.5

b) (101011)2
Solution
(101011)2=> 1 x 20 = 1
1 x 21 = 2
0 x 22 = 0
1 x 23 = 8
0 x 24 = 0
1 x 25 = 32
(43)10
c) (724)8
Solution
(724)8 => 4 x 80 = 4
2 x 81 = 16
7 x 82 = 448
(468)10

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 d) (ABC)16
Solution
(ABC)16 => C x 160 = 12 x 1 = 12
B x 161 = 11 x 16 = 176
A x 162 = 10 x 256 = 2560
(2748)10
Note: A number expressible with finite number of digits in one base may not necessarily
transform into a finite number of digits in another bases
B. Conversion from Base 10 to Another Bases
A decimal number might have two parts: integral (left of the point) and fractional (to
the right of the point) parts. Converting these two parts from base 10 to any other
base involves the following steps:

Step 1. Converting the integral part of the decimal into integral part in the desired
base
Step 2. Convert the fractional part of the decimal to a fractional number part in the
desired base
Step 3. The number in the desired base consists of the integer obtained in step 1
followed by a base point (dot) and then followed by the fractional number part
obtained in step 2
Step 1 Explained:
To convert a decimal integer to a base B integer number
1. Divide the given integer by the base B
2. Repeat step 1 until a 0 quotient is obtained, using at each stage the quotient from
the previous stages as dividend and the base B as divisor.
The successive remainders (starting from the least significant end) are the successive
digits of the number in base B

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Example: Convert
A. 125 to binary
Solution

(125)10 = 2 125
2 62 1
2 31 0
2 15 1
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 1

(125)10 = (1111101)2
B. 1234 to Octal
Solution

(1234)10 =

8 1234
8 154 2
8 19 2
8 2 3
0 2

1234 = (2322)8

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C. 1234 to hexadecimal
Solution

(1234)10 =

16 1234
16 77 2
16 4 13 = D
0 4

1234 = (4D2)16
Step 2 Explained:
To convert a decimal fraction to a fraction in base B
1. Multiply the given decimal fraction in base B
2. Repeat step 1 using the multiplicand at each step the remaining fractional part
from the previous step until a fractional part is identically 0, or until as many
digits as desired have been generated. The successive integral parts are the
successive digits of the number in base B starting from the most significant
end.

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Example: convert the following decimal numbers to binary
A. 3.14579

.14579
x 2
3.14579 0.29158
x 2
0.58316
x 2
1.16632
x 2
0.33264
x 2
0.66528
x 2
1.33056
11.001001... etc.

B. (.65)10 to binary
Solution
.65 x 2 = 1.3
.30 x 2 = 0.60
.60 x 2 = 1.20
.20 x 2 = 0.40
.40 x 2 = 0.80
.80 x 2 = 1.60
.60 x 2 = 1.20
.
.
. ____

Ans: (101001)2

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 C. Some Simple Algorithms
Binary- to-Octal
Group the binary digits in triplets (three bits) starting at the binary point to the right
and to the left and convert each of these to its octal equivalent
o you can add 0’s on the right for fractional part and left for the integral
part, if necessary, to form a complete triplet
Example: Convert the following binary numbers to octal
A. (1011010111)2

Solution

(1011010111)2 = 1 011 010 111

1 3 2 7
(1011010111)2 = (1327)8
B) (110 011.010 110)2 = (63.26)8
Octal-to-Binary
Write the binary triplets for each octal digits
Example: Convert the following octal numbers to binary

A)(705)8 =
7 0 5

111 000 101

(705)8 = (111000101)2

B) (63.26)8 = (110 011.010 110)2

C) (65.61)8 = (110 101.110 001)2

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Binary-to-Hexadecimal
Group the binary digits in quadriplets (four bits) starting at the binary point to the
right and to the left and convert each of these quadriplets to its hexadecimal
equivalent
o you can add 0’s on the right for fractional number or left for integral
number, if necessary, to form a complete quadriplets
Example: convert the following binary number to hexadecimal

a)(1010111011)2 = 10 1011 1011

2 B B
(1010111011)2 = (2BB)16
b) (11 0011.0101 10)2 = (33.58)16
c) (11 1100 1011.1001 1)2 = (3CB.98)16
Hexadecimal-to-Binary
Write the binary quadruplet for each hexadecimal digits
Example: convert the following hexadecimal numbers to binary

a)(10AF)16 1 0 A F
=

0001 0000 1010 1111

(10AF)16 = (0001000010101111)2

b) (33.58)16 = (0011 0011.0101 1000)2

c) (4E93)16 = (0100 1110 1001 0011)2

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Octal-to-Hexadecimal
This is equivalent to converting octal-to-binary and then to-hexadecimal
Example: convert (1076)8 to hexadecimal

1 0 7 6

001 000 111 110

2 3 E
10768 = 23E16

Hexadecimal-to-Octal
This is equivalent to converting hexadecimal-to-binary and then to-octal
Example: convert (1F0C) 16 to octal
Solution

(1F0C) 16 =

1 F 0 C

0001 1111 0000 1100

1 7 4 1 4

(1F0C)16 = (17414)8

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 Remark: when you convert signed number, ignore the sign during conversion. After
the number in the desired base has been obtained, affix the sign of the original
number to the desired number
Example: convert (-125)10 to base 5
Solution
(125)10 = (1000)5
=> (-125)10 = (-1000)5
Note: before you start converting a number to a specified base, check whether the
given number is valid one or not. If it is not, do not try to convert.
Example: (230)2 is illegal and same is true for (98)8
Miscellaneous Examples:
1. Find the value of y if (123y)16= (11074)8
Solution
1x163 + 2x162 + 3x161 +yx160 = 1x84 + 1x83 +0x82 +7x81 +4x80
 1x4096 + 2x256 + 3x16 + yx1 = 4668
 4096 + 512 + 48 +y = 4668
 4656 + y = 4668
 y = 4668 – 4656
 y =12
 y=C
2. Find the value of y if (1110)3=(124)y
Solution
1x33 + 1x32 + 1x31 + 0x30 = 1xy2 + 2xy1 + 4xy0
 1x27 + 1x9 +1x3 + 0x1 = y2 + 2y + 4
 27 + 9 + 3 + 0 = y2 + 2y + 4
 y2 + 2y + 4-39 = 0
 y2 + 2y - 35 = 0
 (y – 5) (y + 7) = 0
 y = 5 or y = -7
Therefore, since the base cannot be negative, the answer is y = 5

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Exercise: For the following exercises, convert from the given base to the required base.
No. Question Answer
1. 192 to base 2 (11000000)2
2. 192 to base 8 (300)8
3. 192 to base 16 (C0)16
4. (1110.11)2 to decimal 14.75
5. (100010101110.11011101)2 to octal (4256.672)8
6. (100010101110.11011101)2 to hexadecimal (8AE.DD)16
7. (ABEBE)16 to decimal 704190
8. (ABEBE)16 to binary (10101011111010111110)2
9. (ABEBE)16 to octal (2537276)8
10. ( 256)2 to octal Not Applicable
11. (256.75)10 to binary (100001001.011)2
12. (256.75)10 to hexadecimal (109.6)16
13. (29y)16 = 672 y=F

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 CHAPTER FOUR
NETWORK AND INTERNET
4.1 NETWORK – AN INTRODUCTION
A Network is a system of interconnected computers that can communicate with one
another. Networks allow users to share peripheral devices (peripheral devices are
nothing but input – output devices connected to the computer), program and data. A
Network need not be only of interconnected computers but, even interconnected
telephone or any communication device that can communicate to each other and share the
existing resources.
Many computer Networks are served by a host computer (or simply host) called Server.
A “Server” is a computer shared by several users in a network. A “Node” is a device
that is attached to a network. A node may be a microcomputer through which a user can
communicate with the server and share the resources. A node may also be resources like
storage device or any peripheral device.
There are also computer networks connected as Peer – to – Peer. The word Peer
denotes - one who is equal in standing with another. This type of Network does not have
any computer as Server or Node. Microcomputers in a peer-to-peer network,
communicated directly with one another without relying on a server.
4.1.1. Advantages of Networks
a) Sharing of peripheral devices: Laser Printers, Hard disk drives and Scanners
are examples of peripheral devices. All these devices cannot be connected to each and
every computer as they are very expensive. Hence, these devices can be shared by many
users through a network.
b) Sharing of Programs and data: In many organizations, people use almost the
same software and access the same data. If these software and data were made available
for individual users separately, then it is wastage of memory. Hence, by sharing the
software and data the usage of memory can be minimized, thereby minimizing the
expense.

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c) Better Communication: In the digital world, information can be transferred
within fraction of a second over long distances. And one of the greatest features of
networks is Electronic Mail (E-Mail) system. Thus, a company can eliminate the delays
encountered with standard postal services or with telephone tag, by using E-Mail
services.
d) Security of information: Before networks became a common place, an
individual employee was storing information in his or her desktop computer which was
not secured. But today, such data or information could be backed-up or duplicated on a
network storage device, shared by others.
4.1.2. Types of Network
Based on the size, the Networks are classified into three types:
(a) Local Area Networks (LAN)
(b) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
(c) Wide Area Network (WAN)
a) Local Area Network very popularly called as LAN and is a privately owned
network that serves users within a single building as an office, or a group of buildings
close together as a college campus. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks
by three characteristics
i. Size
ii. Transmission technology
iii. Topology.
b) Metropolitan Area Network, very popularly called as MAN is a communication
network covering a large geographic area when compared to LAN, like a city or suburb.
A MAN can support both data and voice, and might even be related to the local cable
television network. Cellular phone systems are also those systems that come under this
type of Network. A MAN is basically bigger version of a LAN covering a group of
nearby corporate offices in a city and might be either private or public.

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c) Wide Area Network, very popularly called as WAN is communication Network
spanning a huge geographical area like a state, country or a continent. It contains a
collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. The
Internet links together hundreds of computer WANs.
4.1.3. Network Topology
Networks can be laid out in different ways. The Physical layout or shape of a Network is
called Topology. The different network topologies are
(a) Star topology
(b) Bus topology
(c) Ring topology
A. Star topology :- is one in which all microcomputers and other communication
devices (nodes) are connected to a central hub, such as a Server or a Host
computer via cables. This creates a fault tolerant system, that is able to survive if
one or two of the workstations develops a bad link. But just like any system, a
topology is only as strong as its weakest link. If the central hub or server
malfunctions, the entire network fails. The advantage of a star topology is that, if
a connection fails, the rest of the devices on the network will continue to operate.
The disadvantage of a star topology is that the information is centralized.

Computer

Computer Computer

Server

Computer Computer

Printer

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B. Bus topology is the simplest of the network configurations. The development
of computer system architecture, give rise to the concept of a bus, or highway
approach to information transfer. It requires less cable than any other topology.
In Bus topology all microcomputers and devices are connected through a common
channel using co-axial cables. This layout forces every signal to be equally
available to every device; thus, high traffic use will cause the network to slow. In
this topology, if any connection to the node fails the entire network fails.

Computer Computer

Printer
Computer

C. Ring topology is the one in which all microcomputers and other

communication devices are connected in a continuous loop. Electronic messages
are passed around the ring in one direction, with each node serving as the
repeater, until they reach the right destination. Since, all messages are flowing in
only one direction; failure of a single node can compromise the entire network.

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 Computer

Computer Computer

Computer Computer

4.2. INTERNET
Internet or simply “the Net” is an international network connecting more than 140,000
smaller networks in more than 170 countries. These networks are formed by educational,
commercial, nonprofit, government and military organization. On a given day 163
million computers in 200 countries get connected to the Internet.
4.2.1. What is Internet?
The term InterNet has been coined from two terms, Interconnection and Network.
A Network is simply a group of computers that are connected together for sharing
information and resources. Several such networks have been joined together across the
globe to form what is called as the Internet? Thus, Internet is nothing but a Network of
networks.
There is no single, generally agreed-upon answer to the question because the Internet is
different for each of us:
 It is a set of computers talking over fiber optics, phone lines, satellite links, and
other media.
 It is a place where you can talk to your friends and family around the world.
 It is a place to get cool game demos.
 It is an ocean of resources waiting to be mined.
 It is a place to do research for your thesis or a business presentation.
 It is unlimited commercial opportunity.
 It is a worldwide support group for any problem or need.

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  It is a gold mine of professionals in all fields sharing information about their
work.
 It is hundreds of libraries and archives that are open to your fingertips.
 It is the ultimate time-waster.
 It is the technology of the future that will help make our lives, and those of our
children, brighter.
4.2.2. History of Internet
 In 1969, the U.S. Defense department built the Internet under the name ARPAnet
(ARPA – Advanced Research Project Agency) to serve two purposes.
 The first was to share research among military, industry and university
sources.
 The second was to provide a system for establishing communication
among military units in the event of a nuclear attack.
 Soon after, other private networks came up following the design of ARPAnet.
 In 1998 the NSF (National Science Foundation) created NSFnet a network with
FIVE super computers as a help to establish effective communication amongst
universities.
 Although the Internet was originally meant for research purposes, it has now
changed drastically and is mainly used for commercial purposes.
 Although there are organizations that help to manage different parts of the
network, but there is no single body that owns the Internet.
4.2.3. Who Owns Internet?
No single entity owns the Internet. Any single person, service, corporation, university, or
government does not fund it. Every person who makes a connection, every group who’s
Local Area Network (LAN) becomes connected, owns a slice of the Internet. Because we
have grown used to the model of centralized, cooperative utilities, such as the phone
companies and the electric companies, we can comfortably compare the Internet to a
utility.
The owner of the connected equipment therefore “owns” a piece of the Internet. The
telephone companies “own” the pieces that carry the packets (blocks of information). The

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service providers “own” the packet routing equipment. So, while no one person or entity
owns the Internet, all who use it or supply materials for it play a part in its existence.
4.2.4. Protocols
Protocols are the rules that the networks all use to understand each other. The various
protocols are sets of technical specifications that let computers exchange information, no
matter what kind of computers they are, or what kind of technology hooks them together.
Ventures of software and hardware want their products to be useful on the Internet, and
so they make sure those products understand the Internet protocols and operate with in
them. The term interoperability has been coined to describe the ability of disparate type
of hardware and software to work together under a common set of rules. Interoperability
is a hot market commodity today, and so you’ll see the term in the advertising and
product reviews for all kinds of computer products. These connected networks usually
use the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) communications
suite. TCP/IP and the various protocols that are used on the Internet are important
underlying concepts for the Net.
4.2.4. Applications of Internet
As rightly mentioned earlier the Internet was originally meant for research purposes, and
now it has drastically changed for commercial purposes. Due to this drastical change the
applications of Internet are increasing day by day. Following are the few applications of
Internet.
a) Accessing and obtaining Information.
The faster growing part of the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW). The World
Wide Web or simply the Web consists of an interconnected system of sites called
Websites. To access a website, web browser software like Microsoft’s Internet Explorer
or Netscape Navigator has to be used. It is very difficult to conceive how much
information is available on the web. Any information can be obtained from the web, say
for example, about travel agent, financial investment groups, restaurant guides, mail-
order shopping sites,……… etc. Online versions of newspapers and magazines are also
available. How to search and find such information?

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By using Web search engines information of interest can be obtained. Search engines are
nothing but tools to search and find information from the web. These search engines are
software called “Spiders” to crawl around the Web for searching information. Examples
of some popular search engines are
 Alta vista
 Info seek
 Yahoo
 Google
b) Communication
The World Wide Web is getting all the headlines, but for many people the main attraction
of Internet is the Electronic Main or E-Mail – the fastest way of sending messages from
one user to another. It hardly takes few fractions of a second to transfer a message.
There are several websites offering this service. For example,
yahoo.com
hotmail.com
rediffmail.com
freemail.com
c) Marketing and Business on the Web
Many people are now putting their business online. To do this, one needs to develop a
website with online order forms. This concept is developing very fast day by day. Of
course, it costs money to make more money.
4.3. HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS FOR NETWORKS
In most (Wide Area) Networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
 Transmission lines
 Routing Elements
Transmission lines (also called circuits, channels, or trunks) move bits between
machines.
The (Routing Elements) Switching Elements are specialized computers used to connect
two or more transmission lines. When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching
element must choose an outgoing line to forward them on. Unfortunately, there is no

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interchangeable, especially when discussing hardware on a client/server network. You
may notice that the term client can also refer to software or applications.
Network medium
Network medium is the general term used to describe all of the cabling and other
materials that can be used to connect a network. The most common network medium is
cabling. Dozens of cable types are available, but only four are in widespread use:
 Coaxial Cables
 Fiber-Optic
 STP (Shielded Twisted-Pair)
 UTP (Unshielded Twisted-Pair)
But networks are not limited to physical cabling; many wireless media are used as well.
These include Infrared and Laser devices, radio and cellular connections, microwave
antennas, and digital satellites. These media may increase the range of a network, and are
often much more expensive than their physical counterparts, and are susceptible to more
types of interference.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
A NIC is the expansion card that is added to a computer to enable it to
communicate on a network. The NIC translates the signals from the network into
a form the computer can understand and vice versa for outgoing data.
The NIC connects a computer with the network medium. A NIC can be a
standard expansion card, a PCMCIA card, or even an external device connected
through a communications port (such as a serial or parallel port).
NIC usually have a memory buffer where information is temporarily stored and is
transmitted to or from the network. This buffer enables the NIC to handle
information bursting and chunking without bogging down the attached computer.
Modem
Modems are the devices used to communicate data over telephone lines. Modems get
their name from their function, Modulation-Demodulation. This function is the
translation of digital computer data into a signal that can be transmitted over a phone line
and vice versa. Similar to a NIC, modems enable computers to communicate over the
connection medium of the telephone system.

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Networks can be created using modems instead of NICs, but, more often, they are used to
provide temporary connections for remote users.
Hubs
Hubs are also called as concentrators. They are network devices that are used to connect
multiple network connections into more manageable configurations. The benefits of hub
include the following:
 Simplification of cabling
 Increased reliability
 Trouble shooting is simplified for communication problems.

Server
Nodes
Hub

Hubs can either be simply cable connecting devices or intelligent hubs. Intelligent hubs
can perform additional tasks, such a fault tolerance, remote management, and re-
broadcasting. The term repeater refers to an intelligent hub that can re-send or repeat
garbled data.
Bridges, Routers, and Gateways
Bridges, routers, and gateways are devices that enable one network to communicate or
connect with another network. These specialized devices are required to link networks
that use different connection media, NOS, or platforms. They are also used to link
networks located at different locations, whether in the same building, city, country, or
planet.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
Information and Society
We live in an information society where knowledge workers channel [focus] their
energies to provide a cornucopia of computer based information service. The knowledge
worker’s job function revolves around the use, manipulation, and dissemination of
information. In an information society, the focus of commerce becomes the generation
and distribution of information. A technology revolution is changing our way of life; the
way we live, work, and play. The cornerstone of this revolution, the computer, is
transforming the way we communicate, do business, and learn and an explosion of
computing advances is speeding this change.

5.1 Virtual Society

The ability of each party in the information society during a transaction to ascertain the
identity of the other party - in the non-electronic world, we use our signature. If bank, by
e-mail system avoid the need for signatures on checks they insure for their customers by
using proper authentication that their transaction will be protected. In private networks
the source of the request for payment can be recorded and proved. There are 3 ways a
computer system can verify whether the user have authorized right of access. System try
to authenticate user’s identify by determining
 What you have?
 What you know?
 What you are?
Authentication mechanism are used to satisfy the user that entities – people, data,
applications or computers – are actually what they claim to be. One of the most
commonly used mechanism for authenticating people has been the password. Passwords
are expected to be known only by the owner. However, passwords can be guesses or
learnt by intruders through interception of communications networks or re-use of
encrypted passwords. Re-use of passwords can be prevented by time stamping or by
using passwords only once. Another mechanism is the challenge-response system in
which the host throws a random ‘challenge’ to the entity being authenticated, which in
turn has to send an appropriate ‘response’ for validation at the distanced computer.
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Smart cards are similar to credit cards except that they have chips embedded in them.
These cards can be used to store value and carry authentication information. Other
technologies that are being used to provide authentication services include recognition of
fingerprints, voice and handwriting, retinal scan and resultant measurements of the
signing event such as typing rhythm and pressure exerted during input. Digital signature
is also a very popular method for providing authentication based on two-key
cryptosystems.
VIRTUAL IDENTITY
Identification theft: stealing your good name – TOI – Theft of Identity – is a crime in
which thieves hijack your Name and identity and use your good credit rating to get
cash or to buy things. To do these, what they need is – full name and social security
number. With the help of these two information, add PIN number, employer driving
license number, mother’s maiden name, and so on, they are off to the races,
gambling, applying credit facility every where often – however, thieves simply mail
order what ever they want. They have
 No face-to-face contact
 No weapons
 No finger prints
HOW DOES IDENTITY THEFT START?
Wallet Theft
 Earlier money now PIN/SSN only that they want and rest, they will make. Not
to put your ATM – PIN No., SSN, other Password on a slip of paper
Mail Theft
 Thieves – wants. Mailbox as a fair game, Yield them bank statements new
bank check books, tax forms, and other personal information.
Mining the Trash
 Throwing credit card offers portions of bills with details
 Old bank books cancelled, some thieves – target – trash cans – garbage box.
 Tear up – any discarded mail
 Waste for you may be useful for others
Telephone Solicitation

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  Prospective thieves – call up and ask your bank – credit card Company,
government agency – attempt to collect data about you.
 You cross check and be safe
VIRTUAL STORE FRONT
Internet facilities like e-commerce, is creating new channels for marketing, sales and
customer support by eliminating middleman in buying and selling transactions. There
are many different business models for e-commerce on the internet including virtual
store front. Virtual store front – sells physical goods or services on-line instead of
through a physical storefront or retail outlet.
VIRTUAL UNIVERSITY
Distance learning is the use of computer and/or video networks to teach courses to
students outside the conventional classroom. Until recently, distance learning has been
largely outside the mainstream of campus life. That is, it concentrates principally on part
time students, those who cannot easily travel to campus, those interested in noncredit
classes, or those seeking special courses in business or engineering. However, part timers
presently make up about 45% of all college enrolments. This says very clearly “anytime,
anywhere education holds special appeal.”
VIRTUAL SUPER MARKET
Virtual super market is sure to change the way we shop. This interactive online approach
helps take the hassle and the mystery out of grocery shopping. We can view items by
category [snack foods], by item [cookies], or by brand. We can even pursue the items on
sale. We can request that items be arranged alphabetically by brand, by price per unit, by
package size, or we can even request a listing by nutritional value.
In the minds of the busy people who shop online, the cost of the e-service is easily offset
by other savings [better prices, less spent on travel and so on]. These savings do not
consider the extra personal time shoppers recover by shopping online.

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VIRTUAL OFFICE
Now big foreign companies are eliminating office and allowing employees to work from
any location they choose. Employees are supposed to work in virtual offices in any place,
car, train, plane, or home where their work can be done. Virtual offices are possible
because of cellular telephones, fax machines, portable computers, and other mobile
computing and communication devices. Virtual offices help
1. To reduce office space
2. answer from home
3. Eliminate office infrastructure and cost
4. Eliminate real estate costs
5. Eliminate unwanted traveling time to office
6. etc.
Virtual office employees have more flexibility and control over their own time. But,
is the virtual office a better way of working? What is its impact on individual?
1. Identity
2. Worker’s job satisfaction
3. and where is their corporate community
Some employees fear the virtual office will lead to downsizing, part time work and
eventually the loss of their jobs.
1. Other respond to the loss of daily social contacts
2. Loss of morality and integrity due to their virtual
3. Less the interaction with their colleagues, superiors and other co-workers
Organizations use networks for linking people, ideas to create and distribute products
and services, not being limited by traditional organizational boundaries or physical
locations.

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5.2 Issues and Ethics in IT
Issues in IT can be classified into four categories
1. Security issue
Security issues go right to the basic workability of computer and communications
system in the information society. Some threats to IT environments are
 Errors and accidents
 Natural and other hazards
 Crime against computers and communications
 Crime using computers and communications
 Worms and viruses
 Computer criminals
2. Quality of Life issue
Quality of life issues related to IT are
 Environment problems
o Pollution
o Radiation
 Mental Health problems
o Isolation
o Gambling
o Net addiction
o Stress
 Work place problems
o Misuse of technology
o Information overload

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3. Economical Issue
May people worry that the effects of IT are reducing jobs, they also worry that it
is widening the gap between the haves and have-nots.
It will give the opportunity to worry about
 Technology the job killer or job creator
 Gap between rich and poor
If your job is replaced by computer that means human is not fittest for that job, it
is not worthy for human that is what the interpretation should be, not in the other
way.
4. Privacy issue
Privacy is the right of people not to reveal information about them.
New communication and information technologies have enabled many
organizations and people to collect, organize, and sell information about other
people and organizations, both quickly and cheaply. The easy availability of
personal information makes banking, education, health care, and sales much more
convenient for both consumers and sellers. Credit card and automated teller
machine (ATM) systems would be impossible without large databases of
information available on demand. Scanners in the supermarket rapidly and
accurately record every item that passes over them, making grocery checkouts
faster and error free. Companies maintain huge mailing lists of customers that
record not only their names, addresses, and phone numbers, but also major recent
purchases, credit ratings, and demographic information (such as sex, age, income,
and educational level) that helps the companies identify target markets for
specific products.

The negative side to all this shared information is that there is little control over
who sees or uses this personal information. Medical records are shared not only
by doctors’ offices and by hospitals but are regularly made available to insurance
companies as well. Auto insurance companies obtain information about traffic
violations from state and local police departments. Credit report errors occur often
and can be very damaging to a person's financial situation. Many Americans

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worry that having so much of their personal information available to so many
others may hurt their privacy.

Privacy refers to how personal information is collected, used, and protected. The
privacy issue has not arisen because of computers; at one time, the taking of
photographs caused serious concern about invasion of personal privacy. In IT
need of privacy is amplified because of its enormous capabilities.
Because if a person gives an information for school admission.
 Where then information now?
 Who has control of it?
 Who has access to it and for what purpose?
 Is there a chance the data are being used in ways the student did not intend or
have not authorized?
 Who knows about that student’s personal history because they have access to
data that student has provided?
Since privacy applies to IT, privacy refers to how personal information is
collected, used, and protected. However, the enormous capabilities of IT to store
and retrieve data have amplified the need for the protection of personal privacy.
Earlier privacy protection was only the consumer issue. Now it is to the whole
society.
Privacy Legislation: To protect individual privacy, national legislatures and
parliaments of some countries have passed several important pieces of legislation.
Some of the privacy legislation, that US is following are
1. Fair credit reporting Act
2. Freedom of information Act
3. Privacy Act
4. Electronics Communications Privacy Act
US government also released a publication titled “A code of Fair Information
Practices” as a set of rules for protecting personal privacy within government
agencies which became guide for all other countries.

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 Important guidelines contained in the code state that
1. There must be no personal data record keeping system whose very existence is
a secret
2. There must be a way for people to access the information about them in record
and find out how that information is used.
3. There must be a way for people to prevent information about themselves
obtained for one purpose from being used or made available for other
purposes without their consent.
4. There must be a way for people to correct or amend a record of information
about them.
5. Any organization creating maintaining, using, or disseminating record of
identifiable personal data must ensure their reliability and must take
reasonable precautions to prevent misuse of the data.
ETHICS - Can be defined as a branch of philosophy dealings with the determination of
what is right or wrong, good or bad. Simply if we define” ethics are moral standards that
help to guide, behavior, actions, and choices. Ethics are grounded in the notion of
responsibility and accountability.
The standard of conduct and moral behavior that people are expected to follow. Personal
ethics pertain to an individual’s day-to-day activities; societal ethics pertain to the actions
of people in their various social activities including the way in which they deal with
colleagues, customers, and anyone else society with whom the society interacts.
The difference between ethical behavior and legal behavior is important. Ethics are the
actions expected of people. In contrast, laws deal with required actions. An action may be
legal but not ethical, or ethical but not legal. Business societies are challenged by many
questions of ethics surrounding the widespread use of information technology. Not
limited to IT professionals, these issues involve anyone in the business society who
provides data to or uses information from the business society systems. Therefore, IT
users must count on a company’s ethical policies for protection of private information.

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ETHICS IN AN INFORMATION SOCIETY
Ethical choices are decisions made by individual who are responsible for the consequence
of their actions. Basic concepts of ethics are
 Responsibility
Accepting the potential costs, duties and obligations for the decisions one makes
 Accountability
The mechanisms for assessing responsibility for decisions made and actions taken
 Liability
The existence of laws that permit individuals to recover the damages done to
them by other actors, systems, or organizations
 Due process
A process in which laws are well known and understood and there is an ability to
appeal to higher authorities to ensure that laws are applied correctly.

5.3 Computer Crimes

The term computer crime includes any unauthorized use of a computer system –
including software piracy – or theft of system resources for personal use – including
computer processing time and network access time. Actions intended to alter data and
programs or to damage or destroy data, software, or equipment is also crimes. Most
common types of computer crimes are
Changing data and information before they enter a system
DATA DIDLING
DATA LEAKAGE Erasing or removing data and files from a system without
indicating that they were removed or leaving any trace, they ever
existed.
LOGIC BOMB A program designed to execute when certain conditions occur.
Designed to sabotage system data, programs or processing [refer
time bomb]
PIGGY BACKING Gaining access to a system or process by using the passwords or
access codes of an authorized system user. Alternatively, taking
over a terminal or worker station in use by an authorized user,

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 perhaps while he or she has stepped away from the system
shortly.
SALAMI DATA Developing or modifying software to capture small amounts
SLICING [slices] of money in a transaction and redirecting them to a
hidden account. The amounts are so small they go unnoticed.
However, accumulate to substantial amounts in large volume
transaction processing systems.
SCAVENGING Searching trashcans, either figuratively through a computer
system icon or literally in a computer center, to find discarded
data and information program details. Used to obtain
confidential information or to learn the structure of a program
TIME BOMB A program designed to execute on a specific date and time. The
program monitors the computer’s internal clock or calendar.
When the preset date arrives, the program comes to life causing
its damage.
TRAPDOOR An illicit and unknown point of entry into a program or network
that can be used to gain access to the system
TROJAN HORSE A program that appears to do one thing, but actually does
something very different. Named after Trojan horse of ancient
Greek lore because the program masquerades as a harmless
application and then does its damage after it is loaded onto a
disk or into computer memory.
WIRETAPPING Using any device to capture data transmission electronically or
to listen in on network conversations, especially those
transmitted using wireless methods or over copper cables.
ZAPPING Damaging or erasing data and information or programs. Usually
possible because the criminal is able to bypass security systems.

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All these crimes are committed through intrusion, forced and unauthorized entry into the
system. Computer crime through intrusion can occur by following ways.
1. Hackers
2. Crackers
3. Viruses
Hackers
A hacker is a person who gains access to a system illegally. Hackers usually gain access
to a system through a network, but sometimes they will physically enter a computer or
network facility.

Skilled technicians also called themselves, which does not mean their ability to break into
computers and networks, but rather to their technical skill for computer programming and
making a system perform in innovative and productive ways. Hackers who break into
systems also have good technical skills, but have chosen to apply them in undesirable
[often-illegal] ways. The increased frequency of hacking, coupled with the newness of
the problem as an issue of law, has led many governments to publish legislation in place
to deal with this form of computer crime.
 INDIA passed a bill “the information technology act 1998”
 US congress passed the “Computer Fraud and Abuse Act in 1984”
Protection against intrusion by hackers
There is always the possibility that the individual responsible for a computer crime are
disgruntled former employees. Hence good security means looking inside company as
well as outside company.
Preventing unauthorized access to a system entails having good physical security. Hiring
honest, reliable people is an obvious starting point.

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Techniques helpful in deterring intrusion by hackers
1. Change access passwords frequently
2. Allow workers access to only the system functions they need to use
3. Permit workers to access only the data that they need to use
4. Establish physical security systems
5. Separate critical processing functions so that more than one person must be
involved
6. Encrypt data by scrambling or coding information.
7. Adopt procedural controls
8. Keep staff well informed through education programs
9. Audit system activities
10. Keep a log of all transactions and user activities
Some expert security organizations use additional methods to supplement these
techniques. When caller dial into the system, they provide the telephone numbers from
which they are calling. The system may also sense the calling number automatically. The
user then hangs up and the system, after verifying that the telephone number is valid and
authorized to call. Then it calls back the user. This is called call back security adds
another layer of protection to the above techniques.
Despite these precautionary measures, some hackers do manage to break into even the
best-guarded systems. When a kicker has penetrated a system, it is important to
determine whether any damage or theft has occurred and to know that there is a trapdoor
– that is an undetectable way of entering the system bypassing the security system.
Crackers
Crackers also gain unauthorized access to information technology but do so for
malicious purposes. Crackers attempt to break into computers and deliberately obtain
information for financial gain, shut down hardware, pirate software, destroy.

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5.4 Computer Viruses and Worms
VIRUS: A hidden program that alters, without the user’s knowledge the way a computer
operates or modifies the data and program stored on the computer.
Computer intrusion occurs by way of software in the name of virus. The virus is written
by individual’s intent on causing damage or wreaking havoc in a system. It is called virus
because it reproduces itself, passing from computer to computer when disks are shuttled
from one computer to another. A virus can also enter a computer when a file to which it
has attached itself is downloaded from a remote computer over a communications
network an infected disk or diskette will continue to spread the virus each time it is used
Each virus has its own characteristics – its own signature. Some destroy irreplaceable
data by writing gibberish over the disk they infect. Others take control of the operating
system and stop it from functioning. Still others embed commands into the operating
system, causing it to display messages on the computer screen. The worst forms of virus
are much more subtle, moving through data and changing small amounts of detail in
selected files, so unnoticeable they are difficult to detect.
WORMS: A Worm is a program that copies itself repeatedly into memory or onto a disk
drive until no more space is left.
A virus is a typical program that attaches itself to a computer system and destroys or
corrupts data.
Viruses are passed in three ways
1. By diskette [copying ]
2. By network [data sharing]
3. By internet [ e-mail ]
Some worms erase, destroy, and change the data

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Methods of virus detection
All types of computers are vulnerable to viruses. To protect against them, companies
must buy and use virus detection software. There are three methods of virus detection.
 Scanning programs – search the computer and main memory to detect a virus
 Detection Programs – monitor processing activities and signal the user when a virus
tries to infect the system
 Digital signature encryption – uses a mathematical coding scheme designed to foil a
virus’s attempt to attack programs and data. Alternatively, we can say published
programs are encoded with mathematical key, making it difficult for virus to attack
data or programs. Also makes detection of alterations caused by viruses easier.
Names of some viruses are
 Stoned
 Christmas or X-Mas
 Friday the 13th
 Falling letters
 Disk killers
 Mis-Speller
The issues discussed above are real and affecting every individual directly or indirectly.
The most important point to take from these information are simple, with the use of IT
comes the need to
1. User should be aware of possible misuse
2. User should be capable to take responsibility for safeguarding the resources under
our control

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