A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 10 kΩ/V reads 75 V in its 100 V

scale when connected across an unknown resistor when the current

through the resistor is 1.5 mA. Calculate the percentage error due
to loading effect.
Solution
Consider figure below

Owing to the finite resistance of the voltmeter, it draws some

current from the source.
Ideally, the voltmeter must have infinite resistance and should not
draw any current.
Therefore, the net resistance measured V/I is the parallel
combination of Rx and Rm and not Rx alone. This is called loading of
the source by the meter and results in certain error in measurement
 Multimeters are the most frequently used types of electronic instruments.
They are low-cost and easy to implement.
 Multimeters are suitable for the measuring of voltages, currents and
resistances.
 The input voltage is converted into a digital code and displayed on an
LCD (liquid crystal display panel) or an LED display panel. Input currents
are first converted into a voltage, and resistance measurements are made
by feeding accurately know currents generated within the instrument into
the unknown resistance before going on to measure the voltage.
 In their voltage mode, electronic Multimeters have a high input
impedance of around 1 MW. Most multimeters have auto-scaling and
auto-polarity features which means that the polarity and the units are
displayed alongside of the measurement value. Auto-ranging and auto-
polarity are realized by introducing comparators and electronic switches
(reed switches or FETs).
To better understand digital multimeters, it’s helpful to become
clear on the basics of electricity. After all, DMMs always measure
some aspect of electricity.
Electricity passing through a conductor is similar to water flowing
through a pipe. Every pipe has a pump that creates a certain
pressure, causing water to flow. In the case of electricity, that pump
might be a generator, battery or some other power supply. The
pressure created by that power supply is called voltage.
The amount of voltage determines how much electricity flows
through the conductor. That flow is called current.
Anything restricting the flow of current is called resistance.
Voltage, current and resistance are the three most fundamental
components of electricity. Voltage is measured in volts, current in
amps and resistance in ohms.
Together, voltage, current and resistance comprise Ohm’s Law.
Ohm’s Law is an important equation for electricians. By using a
DMM, they can establish values for the three variables of Ohm’s
Law that help in diagnosing electrical problems.
Electricity comes in two types – Alternating Current (AC) and
Direct Current (DC). Alternating Current is the most common form
of electricity, so named because it alternates, or reverses, its flow.
AC is produced by a generator and is used for many of the things in
our everyday lives. Direct Current flows in one direction only. Most
commonly, DC power is the source of electricity found in batteries
and used in portable equipment like cars, flashlights and cameras.
Electricians need to measure both AC and DC power.
DMMs measure both.
At first glance, a digital multimeter looks complicated and
intimidating. But once you understand the dial, display and port
panel, you’ll have a solid understanding of DMMs.
The Display
Multimeters come in two types —
digital and analog both shown in
figure
Most electricians today use digital
multimeters. DMMs feature a
digital or liquid crystal display
(LCD). Measurement readings in
exact numerical values are displayed in the LCD. The display also
alerts you to any pertinent symbols and warnings.
The dial of the DMM allows you to choose the function you’re interested
in measuring. Whether you intend to measure one of the three elements
of Ohm’s Law, or a more advanced function like frequency or
capacitance, you must first set the dial to the appropriate function.
Setting the Range
The dial also plays another essential role in measuring electricity – that of
determining the range of measurement. The range you select on the dial
determines the placement of the decimal point as it appears on the LCD.
In turn, the position of the decimal point determines how refined, or
precise, your reading is. This is called resolution.
To get a better understanding of resolution, let’s take an example. You’re
going to test AC voltage, but what range do you set the dial to? The
highest possible reading with the range set on 20V, for instance, is 19.99V.
The highest reading with the range set on 200V is 199.9V.As you can see,
in the transition from 20V to 200V, the decimal point has moved one place
to the right, yielding a less refined resolution. So setting the dial to the
lowest possible range yields the best resolution. However, if the range is
set on 20V and you’re measuring an application that puts out more than
20V, the display will read OL, or overload. You must reset the dial to a
higher range and take a new reading.
The most refined reading, therefore, uses the range that provides the best
resolution without overloading. Select the range just higher than the
expected reading, see Table
Range Setting Maximum
Reading and
Resolution
2V 1.999V
20V 19.99V
200V 199.9V
1000V 1000V
Port Panel
The port panel is where you plug in your test leads. Figure explains
where the test leads go for specific tests.
Figure below shows all the parts of
the digital multimeter, note different
companied have different form of
metres but the principle of application
is the same.
Table shows common symbols for multimeter’s measurements.
Voltage is the pressure in a circuit. AC voltage is supplied by AC
generators, while DC voltage is produced by chemical (batteries) or
electromagnetic sources (DC generators). To test for voltage, first
determine whether the application you’re testing uses AC or DC
voltage. Then set the dial to the appropriate function – V~ for AC
voltage or V– for DC voltage.
Measuring the voltage of a standard residential outlet is one example of
testing AC voltage.
Like all test procedures, when testing voltage set the range to the
number just higher than the expected reading. If you don’t know
the expected reading, set the range to the highest number.
Plug your test leads into the port panel as described on figure.
 For AC voltage, take the leads and apply them to the circuit, being
sure that no part of your body contacts any part of the live circuit.
The position of the test leads may need to be adjusted until a
reliable measurement appears on the LCD. Then read the voltage
measurement displayed.
When testing AC voltage, fluctuations will occur in the reading. As
the test continues, the reading will stabilize to yield a reliable
measurement. For DC voltage, connect the black test lead to the
negative polarity test point (ground) and the red test lead to the
positive polarity test point. Then take a reading.
Current is the electron flow that causes electrical equipment to
operate. When the equipment is turned on, it is considered a “load”
on the circuit. A load is any electrical component, such as a lamp,
stereo, motor or heating element, that draws current. Current is
measured in amperes, or amps. Each load has a rated current limit
that should not be exceeded. If a load pulls too much current,
excessive heat is produced that may cause insulation damage,
component failure and possible fire hazards. If the load is under its
rated current limit, it may perform poorly. Testing current may be
done in several ways, but the most common method, and the most
simple, is with a clamp meter. The advantage of testing current
with a clamp meter – or with a standard DMM with a clamp head
accessory – is that readings can be taken without opening the
circuit.
To test for current, first determine if you’re testing AC or DC
current. Then set the dial to the appropriate function — A~ for AC
current or A– for DC current. Next, set the appropriate range on the
dial as described on section 1.1.2.
a) Testing with a Clamp Meter
If using a clamp meter, simply open the clamp head by pressing the
lever. Enclose the clamp head around a single conductor and
release the lever, being sure the clamp head has completely
enclosed the conductor. Take a measurement.
b) Testing with a Standard DMM
With Current Clamp Adapter
The clamp adapter will convert the current measurement into
voltage. Therefore, set the dial to the AC voltage function and select
the millivolt range. Plug in the leads. Open the clamp adapter and
enclose it around a single wire. Then take a reading.
With Test Leads
To measure current on an open line using test leads, plug in the
leads. Set the dial to AC or DC current depending on what you’re
testing. Apply your leads to the open circuit and take a reading.
*Forcurrent measurements above one amp, it’s most common to use a
clamp meter. For measurements less than one amp, it’s preferable to use a
standard DMM.
Resistance opposes the flow of current. The higher the resistance,
the lower the current flow. Insulation used for cables has a very
high resistance, impeding current flow. Conversely, the cable’s
copper conductor has low resistance, facilitating current flow.
Proper resistance is critical. Too much resistance in electric wires
and connections can result in overheating and possible fire hazards,
while too little resistance may result in a short or performance
problems. Components called resistors help maintain proper
resistance in equipment.
To test for resistance, first turn the power off in the circuit or
component you’re testing. Otherwise, you may not get the most
accurate reading and may damage the DMM.
After ensuring that all power is off, set the dial to the resistance
mode. Select the appropriate range on the dial. Plug in your test
leads then connect the test leads to the component under test, and
take a reading.
It is imperative that contact between the test-leads and the circuit
you’re testing is good. Dirt, oil, bodily contact and poor test lead
connections can significantly increase resistance readings.
Why test for continuity? Because it is essential that circuits are
continuous or complete, allowing current to flow. Switches, fuses,
conductors and wire connectors demand good continuity. Good
fuses and closed switches have good continuity. Blown fuses and
open switches have no continuity. A common continuity test is
verifying that the test leads are good before using the DMM. The
continuity test on a DMM is simple. Set the dial to the continuity
function. Plug in your leads. Ensuring that the power is off, make
contact with the component under test using the leads. If there is
good continuity, or a good path that allows current to flow, the
DMM will beep. If there is no continuity, the DMM will not beep.
Capacitors are small, battery-like devices that store electrical
energy. They are designed to start motors and other components
with an initial energy boost. Capacitance, measured in micro-
Farads (μF or MFD), is the ability of a capacitor to hold this
electrical charge.
To test capacitance, set the dial on the DMM to the capacitance
function. Plug in your leads. Ensuring that the capacitor has been
discharged, connect the test leads to the capacitor terminals. Take a
reading. If the measurement is similar to the rating listed on the
capacitor, the capacitor is good. A significant variation from the
rating indicates the capacitor should be replaced.
Poorly functioning motors may just be the result of a bad capacitor
Some DMMs measure frequency, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
— the number of times per second a wave form repeats. These
DMMs include a Hz setting on the dial. Maintaining the right
frequency is crucial for devices that rely on AC voltage and current.
Otherwise, poor performance and possible damage may result.
To test frequency, set the function switch to Hz. Plug in your test
leads and connect them to the circuit. Read the frequency
measurement, then compare the measurement with the frequency
listed for the component under test.
Some DMMs come in a variety of models that together measure all the
functions an electrician needs to effectively troubleshoot any electrical
problem. Some IDEAL DMMs also come with additional features that
make measuring easier and more accurate.
a) True RMS
When taking AC measurements in commercial and industrial environments, you
need a DMM with the True RMS feature. DMMs take AC measurements using
either an averaging method or a True RMS method. Average responding DMMs
take an AC measurement, multiply it by 1.11, and then display it in the LCD. This
method is accurate when a pure sine wave exists such as in residential
environments. But, in commercial and industrial environments, electronic
lighting ballasts, variable speed motor drives, computers and other electronic
equipment cause harmonics that distort the sine wave. In these cases, a DMM
needs True RMS, which measures the wave form using a Root Mean Square
(RMS) calculation to provide an accurate reading.
Data Hold: When taking a measurement using a DMM, an electrician
sometimes needs to capture and retain the reading as it appears on the
display. If you’re taking a measurement in a dimly lit or tight area, the
Data Hold button retains the measurement on the LCD until it can be
easily read. The Data Hold captures the reading simply by pushing the
button.
Max Hold: It may also be important for an electrician to capture the
highest reading of any given measurement. This can be achieved by
pushing the Max Hold button. If the reading falls to a lower value, the
Max Hold button ensures the highest value remains on the screen. The
Max Hold button is especially helpful in capturing the in-rush current
flow when equipment is first turned on.
Auto Ranging DMMs: An auto ranging DMM does not require you to set
the range on the dial. Simply select the function you’re measuring and the
auto ranging DMM automatically establishes the range that yields the
best resolution.
Manual Ranging DMMs: A manual ranging digital multimeter requires
you to set the range yourself. If you know the range of the application
you’re testing, set the range on the dial that yields the best resolution. If
you don’t know the range, simply select the highest range possible. If the
reading is less refined than what you desire, you may be able to lower the
range for better resolution.
Some multimeter manufacturing companies offers a number of specialty
test instruments designed to perform functions that the expert
electrician/instrument tech may need to execute The Three-Phase
Rotation Tester ensures that motors are properly connected to the three
phases. Incorrect connections result in motors spinning in the wrong
direction, which may cause motor damage or improper operation. To test
for proper motor rotation, plug the three color-coded leads of the tester to
each of the three phases. Turn the power on. The disk on the Three-Phase
Rotation Tester should be spinning in the same direction as the rotation of
the motor as described in the owner’s manual. If the rotation desired is in
the opposite direction, the tester is improperly connected to the three
phases. Switch any two leads, and the rotation will reverse to the proper
direction. Mark the three phases, then hook up your equipment.
Maintaining the integrity of insulation in motors, cables and other devices
is critical for a number of reasons. Insulation keeps current flowing safely
through the copper conductor. Bad or damaged insulation allows
electricity to “leak out” much like water leaks out of a broken pipe. This
could cause shorts, performance problems or safety complications. To test
for proper insulation, Some multimeter manufacturing companies offers
the Insulation Tester. By pressurizing the electric wire under test with a
surge of voltage, the Insulation Tester indicates whether or not the
insulation is good. A rough rule of thumb for good insulation is 1
megohm of resistance per 1000 volts of rating.
The number of digit positions used in a digital meter determines
the resolution. Thus a three digit display on a digital voltmeter
(DVM) For 0-1V range will be able to indicate values from zero to
999mV, With smallest increment or resolution of 1 mV.
In practice a fourth digit is usually-capable of displaying either 0 or
1 only, is placed ·to the left of active digits. This permits going
above 999 to 1999 to give overlap between ranges for convenience.
This is called over ranging. This type of display is known as a 3½
digit display. The resolution of a digital meter however is
determined by the number of active or full digits used.
If n is the number-of full digits;
Resolution = 1/10n
A 4 digit_ display has a resolution of 1/104=0.0001 or 0.01%