Load Flow Analysis

Load flow analysis is the most important and essential approach to investigating problems in power system
operating and planning. Based on a specified generating state and transmission network structure, load flow analysis
solves the steady operation state with node voltages and branch power flow in the power system. Load flow analysis
can provide a balanced steady operation state of the power system, without considering system transient processes.
Hence, the mathematic model of load flow problem is a nonlinear algebraic equation system without differential
equations.
Using digital computers to calculate load flow started from the middle of the 1950s. Since then, a variety of methods
has been used in load flow calculation. The development of these methods is mainly led by the basic requirements of
load flow calculation, which can be summed up as:
1. The convergence properties
2. The computing efficiency and memory requirements
3. The convenience and flexibility of the implementation
Mathematically, the load flow problem is a problem of solving a system of nonlinear algebraic equations. Its solution
usually cannot avoid some iteration process. Thus reliable convergence becomes the prime criterion for a load flow
calculation method. With the scale of power system continually expanding, the dimension of load flow equations
now becomes very high (several thousands to tens of thousands).

Basically, an AC transmission grid consists of,

i) synchronous generator
ii) loads
iii) transformer
iv) transmission lines
For the purpose of power flow solution, synchronous generators are not represented explicitly, rather their presence
in implicitly modeled. We will look into the implicit representation of synchronous generators a little later. However,
the other three components are modeled explicitly and their representations are discussed below.

Loads
As we all know, loads can be classified into three categories;
i) constant power
ii) constant impedance
iii) constant current
However, within the normal operating range of the voltage almost all the loads behave as constant power loads. As
the objective of the AC power flow analysis is to compute the normal steady-state values of the bus voltages, the
loads are always represented as constant power loads. Hence, at any bus ‘k’ (say), the real and reactive power loads
are specified as 100 MW and 50 MVAR (say) respectively. An important point needs to be mentioned here. As the
loads are always varying with time (the customers are always switching ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ the loads), any specific value
of load (MW and/or MVAR) is valid only at a particular time instant. Hence, AC power flow analysis is always carried
out for the load and generator values at a particular instant.

Transmission line
In a transmission grid, the transmission lines are generally of medium length or of long length. A line of medium
length is always represented by the nominal-π model as shown in the figure, where 𝑧 is the total series impedance of
the line and Bc is the total shunt charging susceptance of the line. On the other hand, a long transmission line is most
accurately represented by its distributed parameter model. However, for steady-state analysis, a long line can be
accurately represented by the equivalent-π model, which predicts accurate behavior of the line with respect to its
terminal measurements taken at its two ends. The equivalent-π model is shown in the figure.

Normal π model of a line connected between

buses ‘i’ and ‘j’
 Equivalent π model of a long transmission
line connected between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’

Hence, for power system analysis, a transmission line (medium or long) is always represented by a π circuit.
Transformer
For power system steady-state and fault studies, generally the exciting current of the transformer is neglected as it is
quite low compared to the normal load current flowing through the transformer. Therefore, a two winding
transformer connected between buses ‘i’ and ‘j’ is represented by its per unit leakage impedance as shown in the
figure.

Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer

Formulation of Load Flow Problem

Classification of Node Types

An electric power system is composed of generators, transformers, transmission lines and loads, etc. A simple power
system is illustrated in the figure. In the process of power system analysis, the static components, such as
transformers, transmission lines, shunt capacitors and reactors, are represented by their equivalent circuits
consisting of R, L, C elements. Therefore, the network formed by these static components can be considered as a
linear network and represented by the corresponding admittance matrix or impedance matrix. In load flow
calculation, the generators and loads are treated as nonlinear components. They cannot be embodied in the linear
network. The connecting nodes with zero injected power also represent boundary conditions on the network.

Usually, two variables at each node are assumed known, while the other two variables are treated as state variables
to be resolved. According to the original data, the nodes in power systems can be classified into three types:
1. PQ Nodes: For PQ nodes, the active and reactive power (P; Q) are specified as known parameters, and the
complex voltage (V;θ) is to be resolved. Usually, substation nodes are taken as PQ nodes where the load powers are
given constants. When output P and Q are fixed in some power plants, these nodes can also be taken as PQ node.
Most nodes in power systems belong to the PQ type in load flow calculation.

2. PV Nodes: For PV nodes, active power P and voltage magnitude V are specified as known variables, while reactive
power Q and voltage angle θ are to be resolved. Usually, PV nodes should have some controllable reactive power
resources and can thus maintain node voltage magnitude at a desirable value.

3. Slack Node: In load flow studies, there should be one and only one slack node specified in the power system,
which is specified by a voltage, constant in magnitude and phase angle. Therefore, V and θ are given as known
variables at the slack node, while the active power P and reactive power Q are the variables to be solved. The
effective generator at this node supplies the losses to the network. This is necessary because the magnitude of
losses will not be known until the calculation of currents is complete, and this cannot be achieved unless one node
has no power constraint and can feed the required losses into the system. The location of the slack node can
influence the complexity of the calculations.

The load flow problem may be formulated either as a linear or non-linear set of algebraic equations.