MODULE 04

ELECTRICAL LOAD
GOALS:
 1. To understand the AC waveform, and Phase
relationship.

2. To understand Electrical Inductance and

Capacitance.
GOALS:
3. To understand the different kind of Electrical
Load and how they affect Electricity
Measurement.

4. To be able to perform various energy

calculations at these different LOADS
 AC WAVEFORMS

Do you remember the function of the diagram

above?
 AC WAVEFORMS

When an alternator produces AC voltage, the voltage

switches polarity over time, but does so in a very
particular manner. When graphed over time, the
“wave” traced by this voltage of alternating polarity
from an alternator takes on a distinct shape, known
as a sine wave.
The Voltage starts at Zero, when the armature is not carrying
any magnetic flux. As the armature turns, the voltage increases
from Zero to a maximum value in one direction. It then
decreases back to Zero. At Zero again, the armature turns
further and the voltage reverses polarity, increasing again until
it reaches maximum at the opposite polarity. It then decreases
again till it reaches zero again. At this point the armature has
completed one full revolution.
 Ac waveforms characteristics

• The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to
repeat itself from start to finish. This can also be called the Periodic Time of
the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.

• The Frequency, (ƒ) is the number of times the waveform repeats itself
within a one second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of the time
period, ( ƒ = 1/T ) with the unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).

• The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform

measured in volts or amps.
 Phase and Phase Relationship
Since the output of an AC generator varies as a sine wave. If two
generators are started, they will generate one full sine wave output
after one full resolution and so they are started at the same time and
turned exactly at the same speed, the two waveforms will begin
simultaneously and end simultaneously. The two wave forms are in
step with each other and the voltages (and current) they represents
are Phase with one another. So we see that Phase is used to indicate
the time relationship between alternating voltages and current.
 Phase and Phase Relationship
When one generator is started after another, its maximum and
minimum output values will occur after the corresponding values for
the other generator. The outputs in this case are said to be out of
phase, or we way; a phase difference exist between the two signals.
The amount of phase difference depends on how far behind one
output is from the other. The term LEAD and LAG are used to
describe the relative positions in time of two voltages or current that
are our of phase. The one that is ahead is said to LEAD the other,
while the one behind LAGS.
 Phase Relationship between
Voltage and Current

If an alternating voltage signal is applied to a circuit, the

resultant current is expect to be sinusoidal as well, with
both voltage and current reaching Zero together, rising
and falling together and reaching their maximum values
together. Then they are said to be in phase.

But actually, this is usual not practical in most electrical

circuit as the voltage and current may not be in step with
each other. Depending on the type of circuit load, one
will lead or lag the other.
 POWER FACTOR and POWER TRAINGLE

The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power.
Which can be expressed by representing the quantities as vectors

Power factor is the ratio between the KW (Kilo-Watts) and the KVA (Kilo-Volt
Amperes) drawn by an electrical load where the KW is the actual load power
and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a measure of how effectively
the current is being converted into useful work output and more particularly
is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the
supply system.
Power Factor = KW / KVA
Power Factor = Cos θ
 POWER TYPES
REAL POWER This represents the useful energy used to operate the
electrical equipment. Measured in Watts / KW. Also known as the Active
Power.
Real Power = VI Cosθ
REACTIVE POWER This is responsible for the magnetic flux required in
rotating machines and transformers. Measured in in Volts Amperes Reactive
(VAR)
Reactive Power = VI Sinθ
APPARENT POWER Vector Sum of the real and reactive power. Measure in
VA.
Reactive Power = VI Sinθ.
INDUCTANCE
AND
CAPACITANCE
 INDUCTORS and INDUCTIVE LOADS
Coils can store energy and oppose changes in current and are called
Inductors measured in Henries. Inductors are made by winding a
length of conductor around a core. When a changing current passes
through an inductor, it induces a magnetic field around itself. Turning
the inductor into a coil increases the magnetic field.
When a resistor is connected to a source of alternating voltage,
resulting current will remain in Phase with the voltage signal. But
when a inductor is connected to a source of alternating voltage, the
current through the inductor lags the voltage. Which means that the
current does not reach its maximum value until some time after the
voltage has reached the maximum Value.

The current Lags the voltage in a inductive circuit by 90°.

 Characteristics of Inductive Electrical Loads:

Inductance (L) is measured in henries.

The changing voltage and current in an inductor are out of phase. As current rises to a
maximum, the voltage falls.

The current waveform is lagging behind the voltage waveform, therefore, the voltage
peaks and current peaks are not in phase. The amount of phase delay is given by the
cosine of the angel (Cos) between the vectors representing voltage and current.

Inductive load pulls a large amount of current (an inrush current) when first energized.
After a few cycles or seconds the current "settles down" to the full-load running
current.

The time required for the current to "settle down" depends on the frequency or/and
the inductance value of the Inductive load.

Ineffective use of electricity by the utility.

KWH meter will stop disk rotation with a purely inductive Load, due to 90° phase shift.

Unlikely to find in a real world

 CAPACITORS and CAPACITIVE LOADS
A capacitor stores electrical energy. Two conductive surfaces are
separated by a non-conductive insulator. When an electrical current
is applied to a capacitor, electrons from the current gather on the
plate attached to the terminal to which the electric current is
applied. When the current is removed, the electrons will to flow
back through the circuit to reach the other terminal of the

As the voltage reaches its maximum

value and stops increasing, there will
be in current flowing in the circuit,
and so a Phase angle of 90° exist
between them.

The current Leads the voltage in a capacitive circuit by 90°.

Characteristics of Capacitive Electrical Loads:

The capability of a capacitor to store electrical energy is called capacitance (C). The
main unit of measure is the farad, but most capacitors are measured in microfarads.

The current leads the voltage of a capacitor. The voltage across the terminals starts
out at zero volts while the current is at its maximum.
As the charge builds on the capacitors plate, the voltage rises and the current falls. As
a capacitor discharges, the current rises as the voltage falls.

The current waveform is leading the voltage waveform; therefore, the voltage peaks
and current peaks are not in phase. The amount of phase delay is given by the cosine
of the angel (Cos) between the vectors representing voltage and current.

Ineffective use of electricity by the utility.

KWH meter will stop disk rotation with a purely inductive Load, due to 90° phase shift

Unlikely to find in a real world

 RESISTORS and RESISTIVE LOADS
The Resistive Electrical Loads naturally resist the flow of electricity
through it by converting some of this electrical energy into heat
(thermal energy) , the result will be a drop in the amount of
electrical energy transferred through it.

The current and voltages are in Phase.

Characteristics of Resistive Electrical Loads:

Resistance (R) is measured in ohms.

The electrical current and the voltage in a resistive load are said to be "in phase" with
each other. As voltage rises or falls, the current also rises and falls with it.

As the voltage and current are in phase, the power factor is in unity.

Resistive loads not having any significant inrush current. When a resistive load is
energized, the current rises instantly to its steady-state value, without first rising to a
higher value.

Effective use of power by the Utility

KWH meter will run full torque forward with a purely resistive Load.

Observation:
For a purely resistive load,
Real power = Apparent power.
 Phase Memory AID

ELI the ICE man

Looking at ELI : E = Voltage, I = Current, L = inductive Load

The Current Lags the Voltage in an inductive load because I comes

after E. This can also be said as Voltage leads current.

Looking at ICE : I = Current, C= Capacitive Load, E = Voltage

The Current Leads the Voltage in a Capacitive load because I comes

before E. This can also be said as Voltage lags current.
 Examples of the different types of LOAD.
Resistive Load:
Incandescent light bulbs, Electric heaters, Boiling rings, Kettles etc.

Capacitive Load:
Capacitor banks, and capacitors are used in electric motors, radio
circuits, power supplies and many other circuits.
Inductive Load:
Transformers, electric motors, hair dryer, and coils

In reality all consumer has a combination of all these loads.

 Note:
Resistive- Inductive Load:

This is the common type of load in a residential or small consumer.

For example, a consumer is using a load mixture of a resistive
(lighting) and an air condition (inductive)

Good rotation of the disk in forward direction

Current lagging voltage 20 to 30 degrees, 86% to 93% power factor.

Sometimes if Load is too inductive, capacitor are used to offset some

of the lagging characteristics of that inductive load, to improve
power factor and hence efficiency.
 FORMULAS
Calculating watts using a stop watch:

Kh or ke x 3600 x # of disc revolutions/ pulses

Number of seconds

Kh is the number of watt-hours of energy registered by one revolution of the DISK or pulses.

Calculating watts using a voltmeter, ammeter and a phase meter:

Voltage x Current x Cosine of Theta (VI Cos θ)

 Energy Calculations
Example
ElectroMechanical Meter

Meter Kh = 7.2 240V/2 wire 5 Revolutions in 40s

Kh or ke x 3600 x # of disc revolutions/ pulses

Number of seconds

(3600 x 7.2 x 5) / 40s = ? Watts.

Example
Solid state meter

Meter Kh = 7.2 240V/2 wire Load current 25amps Phase angle of 45

240 x 25 x cos 45 = ? Watts

 SUMMARY
RESISTIVE LOAD: Examples are Electric Kettle,
Electric stove, electric water heaters.
It has a unit power factor (100%), full torque
rotation of the disk. KVA and KW are equal.

INDUCTIVE LOAD: Examples are motor loads,

windings, transformers, hair dryers.
It has a lagging power factor as current lags
the voltage. Stop line is at 90° lagging phase
angle. KVA is larger than KW, large amount of
KVAR.

CAPACITIVE LOAD: Examples are Capacitor

banks for PF improvement, start capacitors in
motors.
Leading Power factor as current leads the
voltage. Stop line is at 90° leading phase
angle. KVA is larger than KW, large amount of
KVAR.

Discuss what is the value of Power when V

and I are 90° out of phase, using the
curves.
ANY QUESTIONS?
THANK YOU