PHY 101

Lecture
 Scalars and Vectors
A Scalar Quantity has only magnitude and is completely specified by a number and a unit.
Examples are: Length (l), time (t), temperature (T), mass (m), density, charge, frequency, and volume.

A Vector Quantity has both magnitude and direction. Examples are: displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, weight, etc.

VECTOR REPRESENTATION
A vector quantity can be represented graphically by a line, drawn so that: 6
(a) the length of the line denotes the magnitude of the quantity, according to some
stated vector scale
(b) the direction of the line denotes the direction in which the vector quantity acts.
The sense of the direction is indicated by an arrowhead.

The vector quantity AB is referred to as 𝐴𝐵 or a

The magnitude of the vector quantity is written

𝐴𝐵 or 𝒂 or simply AB or a
Note that 𝐵𝐴 would represent a vector quantity of the
same magnitude but with opposite sense.

Addition of Vectors
Vector Addition: Graphical Method
To add vector B to vector A, draw B so that its tail is at the head of A. The vector sum
A + B is the vector R that joins the tail of A and the head of B.
Usually, R is called the resultant of A and B. The order in which A and B are added is
not significant, so that

A+B=B+A
 Addition of Vectors Cont’d

Vector Addition: Trigonometric Method

It is easy to apply trigonometry to find the resultant R of two vectors A
and B that are perpendicular to each other. The magnitude of the
resultant is given by the Pythagorean theorem as

𝑅 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2

and the angle between R and A may be found from

𝐵
tan 𝜃 =
𝐴

by examining a table of tangents or by using a calculator to determine

𝐵
𝜃 = tan−1
𝐴
 Resolving a Vector
Just as two or more vectors can be added to yield
a single resultant vector, so it is possible to break
up a single vector into two or more other vectors.

When a vector is replaced by two or more others,

the process is called Resolving the vector, and
the new vectors are known as the components of
the initial vector.
The figure shows a wagon being pulled with
force F. Because the wagon moves horizontally,
the entire force is not effective in influencing its
motion.

The force F may be resolved into two

component vectors 𝑭𝒙 = horizontal component
of F, and 𝑭𝒚 = vertical component of F
 Resolving a Vector Cont’d
The magnitudes of these components are
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 and 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 sin 𝜃
Evidently the component 𝐹𝑥 is responsible for the wagon’s motion, and if we were interested in
working out the details of this motion, we would need to consider only 𝐹𝑥 .

Example
If a force of 100 N is exerted on the wagon at an angle of 𝜃 = 30° above the horizontal. Find
the horizontal and vertical components of this force.
Solution
The magnitudes of 𝑭𝒙 and 𝑭𝒚 are, respectively,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹 cos 𝜃 = 100 cos 30° = 86.6 𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 100 sin 30° = 50.0 𝑁

Note: the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical components is

not 𝐹𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 = 136.6 𝑁 but 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 = 100 𝑁
 Vector Addition: Component Method (Resolving Vectors)

To add two or more vectors A, B, C,…. by the component method,

follow this procedure:

1. Resolve the initial vectors into components in the x, and z directions.

2. Add the components in the x direction to give Rx, add the components
in the y direction to give Ry, such that the magnitudes of Rx and Ry
are given by, respectively,
𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + …
𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 + …

3. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant R from its

components Rx, Ry, and Rz by using the Pythagorean theorem:
𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2
Example

A car weighing 12.0 kN is on a hill that makes an angle of

20o with the horizontal. Find the components of the car’s
weight parallel and perpendicular to the road.

Solution
The weight w of an object is the gravitational force with
which the earth attracts it, and this force always acts
vertically downward. Hence the components of w
parallel and perpendicular to the road are

𝐹1 = 𝑤 sin 𝜃 = 12.0 𝑘𝑁 sin 20° = 4.1 𝑘𝑁

𝐹2 = 𝑤 cos 𝜃 = 12.0 𝑘𝑁 cos 20° = 11.3 𝑘𝑁
 Motion Along a Straight Line
Velocity (m/s)
The velocity is a vector quantity that describes both how fast a body is moving and the direction in which it is headed.
• In the case of a body traveling in a straight line, its velocity is simply the rate at which it covers distance. The
average velocity 𝑣 of such a body when it covers the distance s in the time t is
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡
The average velocity of a body during the time t does not completely describe its motion, because
this time, it may sometimes have gone faster than 𝑣 and sometimes slower.

• The velocity of a body at any given moment is called its instantaneous velocity and is given by
∆𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = 𝑣 = = ,
∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where, ∆𝑠(= s2 − s1) = distance the body has gone in the very short time interval ∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 at the specified
moment.

• . When the instantaneous velocity of a body does not change, it is moving at constant velocity.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑠 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑣)(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡)
Note: Speed is the magnitude of instantaneous velocity.
 Motion Along a Straight Line cont’d

Acceleration (m/s2)
The acceleration of a body is the rate at which its The average acceleration 𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒈 over a time interval ∆𝑡 is
velocity is changing. A body is accelerating when v2 − v1
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
its velocity is increasing, decreasing, or changing in t2 − t1
direction. where the particle has velocity v1 at time t1 and then
velocity v2 at time t2.
The instantaneous acceleration (or simply acceleration) is
If a body moving in a straight line has a velocity of 𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑣0 at the start of a certain time interval t and of v at 𝑑𝑡
the end, its acceleration is The acceleration of a body at any instant is the rate at which
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑣−𝑣0) its velocity is changing at that instant .
Acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝑠 𝑑2s
A positive acceleration means an increase in 𝑎= = = 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 d𝑡
velocity; a negative acceleration (sometimes called
a deceleration) means a decrease in velocity.
In words, the acceleration of a body at any instant is the
The acceleration formula can be rewritten as
𝑣−𝑣0 second derivative of its position s with respect to time.
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 or 𝑡 = 𝑎
Examples
(1) The velocity of light is 3.0 × 108 m/s. How long does it take light to reach the earth from the
sun, which
is 1.5 × 1011 m away?
Solution
𝑠 1.5 × 1011
𝑡 = = = 500 𝑠
𝑣 3.0 × 108

A car starts from rest and reaches a final velocity of 40 m/s in 10 s. (a) What is its
acceleration? (b) If its acceleration remains the same, what will its velocity be 5 s later?
Solution
(a) Since the car starts from rest, 𝑣0 = 0
𝑣 40
𝑎= = = 4 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 10
(b) Now, 𝑣0 = 40 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + at = 40 + 4 5 = 60 m/s
 Equations of Motion
Consider a body whose velocity is 𝑣0 when it starts to be accelerated at a constant rate. After time t the
final velocity of the body will be
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (1)
The average velocity, , of the body is
𝑣 +𝑣
𝑣= 0 (*)
2

so that the distance covered, s, is

𝑣0 + 𝑣 𝑣0 + 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑠 = 𝑣t = 𝑡= 𝑡
2 2
1
𝑠 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (2)
2

𝑣−𝑣 𝑣−𝑣0 1 𝑣−𝑣

To obtain another equation, from (1), 𝑡 = 0
into (2), we have, 𝑠 = 𝑣0 ( ) + 𝑎( 0)2
𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑎
By expansion and simplification, we have
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (3)
keep in mind that these equations are valid
only for constant acceleration
Examples

(1) A car has an acceleration of 8 m/s2. (a) How much time is needed for it to reach
a velocity of 24 m/s if it starts from rest? (b) How far does it go during this period?
Solution
(a) From equation (1), 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑣0 = 0, since the car starts from rest.
𝑣 24
𝑡 = = =3𝑠
𝑎 8
(b) 𝑠 can be obtain by using either equation (2) or (3)
1
using (2): 𝑠 = 𝑎𝑡 2 = 36 𝑚
2

(2) A car starts from rest with an acceleration of 2 m/s2. What is its velocity after it
has gone 200 m?
Solution
using equation (3): 𝑣 2 = 2𝑎𝑠, since 𝑣0 = 0
𝑣 = 2𝑎𝑠 = 28 𝑚/𝑠