What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that

explains the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into
seven layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions,
allowing for a more systematic approach to networking.

What are the 7 layers of the OSI Model?

The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down
order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data,
this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the

synchronization of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls
both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit
level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission
rate i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh
topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Note:
1. Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
2. Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known
as Lower Layers or Hardware Layers.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-
free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives
in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using
its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address

Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?”
and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a

way for a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the
receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns
to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in
the header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of
data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Note:
1. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
2. Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and
device drivers of host machines.
3. Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the
other located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e.
selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes
available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is

suitable from source to destination. This function of the network
layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork
uniquely, the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely
and universally.
Note:
 1. Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.
2. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers
and switches.
Transport Layer – Layer 4
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and Destination
port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network
Layer.
Note: The sender needs to know the port number associated with the
receiver’s application.
Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It
also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message

from the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units.
Each of the segments produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered
to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
Note:
1. Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
2. Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of
the OS and communicates with the Application Layer by making
system calls.
3. The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
4. Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer

allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is re-
synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Note:
1. All the below 3 layers(including Session Layer) are integrated as a
single layer in the TCP/IP model as the ????pplication Layer”.
2. Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application
itself. These are also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.
3. Device or Protocol Use : NetBIOS, PPTP.
for Example:-
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in his browser. The “Messenger” here acts as
the application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the
data. This message or so-called Data is compressed, encrypted (if any secure
data), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format
to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into
another form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext
and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for
encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
Note: 1. The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
2. Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
  FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application
allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage
or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services : Provide email service.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database
sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

TCP/Ip
The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was
designed to describe the functions of the communication system by dividing
the communication procedure into smaller and simpler components.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of
the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI
model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this
article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are
referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface
Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by
the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic
difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet
Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the
destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail.
UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with
another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference
between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same
data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP
model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first go into
this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in the same
way at the receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking .
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:
 TCP/IP and OSI

1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on
behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the
receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the
data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-
link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2
framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the
entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the
IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is
growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing
hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find
the hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has
several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and
Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for
routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does
this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify the
device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend.
When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data,
which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer
assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine the
best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all
of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble
them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and
routing tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures
that the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet
Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as
though they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits
data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission
rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the
connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point
that closes the connection make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending
hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little
amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the
processes of establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is
responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It
shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three
main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It
is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications between
web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a
combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient
in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations
software similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of
its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure
session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to
synchronize the clocks on our computer to one standard time source.
It is very useful in situations like bank transactions. Assume the
following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry
out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM
 while the server records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very
badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model that is responsible for providing communication between hosts
(computers or other devices) on a network. It is also known as the transport
layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
1. Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is
transferred reliably between hosts by using techniques like error
correction and flow control. For example, if a packet of data is lost
during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the packet
be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
2. Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is
responsible for breaking up large blocks of data into smaller
segments that can be transmitted over the network, and then
reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be
transmitted more efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the
network.
3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is
responsible for multiplexing data from multiple sources onto a single
network connection, and then demultiplexing the data at the
destination. This allows multiple devices to share the same network
connection and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
4. End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a
connection-oriented service that allows hosts to communicate with
each other end-to-end, without the need for intermediate devices to
be involved in the communication.
Example: Consider a network with two hosts, A and B. Host A wants to send
a file to host B. The host-to-host layer in host A will break the file into smaller
segments, add error correction and flow control information, and then transmit
the segments over the network to host B. The host-to-host layer in host B will
receive the segments, check for errors, and reassemble the file. Once the file
has been transferred successfully, the host-to-host layer in host B will
acknowledge receipt of the file to host A.
In this example, the host-to-host layer is responsible for providing a reliable
connection between host A and host B, breaking the file into smaller segments,
and reassembling the segments at the destination. It is also responsible for
multiplexing and demultiplexing the data and providing end-to-end
communication between the two hosts.
Other Common Internet Protocols
TCP/IP Model covers many Internet Protocols. The main rule of these Internet
Protocols is how the data is validated and sent over the Internet. Some
Common Internet Protocols include:
  HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): HTTP takes care of Web
Browsers and Websites.

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): FTP takes care of how the file is to
be sent over the Internet.
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): SMTP is used to send and
receive data.

**Bridges:**

Bridges are network devices that operate at the data link

layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. They are used to connect
two or more network segments or LANs (Local Area
Networks) together to form a single logical network. Bridges
are designed to selectively forward traffic between network
segments based on MAC (Media Access Control) addresses.

Key features and functions of bridges include:

1. **Filtering:** Bridges filter and forward network traffic

based on MAC addresses. They maintain a table, known as a
MAC address table or bridge table, which maps MAC
addresses to the port on which the corresponding device is
connected.
2. **Collision Domain Segmentation:** Bridges segment
network segments into smaller collision domains. This helps
reduce collisions and improve overall network performance.

3. **Forwarding:** Bridges selectively forward frames

between network segments based on the destination MAC
address. If the destination MAC address is not in the bridge's
MAC address table, the frame is forwarded to all segments
except the one it was received on.

4. **Learning:** Bridges dynamically learn the MAC

addresses of devices connected to each segment by
inspecting the source MAC address of incoming frames. This
information is used to update the MAC address table.

5. **Loop Avoidance:** Bridges employ loop avoidance

mechanisms, such as the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP), to
prevent loops in the network topology, which can lead to
broadcast storms and network instability.
**Repeater:**

A repeater is a network device that operates at the physical

layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model. It is used to regenerate and
amplify signals as they travel along a network cable or
medium, thereby extending the reach of the network.

Key features and functions of repeaters include:

1. **Signal Regeneration:** Repeaters regenerate and

amplify signals to compensate for attenuation and distortion
that occur as signals travel along a network cable. This helps
maintain signal integrity and extend the distance over which
the signal can travel.
2. **Simple Operation:** Repeaters are relatively simple
devices that require minimal configuration. They operate
transparently and do not modify the data being transmitted.

3. **Single Collision Domain:** Repeaters do not segment

the network like bridges or switches. They operate at the
physical layer and extend the reach of a single collision
domain.

4. **Limited Functionality:** Repeaters do not have the

intelligence to filter or manipulate network traffic like
bridges, switches, or routers. They simply regenerate and
amplify signals.

In summary, bridges are used to connect multiple network

segments together and selectively forward traffic based on
MAC addresses, while repeaters are used to regenerate and
amplify signals to extend the reach of a network. Both
devices play important roles in extending network
connectivity and improving network performance.