Module I Fundamentals of

Computer, Its Organization and

Architecture

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 1
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Overview of Fundamentals of Computers

• How computers receive, store and process data to generate useful information.
• The improvements in the functioning of computers in the last few decades.
• The five generations of computers.
• How to classify computers on the basis of operating principles, applications and
size.
• The computer system is a combination of hardware, software, data and people.
• The use of computers in different fields.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 2
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
What is a Computer?
• A computer is an electronic machine that takes input from the user,
processes the given input and generates output in the form of useful
information.

• A computer accepts input in different forms such as data, programs

and user replies. Data refer to the raw details that need to be
processed to generate some useful information.

• Programs refer to the set of instructions that can be executed by the

computer in a sequential or non-sequential manner. User reply is the
input provided by the user in response to a question asked by the
computer. The main task of a computer system is to process the given
input of any type in an efficient manner. Therefore, the computer is
also known by various other names such as data processing unit, data
processor and data processing system.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 3
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Evolution of Computers

• Manual Computing Devices

• Automated Computing Devices

Charles Babbage, a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University, made some
worthwhile efforts towards automatic computing. He is also considered to be the
father of the modern computer.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 4
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Automated Computing Devices

• In 1822, Charles Babbage presented a working model of automating the repeated

series of steps needed in tabulating various functions, such as polynomial,
logarithmic and trigonometric with the help of an automatic mechanical
computing machine. He named the automatic mechanical computing machine as a
difference engine.
• In 1823, Babbage made it more automatic by providing the feature of printing the
tabulated results. Babbage did not stop here and started working on developing
the analytical engine.
• In 1937, an American mathematician, Howard Aiken designed MARK I and
completed it in the year 1944. MARK I was one of the well-known early
computers that could perform the multiplication of two numbers of twenty figures
in just 6 seconds.
• In the year 1944, a British mathematician, Alan Mathison developed the first pure
electronic digital programmable computer. This computer was known as
Colossus.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 5
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Automated Computing Devices Continued..
• The Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC) was another
general-purpose electronic digital computer developed at the Moore School of
Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania by John Ecker, John Mauchly and
their team in the year 1946. This computer also used vacuum tube technology in
constructing the basic circuits.
• In 1949, another electronic computer that used the binary number system for
representing and processing values was introduced. This computer was known as
Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC). EDVAC was also
invented by John Eckert and John Mauchly and was considered the successor of
ENIAC.
• Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was another early
British electronic computer developed by Maurice Wilkes and his team at the
University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory in 1949.
• During 1951, Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation, invented the first
commercial computer was known as Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC).

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 6
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Generation of Computers

• First Generation Computers

• Second Generation Computers

• Third Generation Computers

• Fourth Generation Computers

• Fifth Generation Computers

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 7
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
First Generation of Computers
The first-generation computers were
employed during the period 1940–1956.
These computers used the vacuum tubes
technology for calculation as well as for
storage and control purposes.
The following are the two major
advantages
• These computers were the fastest
computing devices of their time.
• These computers were able to
execute complex mathematical
problems in an efficient manner.
❑ The functioning of these computers depended on machine language. A machine language is a language in which all the values are
represented in the form of 0s and 1s. Therefore, these computers were not very easy to program.
❑ They were generally designed as special-purpose computers. Therefore, they were not very flexible in running different types of
applications.
❑ The use of vacuum tube technology made these computers very large and bulky. Due to their large size, it was not an easy task to
install them properly.
❑ They were not easily transferable from one place to another due to their huge size and also required to be placed in cool places.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 8
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Second Generation of Computers
Second-generation computers were employed
during the period 1956–1963. The main
characteristic of these computers was the use of
transistors in place of vacuum tubes in building
the basic logic circuits.

• They were the fastest computing devices of their time.

• They were easy to program because of the use of assembly
language.
• They could be transferred from one place to another very easily
because they were small and lightweight computing devices.
• They required very little power in carrying out their operations.
• They were more reliable as compared to first generation
computers and hence, did not require maintenance at regular
intervals of time.

❑ The input and output media for these computers were not improved to a considerable extent. They were required to be
placed in airconditioned places.
❑ The cost of these computers was very high and they were beyond the reach of home users.
❑ They were special-purpose computers and could execute only specific applications.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 9
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Third Generation of Computers
The third-generation computers were employed
during the period 1964–1975. The major
characteristic feature of third generation
computer systems was the use of Integrated
Circuits (ICs).

• They were the fastest computing devices as compared with the first and second
generations of Computers.
• The computational time for these computers were also reduced to a great extent.
The computational time for these computers was usually measured in
nanoseconds.
❑ The storage capacity of these computers
• They were very productive because of their small computational time.
was still very small.
• They were easily transportable from one place to another because of their small
❑ The performance of these computers
size.
degraded while executing large
• They used high-level languages. A high-level language is a computer
applications, involving complex
programming language that is independent of the machine details. Hence, the
computations because of the small storage
programmer finds it very easy to use them and the programs written in these
capacity.
languages on one computer can be easily executed on some other computer.
❑ The cost of these computers was very
• They could be installed very easily and required less space for their installation.
high.
• They were able to execute any type of application, such as business and scientific
❑ They were still required to be placed in
applications. Hence, the third generation computers were also considered general-
air-conditioned places.
purpose computers.
• They were more reliable and required less frequent maintenance schedules.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 10
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Fourth Generation of Computers
The fourth-generation computers were
employed during 1975–1989. The invention of
Large Scale Integration (LSI) technology and
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)
technology led to the development of fourth
generation computers. 1. Development of Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
2. Development of new operating systems
3. Invention of various secondary storage and I/O devices
4. Development of Local Area Network (LAN)
• The use of LSI, VLSI and semiconductor technologies made these computers very powerful in terms of their
processing speed and access time.
• The storage capacity of these computers was very large and faster and hence they were very productive and highly
optimised.
• They were highly reliable and required very little maintenance.
• They provided a user-friendly environment while working because of the development of GUIs and interactive I/O
devices.
• The programs written on these computers were highly portable because of the use of high-level languages.
• They were very versatile and suitable for every type of application.
• They required very little power to operate.
❑ The soldering of LSI and VLSI chips on the wiring board was not an easy task and required complicated technologies
to bind these chips on the wiring board.
❑ The working of these computers is still dependent on the instructions given by the programmer.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 11
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Fifth Generation of Computers
The different types of modern digital computers come under the category of fifth-
generation computers.
The fifth-generation computers are based on the Ultra Large-Scale Integration
(ULSI) technology that allows almost ten million electronic components to be
fabricated on one small chip.
1. Development of various portable computers such as laptops, pocket computers, Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA), etc.
2. Development of Parallel Processors.
3. Development of centralised computers called servers.
4. The invention of optical disk technology.
5. The invention of the Internet and its different services.

• They are the fastest and powerful computers to date.

• They are able to execute a large number of applications at the same time and that too at a very high speed.
• The use of ULSI technology helps in decreasing the size of these computers to a large extent. Some of the
fifth generation computers are so small in size that they can be used while travelling.
• The users of these computers find it very comfortable to use them because of the several additional
multimedia features.
• They are versatile for communications and resource sharing.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 12
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Computer Architecture and Organization

• Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a system visible to a

programmer or, put another way, those attributes that have a direct impact on the
logical execution of a program. A term that is often used interchangeably with
computer architecture is instruction set architecture (ISA).
• The ISA defines instruction formats, instruction opcodes, registers, instruction
and data memory; the effect of executed instructions on the registers and memory;
and an algorithm for controlling instruction execution.
• Computer organization refers to the operational units and their interconnections
that realize the architectural specifications.
e.g., architectural attributes include the instruction set, the number of bits
used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms,
and techniques for addressing memory. Organizational attributes include those
hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control signals; interfaces
between the computer and peripherals; and the memory technology used.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 13
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Von Neumann Architecture
• The term "von Neumann
architecture" has evolved to
mean any stored-program
computer in which an
instruction fetch and a data
operation cannot occur at the
same time because they share
a common bus.
• This is referred to as the von
Neumann bottleneck and
often limits the performance
of the system.
• In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new stored-program computer,
referred to as the IAS computer, at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. The IAS
computer, although not completed until 1952, is the prototype of all subsequent general-
purpose computers © Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 14
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Expanded
Structure
of IAS
Computer

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 15
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
IAS Memory Format

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 16
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Partial Flowchart of IAS Computer

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 17
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Example of Program Execution (contents of
memory and registers in hexadecimal)

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 18
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 IAS Instruction Sets

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 19
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Memory
(a) 9 = (1001)
1 001
I=1 ADD
ADD I 32E

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 20
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
Continued..

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 21
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
Continued..

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 22
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
Continued..

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 23
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
Continued..

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 24
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
Continued..

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 25
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Timeline
• 8080: The world’s first general-purpose microprocessor. This was an 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit
data path to memory. The 8080 was used in the first personal computer, the Altair.
• 8086: A far more powerful, 16-bit machine. In addition to a wider data path and larger registers,
the
• 8086 sported an instruction cache or queue, that prefetches a few instructions before they are
executed. A variant of this processor, the 8088, was used in IBM’s first personal computer,
securing the success of Intel. The 8086 is the first appearance of the x86 architecture.
• 80286: This extension of the 8086 enabled addressing a 16-MB memory instead of just 1 MB.
• 80386: Intel’s first 32-bit machine, and a major overhaul of the product. With a 32-bit
architecture, the 80386 rivalled the complexity and power of minicomputers and mainframes
introduced just a few years earlier. This was the first Intel processor to support multitasking,
meaning it could run multiple programs at the same time.
• 80486: The 80486 introduced the use of much more sophisticated and powerful cache technology
and sophisticated instruction pipelining. The 80486 also offered a built-in math coprocessor,
offloading complex math operations from the main CPU.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 26
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Timeline..
• Pentium: With the Pentium, Intel introduced the use of superscalar techniques, which allow
multiple instructions to execute in parallel.
• Pentium Pro: The Pentium Pro continued the move into superscalar organization begun with the
Pentium, with aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and
speculative execution.
• Pentium II: The Pentium II incorporated Intel MMX technology, which is designed specifically to
process video, audio, and graphics data efficiently.
• Pentium III: The Pentium III incorporates additional floating-point instructions: The Streaming
SIMD Extensions (SSE) instruction set extension added 70 new instructions designed to increase
performance when exactly the same operations are to be performed on multiple data objects.
Typical applications are digital signal processing and graphics processing.
• Pentium 4: The Pentium 4 includes additional floating-point and other enhancements for
multimedia.
• Core: This is the first Intel x86 microprocessor with a dual core, referring to the implementation of
two cores on a single chip.
• Core 2: The Core 2 extends the Core architecture to 64 bits. The Core 2 Quad provides four cores
on a single chip. More recent Core offerings have up to 10 cores per chip. An important addition to
the architecture was the Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set that provided a set of 256-bit,
and then 512-bit, instructions for efficient processing of vector data.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 27
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Embedded Systems to Internet of Things
(IoTs)
The term embedded system refers to the use of electronics and software within a
product,
Millions of computers are sold every year, including laptops,
Examples include cell phones, digital cameras, video cameras, personal computers, workstations, servers, mainframes, and
calculators, microwave ovens, home security systems, washing
machines, lighting systems, thermostats, printers, various
supercomputers. In contrast, billions of computer systems are
automotive systems (e.g., transmission control, cruise control, fuel produced each year that are embedded within larger devices.
injection, anti-lock brakes, and suspension systems), tennis rackets,
toothbrushes, and numerous types of sensors and actuators in
automated systems.

One of the major drivers in the proliferation

of embedded systems is The Internet of
things (IoT), its a term that refers to the
expanding interconnection of smart devices,
ranging from appliances to tiny sensors.

Organization of Embedded Systems

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 28
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Internet of Things
• The embedding of short-range mobile transceivers into a wide array of gadgets
and everyday items, enabling new forms of communication between people and
things, and between things themselves.
• The Internet now supports the interconnection of billions of industrial and
personal objects, usually through cloud systems.
• Four generations of deployment culminating in the IoT
• Information technology (IT): PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, and so on, bought as IT devices by
enterprise IT people and primarily using wired connectivity.
• Operational technology (OT): Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies, such
as medical machinery, SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition), process control, and kiosks,
bought as appliances by enterprise OT people and primarily using wired connectivity.
• Personal technology: Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers bought as IT devices by consumers
(employees) exclusively using wireless connectivity and often multiple forms of wireless connectivity.
• Sensor/actuator technology: Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people
exclusively using wireless connectivity, generally of a single form, as part of larger systems.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 29
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Tree of
Computer
Family

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 30
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 What, More Number Systems?
Why do we need more number systems?
• Humans understand decimal

• Digital electronics (computers) understand binary

• Since computers have 32, 64, and even 128-bit busses, displaying
numbers in binary is cumbersome.
• Data on a 32-bit data bus would look like the following:
0110 1001 0111 0001 0011 0100 1100 1010
• Hexadecimal (base 16) and octal (base 8) number systems are used to
represent binary data in a more compact form.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 31
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Converting To and From Decimal

Decimal10
0123456789
Successive Weighted
Division Multiplication
Weighted Successive
Multiplication Division

Successive Weighted
Division Multiplication

Octal8 Hexadecimal16
01234567 0123456789ABCDEF

Binary2
01

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 32
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Counting . . . 2, 8, 10, 16
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal
0 00000 0 0
1 00001 1 1
2 00010 2 2
3 00011 3 3
4 00100 4 4
5 00101 5 5
6 00110 6 6
7 00111 7 7
8 01000 10 8
9 01001 11 9
10 01010 12 A
11 01011 13 B
12 01100 14 C
13 01101 15 D
14 01110 16 E
15 01111 17 F
16 10000 20 10
17 10001 21 11
18 10010 22 Science Lab,
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data 12
1/10/2023 33
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
19 10011 23 13
Review: Decimal ↔ Binary

Successive
Division

a) Divide the decimal number by 2; the remainder is the LSB of the binary number.
b) If the quotient is zero, the conversion is complete. Otherwise, repeat step (a) using
the quotation as the decimal number. The new remainder is the next most
significant bit of the binary number.

Weighted
Multiplication

a) Multiply each bit of the binary number by its corresponding bit-weighting factor
(i.e., Bit-0→20=1; Bit-1→21=2; Bit-2→22=4; etc.).
b) Sum up all of the products in step (a) to get the decimal number.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 34
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Conversion Process Decimal ↔ BaseN
(Any base including Binary2, Octal8, Hexidecimal16)

Successive
Division

a) Divide the decimal number by N; the remainder is the LSB of the ANY BASE
Number .
b) If the quotient is zero, the conversion is complete. Otherwise repeat step (a) using
the quotient as the decimal number. The new remainder is the next most
significant bit of the ANY BASE number.

Weighted
Multiplication

a) Multiply each bit of the ANY BASE number by its corresponding bit-weighting
factor (i.e., Bit-0→N0; Bit-1→N1; Bit-2→N2; etc.).
b) Sum up all of the products in step (a) to get the decimal number.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 35
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Decimal ↔ Octal Conversion
The Process: Successive Division
• Divide the decimal number by 8; the remainder is the LSB of the octal
number .
• If the quotation is zero, the conversion is complete. Otherwise repeat step (a)
using the quotation as the decimal number. The new remainder is the next
most significant bit of the octal number.

Example:
Convert the decimal number 9410 into its octal equivalent.
11
8 94 r = 6  LSB

1  9410 = 1368
8 11 r =3

0
8 1
1/10/2023 r = 1  MSB © Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
36
 Example: Dec → Octal
Example:
Convert the decimal number 18910 into its octal equivalent.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 37
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Dec → Octal
Example:
Convert the decimal number 18910 into its octal equivalent.

Solution:

23
8 189 r =5  LSB

2  18910 = 2758
8 23 r =7

0
8 2 r=2  MSB

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 38
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Octal ↔ Decimal Process
The Process: Weighted Multiplication
• Multiply each bit of the Octal Number by its corresponding bit-
weighting factor (i.e., Bit-0→80=1; Bit-1→81=8; Bit-2→82=64; etc.).
• Sum up all of the products in step (a) to get the decimal number.

Example:
Convert the octal number 1368 into its decimal equivalent.

1 3 6
82 81 80
Bit-Weighting  136 8 = 9410
64 8 1 Factors

64 + 24 + 6 = 9410
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 39
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Octal → Dec
Example:
Convert the octal number 1348 into its decimal equivalent.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 40
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Octal → Dec
Example:
Convert the octal number 1348 into its decimal equivalent.

Solution:

1 3 4
82 81 80

64 8 1
 1348 = 9210

64 + 24 + 4 = 9210

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 41
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Decimal ↔ Hexadecimal Conversion
The Process: Successive Division
• Divide the decimal number by 16; the remainder is the LSB of the
hexadecimal number.
• If the quotation is zero, the conversion is complete. Otherwise repeat
step (a) using the quotation as the decimal number. The new remainder
is the next most significant bit of the hexadecimal number.
Example:
Convert the decimal number 9410 into its hexadecimal equivalent.

5
16 94 r = E  LSB

0
16 5 r = 5  MSB
 9410 = 5E16

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 42
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Dec → Hex
Example:
Convert the decimal number 42910 into its hexadecimal equivalent.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 43
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Dec → Hex
Example:
Convert the decimal number 42910 into its hexadecimal equivalent.

Solution:
26
16 429 r = D (13)  LSB

1
16 26 r = A (10)  42910 = 1AD16 = 1ADH

0
16 1 r =1  MSB

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 44
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Hexadecimal ↔ Decimal Process
The Process: Weighted Multiplication
• Multiply each bit of the hexadecimal number by its corresponding bit-
weighting factor (i.e., Bit-0→160=1; Bit-1→161=16; Bit-2→162=256;
etc.).
• Sum up all of the products in step (a) to get the decimal number.

Example:
Convert the octal number 5E16 into its decimal equivalent.

5 E
161 160  5E 16 = 9410
Bit-Weighting
16 1 Factors

80 + 14 = 9410

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 45
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Hex → Dec
Example:
Convert the hexadecimal number B2EH into its decimal equivalent.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 46
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Hex → Dec
Example:
Convert the hexadecimal number B2EH into its decimal equivalent.

Solution:

B 2 E
162 161 160

256 16 1
 B2EH = 286210

2816 + 32 + 14 = 286210

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 47
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Hex → Octal
Example:
Convert the hexadecimal number 5AH into its octal equivalent.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 48
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Hex → Octal
Example:
Convert the hexadecimal number 5AH into its octal equivalent.
Solution:
First convert the hexadecimal number into its decimal equivalent, then
convert the decimal number into its octal equivalent.
11
5 A 8 90 r = 2  LSB
161 160
1
16 1
8 11 r =3

0
80 + 10 = 9010 8 1 r = 1  MSB

 5AH = 1328
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 49
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Octal → Binary
Example:
Convert the octal number 1328 into its binary equivalent.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 50
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Example: Octal → Binary
Example:
Convert the octal number 1328 into its binary equivalent.
Solution:
First convert the octal number into its decimal equivalent, then convert the
decimal number into its binary equivalent.
45
1 3 2 2 90 r = 0  LSB
82 81 80 22
2 45 r = 1
64 8 1 11
2 22 r = 0  1328 = 10110102
64 + 24 + 2 = 90 5
10
2 11 r = 1
2
2 5 r =1
1
2 2 r =0
1/10/2023
0 Applied Data Science Lab,
© Dr. Manish K Pandey,
51
2 1 r = 1  MSB
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Binary ↔ Octal ↔ Hex Shortcut
Because binary, octal, and hex number systems are all powers of two (which is
the reason we use them) there is a relationship that we can exploit to make
conversion easier.
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2 = 132 8 = 5A H
To convert directly between binary and octal, group the binary bits into sets of 3
(because 23 = 8). You may need to pad with leading zeros.
0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2= 1 3 28

1 3 2 001 011 010

To convert directly between binary and hexadecimal number systems, group the
binary bits into sets of 4 (because 24 = 16). You may need to pad with leading
zeros.
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 2= 5 A 16

1/10/2023 5 A 0101 1 010

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
52
Example: Binary ↔ Octal ↔ Hex
Example:
Using the shortcut technique, convert the hexadecimal number A616 into its
binary and octal equivalent. Use your calculator to check your answers.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 53
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Example: Binary ↔ Octal ↔ Hex
Example:
Using the shortcut technique, convert the hexadecimal number A616 into its
binary & octal equivalent. Use your calculator to check your answers.

Solution:
First convert the hexadecimal number into binary by expanding the
hexadecimal digits into binary groups of (4).
A 6 16
 A616 = 101001102
1010 0110
Convert the binary number into octal by grouping the binary bits into groups
of (3).
010100110  101001102 = 2468
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023
2 4 6 CQEDS, BIT Mesra
54
 COMPUTER SOFTWARE
• Fundamentals of computer software

• Types of software

• Role of system software

• Types of system software and their functions

• Functions of operating system

• Different types of application software

• Basic steps in solving a problem

• Basic steps in developing a program

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 55
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
INTRODUCTION
• The hardware refers to the physical equipment that is necessary for performing

various operations, such as reading and processing data, storing results and

providing output to the users in the desired form.

• Software refers to a set of computer programs that are required to enable the

hardware to work and perform these operations effectively.

• A computer program is basically a set of logical instructions, written in a computer

programming language that tells the computer how to accomplish a task.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 56
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 TYPES OF COMPUTER SOFTWARE

1. System management programs are used for 1. Standard application programs that
managing both the hardware and software are designed for performing
systems. common application jobs.
2. System development programs used for 2. Unique application programs are
developing and executing application developed by the users themselves
software. to support their specific needs.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 57
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS

• Scheduling and execution of all processes.

• Allocation and management of main
memory and other storage areas to the
programs.
• Coordination and assignment of different
hardware devices to the programs.
• Creation, storage and manipulation of fi les
required by the various processes.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 58
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS…
• Determining and maintaining the order of execution of programs.
• Interpretation of commands and instructions.
• Coordination and assignment of other development and utility programs.
• Providing a friendly interface between the computer and the user.
• Ensuring the security of access to computer resources.
• Search and replace. It enables the operating system to search a file on the basis of the specified search
criteria.
• Print. It enables an operating system to initiate the print operation of the printer connected with the
computer system.
• Disk defragmenter. It helps in defragmenting the memory space. Defragmentation is the process of
storing the data at a single place in the memory instead of disjointed memory locations.
• System profiler. It provides information related to the various hardware and software components
installed in the computer system. In other words, it provides a list of the hardware components, which are
presently connected with the computer system, and the software components, which are currently installed
in the computer system.
• Encryption. It enables the operating system to generate the encrypted format of the messages or the files,
which has to be transmitted from one system to another system over the network or the Internet.
• Virus scanner. It enables the operating system to detect viruses and bugs, which may affect the correct
functioning of the computer system.
• Backup. It enables the creation of a copy of various files and folders on a secondary medium such as
magnetic disk and magnetic tape, in order to keep the original data safe.
• Data recovery. It enables the retrieval of lost data from a corrupted or damaged primary storage medium.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 59
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS…

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 60
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
System development programs known as programming software allow the users to
develop programs in different programming languages. The process of developing and
executing a program involves the following tasks:
• Debugging the program
• Linking the various variables and objects with the library's files
• Translating the code from one language to another
• Running the machine code to perform the desired task
In order to carry out these tasks, we need the following system development tools:
• Language translators
• Linkers
• Debuggers
• Editors
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 61
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS…

Language translators
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 62
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS…

Working of Linker
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 63
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS…
Debugger is the software that is used to detect the errors and bugs present in the
programs. The debugger locates the position of the errors in the program code with
the help of what is known as the Instruction Set Simulator (ISS) technique.

ISS is capable of stopping the execution of a program at the point where an

erroneous statement is encountered.

The debugger is divided into two types, namely, machine-level debugger and
symbolic debugger. The machine-level debugger debugs the object code of the
program and shows all the lines where bugs are detected.

On the other hand, the symbolic debugger debugs the original code, i.e., the high-
level language code of the program. It shows the position of the bug in the original
code of the program developed by the programmer.

• Step-by-step execution of a program

• Back tracking for checking the previous steps
• Stopping the execution of the program until the errors are corrected
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 64
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS…
• Text editor, It is used to editing plain text. An operating system always includes
a text editor for updating the configuration files.
• Digital audio editor It is used to edit the information related to the audio
components of a multimedia application. These editors are used in audio
applications where editing the music and the sound signals is necessary.
• Graphics editor It is used to edit the information related to the graphical object.
These editors are generally used in multimedia applications where the user is
working with multiple animation objects.
• Binary file editor It is used to edit the digital data or the binary data, i.e., data
having strings of 0s and 1s.
• HTML editor It is used to edit the information included in the web pages.
• Source code editor It is used to edit the source code of a program written in a
programming language such as C, C++ and Java.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 65
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
STANDARD APPLICATION PROGRAMS
• Word processor

• Spreadsheet

• Database Manager

• Desktop Publisher

• Web Browser

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 66
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
UNIQUE APPLICATION PROGRAMS

1. Managing the inventory of a store

2. Preparing pay-bills of employees in an organization

3. Processing examination results of students

4. Reserving seats in trains or airlines

5. Analysing mathematical models

6. Computing personal income tax

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 67
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Database Management System
• DBMS helps us to store and maintain records in a database.
• Database refers to a set of records, which are stored in a structured manner in the
computer system.
• Record refers to a set of similar or dissimilar values related to an entity such as
student and employee.
• DBMS allows a user to perform various operations such as search, update and
delete on the data stored in the database. With the help of DBMS an end user can
store, retrieve, and modify the data in an easy manner.

✓ It enables the user to organize all the information in a strategic manner.

✓ It helps the users in maintaining consistency in the information stored in the database.
✓ It helps the user in maintaining data integrity while performing the various operations on the database
values.
✓ It allows the user to maintain the security of confidential information by password-protecting the
database.
✓ It helps in accessing information from any system connected in a networked system environment.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 68
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Data Models to Design DBMS

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 69
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Components of DBMS
Data structure:- Refers to a storage mechanism that is used to store multiple values as a
single entity. In DBMS, different types of data structures are used to store the information
related to an entity. These data structures include:
❏ File It refers to a collection of multiple records.
❏ Record It refers to a collection of multiple values of different data types related to one entity.
❏ Field It refers to a set of different values having similar data types.
Transaction mechanism DBMS always includes a transaction mechanism, which ensures
that the basic properties of the database system are not affected by the processing of the
transactions. A transaction mechanism included in a database system consists of the
following properties:
❏ Atomicity The transaction mechanism should complete either all tasks included in a transaction
processing or none of them.
❏ Consistency The transaction mechanism should be capable of maintaining consistency in the
information stored in the multiple files of DBMS after the processing of a transaction.
❏ Isolation The transaction mechanism should not allow any subprocess of the transaction to use the
intermediate data of another transaction.
❏ Durability The transaction mechanism should be capable of providing information related to the
transactions, which have been processed to change the information stored in the database.
Database query language:- DBMS includes a query language system, which enables a
user to perform various operations such as searching and updating the information stored
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 70
in the database. CQEDS, BIT Mesra
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

• The concept of programming languages.

• The evolution of programming languages.
• The different generations of programming
languages.
• The concept of high-level languages and their
types.
• Some of the popular high-level languages.
• The process of developing and running a program.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 71
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
HISTORY OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 72
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
GENERATIONS OF PROGRAMMING
LANGUAGES
• First generation languages (1GL)
• Second generation languages (2GL)
• Third generation languages (3GL)
• Fourth generation languages (4GL)
• Fifth generation languages (5GL)

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 73
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 First generation languages (1GL)
• They are translation free and can be directly
executed by the computers.
• The programs written in these languages are
executed very speedily and efficiently by the CPU
of the computer system.
• The programs written in these languages utilize
the memory in an efficient manner because it is
possible to keep track of each bit of data.

• It is very difficult to develop a program in machine language.

• The programs developed in these languages cannot be understood very easily by a person,
who has not actually developed these programs.
• The programs written in these languages are so prone to frequent errors that they are very
difficult to maintain.
• The errors in the programs developed in these languages cannot be detected and corrected
easily.
• A programmer has to write a large number of instructions for executing even a simple task in
these languages. Therefore, we can say that these languages result in poor productivity while
developing programs.
• The programs developed in these languages are hardware-dependent and thus they are non-
portable.
1/10/2023
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
74
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Second generation languages (2GL)
• It is easy to develop, understand and modify the
programs developed in these languages as
compared to those developed in the first
generation programming languages.
• The programs written in these languages are less
prone to errors, and therefore can be maintained
with great ease.
• The detection and correction of errors are
relatively easy in these languages in comparison
to the first-generation programming languages.

• The programs developed in these languages are not executed as quickly as the programs
developed in the machine language. This is because of the fact that the computer system needs
to convert these programs into machine language before executing them.
• The programs developed in these languages are not portable as these languages are machine-
dependent.
• The programmer of these languages needs to have a thorough knowledge of the internal
architecture of the CPU for developing a program.
• The assembly language programs, like the machine language programs, still result in poor
productivity.
1/10/2023
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
75
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
 Third generation languages (3GL)
• It is easy to develop, learn and understand the programs.
• FORTRAN • The programs developed in these languages are highly
• ALGOL portable as compared to the programs developed in the
• BASIC first and second-generation programming languages.
Hence, we can also say that the third-generation
• COBOL
programming languages are machine-independent
• C/C++ programming languages.
• The programs written in these languages can be
• As compared to the assembly developed in very little time as compared to the first and
and the machine language second-generation programming languages. This is
programs, the programs written because of the fact that the third-generation
in the third generation programming languages are quite user-friendly and
programming languages are provide the necessary inbuilt tools required for
executed slowly by the computer developing an application.
system. • As the programs written in these languages are less
• The memory requirement of the prone to errors, they are easy to maintain.
programs written in these • The third-generation programming languages provide
programming languages is more more enhanced documentation and debugging
as compared to the programs techniques as compared to the first and the second
developed using assembly and generation programming languages.
machine languages.
1/10/2023
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
76
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Fourth generation languages (4GL)
• PowerBuilder • The fourth-generation programming
• SQL languages are easier to learn and use as
• XBase++ compared to the third-generation
programming languages.
• CSS
• These programming languages require less
• ColdFusion time, cost, and effort to develop different
types of software applications.
• As compared to the programs
• These programming languages allow the
developed in the programming
efficient use of data by implementing various
languages of previous generations,
database concepts.
the programs developed in the 4GLs
• As compared to the third generation
are executed at a slower speed by the
programming languages, these languages
CPU.
required less number of instructions for
• As compared to the third generation
performing a specific task.
programming languages, the
• The programs developed in these languages
programs developed in these
are highly portable as compared to the
programming languages require more
programs developed in the languages of
space in the memory of the computer
other generations.
system.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 77
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Fifth generation languages (5GL)
Artificial Intelligence Languages
• Mercury • The fifth generation languages allow the users to communicate
• Prolog with the computer system in a simple and easy manner.
• OPS5 Programmers can use normal English words while interacting
with the computer system.
• These languages can be used to query the databases in a fast
and efficient manner.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 78
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE
1. The language must allow the programmer to write simple, clear, and concise programs.
2. The language must be simple to use so that a programmer can learn it without any explicit training.
3. The glossary used in the language should be very close to the one used in human languages.
4. The function library used in the language should be well documented so that the necessary
5. information about a function can be easily obtained while developing an application.
6. The various programming constructs supported by the language must match well with the application area it
is being designed for.
7. The language must allow the programmer to focus only on the design and the implementation of the
different programming concepts without requiring the programmer to be well acquainted with the
background details of the concepts being used.
8. The programs developed in the language must make efficient use of memory as well as other computer
resources.
9. The language must provide necessary tools for the development, testing, debugging, and maintenance of a
program. All these tools must be incorporated into a single environment known as Integrated Development
Environment (IDE), which enables the programmer to use them easily.
10. The language must be platform-independent, i.e., the programs developed using the programming language
can run on any computer system.
11. The Graphical User Interface (GUI) of the language must be attractive, user-friendly, and self-explanatory.
12. The language must be object-oriented in nature so as to provide various features such as inheritance,
information hiding, and dynamic binding to its programmers.
13. The language must be consistent in terms of both syntax and semantics.
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
1/10/2023 79
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
CATEGORISATION OF HIGH-LEVEL
LANGUAGES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 80
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Problem Solving
Preparing hierarchy chart: A hierarchy chart shows the top-down solution of a
problem. In case of large problems, we can break them into parts representing small
tasks, prepare several algorithms and later combine them into one large algorithm.
Developing algorithm: An algorithm is a sequence of steps written in the form of
English phrases that specify the tasks that are performed while solving a problem. It
involves identifying the variable names and types that would be used for solving the
problem.
Drawing flowchart: A flowchart is the graphical representation of the flow of
control and logic in the solution of a problem. The flowchart is a pictorial
representation of an algorithm.
Writing Pseudocode: Pseudocode is pretty much similar to algorithms. It uses
generic syntax for describing the steps that are to be performed for solving a
problem. Along with the statements written using generic syntax, pseudocode can
also use English phrases for describing an action.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 81
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Hierarchy Chart

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 82
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Algorithms

Abu Jafar Mohammed Ibn Musa Al Khowarizmi Alkhowarism Algorism

Input:-May accepts a zero or more

inputs
Output:-Should produce at least one
output
Definiteness:-Instruction must be
clear, well defined, and precise, should
not be ambiguous
Name of the algorithm:-to specify the
Finiteness:-should be the sequence of
problem to be solved
finite instructions
Step Number:-Identification tag of
Effectiveness:-Operations must be
instruction; an unsigned positive number
simple & carried out in a finite time.
Explanatory comment:-Follows the step
Should be traced manually.
number to describe the operation.
Termination:-Specifies the end of the
1/10/2023
algorithm
© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,
83
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Flowcharts A diagrammatic representation of an algorithm
referred as a blueprint of an algorithm

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 84
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Pseudocodes

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 85
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
STRUCTURING THE LOGIC
Sequence structure The execution of the statements in a sequence structure is done
sequentially, i.e., all the statements are executed in the same order as they are written
in the program.
Selection structure In the selection structure, two sets of statement blocks are
written in a program along with one or more conditions. The execution of a
particular block’s statements occurs only if the conditional statement specified at the
beginning of the block is true. A selection structure is also known as a branching
structure.
Repetition structure In the repetition structure, a block of two or more instructions
is specified along with a conditional statement. The execution of these instructions is
repeated many times if the conditional statement is true. This structure is also known
as the looping structure.

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 86
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Sequence Structure

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 87
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Selection Structure

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 88
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
Repetition Structure

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 89
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
MEMORY AND STORAGE SYSTEMS

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 90
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
RAM’s

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 91
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
STORAGE SYSTEMS

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 92
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
INPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 93
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
INPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 94
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
INPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 95
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
OUTPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 96
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
OUTPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 97
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
OUTPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 98
CQEDS, BIT Mesra
OUTPUT DEVICES

© Dr. Manish K Pandey, Applied Data Science Lab,

1/10/2023 99
CQEDS, BIT Mesra