A iit Ai oe ia — = oe ipsam X ponies, Kg (Ph S —, Co) Ma le S . eeAl Fernato;, INTRODUCTION ‘AG. system has a number of advantages over d.c. system: These days 3-phase 2c. system ‘exclusively used for generation, transmission and distribution of power. The aching ee es iphase power from mechanical power is called an alternator or synchronous generator fare the primary source of all the electrical energy we consume. These machines are the larg — converters found in the world. They convert mechanical energy into a.c. energy. In ‘ne Shall discuss the construction and characteristics of alternators. ape 12.1 ALTERNATOR An *altemator operates on the same fundamental principle ic induction asa d.c. generator i.e., when the flux linking a conductor changes, an ¢.m-f. is induced im the conductor. Like a d.c. generator, an alternator also winding and a field winding. But there is @ne important difference between the two. In a dc. "@merstor, the armature winding is placed on the rotor in ‘ender to provide a way of converting alternating voltage generated in the winding to a direct voltage at the terminals ‘through the use of a rotating commutator. The field poles oe ova eth part of the machine. Since no ‘Gommutator is required in an alternator, it is usually more onvemient and advantageous to place the field winding Stationary winding for high voltages for which the altematos = eng depeatrseadnetae bere tothe stationary arrangement of the armature. es ail 2 e427 CSaternators 122 CONSTRUCTION OF ALTERNATOR a ‘analternator has 3-phase winding on the stator and a d.c. field wi 1, Stator. It is the stationary part of the machine and is having slots on its inner periphery. A 3-phase winding is pl mature winding of the alternator, The mature winding is always connected instar and the neutral is connected to **ground, 2, Rotor. The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current through two slip rings by a separate d.c. source. This d.c. source (called exciter) is generally a small dic. shunt or compound generator mounted on the shaft of the altemator. Rotor construction is of two types, namely ; () Salient (or projecting) pole type (ii) Non-salient (or cylindrical) pole type (i) Salient pole type. Inthis type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large circular steel frame which is fixed to the shaft d P of the alternator as shown in Fig, 12.2, The Sennen "individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that when the field winding is energised by the dic. exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities. Low and medium-speed alternators (120-400 p.m.) such as those driven by diesel engines or water turbines tave salient pole type rotors due to the following reasons : (a) The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven at high speed and would tend to produce noise. (0) Selient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the mechanical stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds. Since a frequency of 50 Hz is required, we must use a ‘large number of poles on the rotor of slow-speed: as iliemators, Low-speed rotors always possess a b Nes inding on the rotor. built up of sheet- steel lamina ions laced in these slots and serves as the SALIENT POLEPrinciples of Electrical Machin es Iby the dc. exciter. The regions forming the poles are usually left Unslotted ag sho #S clear that the poles formed are non-salient i.c., they do not project Wn Out from the run Botte speed alicmators (1500 or 3000 rp.m.) are driven by steam turbines and Use non-sa “Type rotors due to the following reasons Salient (@) Tis type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noiseless Operation at hy speeds. igh (0) The Mex distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and heng waveform is obtained than in the case of salient-pole type. Since steam turbines run at high speed and a frequency of 50 Hz. is required, we Teed @ smal ‘umber of poles on the rotor of high-speed altemators (also called turboalternators).. We can se less than 2 poles and this fixes the highest possible speed. For a frequency of 50 Hz, itis 3000 rpm, ‘The next lower speed is 1500 r.p.m. for a 4-pole machine. Consequently, ‘urboaltemators possess ©F 4 poles and have *small diameters and very long axial lengths 123 ALTERNATOR OPERATION ‘The rotor winding is energised from the d.c. exciter and alternate Nand $ Poles are developed on the folor When the rotor is rotated in anticlockwise direction by a prime mover, the stator or armature Sonductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles Consequently, e.m.f. is induced in the armani. Sonductors due to electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f. is alternating since Nand S poles of Fotor altematcly pass the armature conductors. The direction of induced eam-f, can be found by Fleming's right hand rule and frequency is given by ; cae T° oy where N = speed of rotor in rp.m. P = number of rotor poles “The magnitude of the voltage induced in each phase depends upon the rotor flux, the tinberand ‘Position of the conductors in the phase and the speed of the rotor, © a betterems mepernators 24 FREQUENCY - equency of induced ¢.m.f. the ar rhe frequency f. in the armature conductors depends jen "8 depends upon speed and the number of i N = rotor speed in rp.m P = number of rotor poles f = frequency of e.m.f. in Hz Consider ppt by the Vand S poles of the v rotor. Ifa across the conductor, a simila faced when a S-pole sweeps by. This means that one complete eycle of emf. is conor maa conductor 28a pair of poles passes it ic., one N-pole and the adjacent following Sepole, ‘Thesanes, se for every other armature conductor. Pot Sa aie sositive voltage is induced when a N-pole sw No. of cycles/revolution = No. of paits of poles = P/2 No. of revolutions/second = N/60 No. of cycles/second *(P/2) (N/60) N P/A20 But number of eyeles of em. per second is its frequency, NP 120 Inmay be noted that Vis the synchronous speed and is generally represented by N,, Fora given sltemator, the number of rotor poles is fixed and, therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed to give an output of desired frequency. For this reason, an altemator is sometimes called synchronous generator 1.5 A.C. ARMATURE WINDINGS AC, armature windings are always of the nonsalient-pole type and are usually symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete circumference of the armature. A.C. armature windings are generally “open-cirouit type i.e., both ends are brought out. An open-circuit winding is one that doesnot close onitself i.¢., a closed circuit will not be formed until some external connection is made to a source or load, The following are the general features of a.c. armature windings : () A.C. armature windings are generally distributed windings i.e., they are symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete circumference; of the armature. A distributed winding has two principal advantages. First, a distributed winding generates voltage wave that is nearly a sine curve, Secondly, copper is evenly distributed on the armature surface. Therefore, heating is more uniform and this type of winding is more easily cooled. ; (i) AC. armature windings may use full-pitch coils or fractional-pitch eoils. A coil » ***cpan of 180° electrical is called a fill-pitch coil: In this ease, the two sides Ft ol occupy identical positions under adjacent opposite poles and the em. generated in the col ismacimum, A coil with a span of less than 180° electrical is called a fractional-piteh ot For example, a coil with a span of 150° electrical would be: called a5/6 pitch coil. net emf, induced in a fractional-pitch coil is less than that ofa full-pitch col raction®l-po coils are frequently used in a.c. machines for two main reasons. First, less copper is req per coil and secondly the waveform of the generated voltage is improved. (li) Most of'a.c. machines use double layer double | qe sce ‘ i ‘half: side lies in the lower half of Spt tom one Ths arugsmet emis sia - of revolutions/second ' onder to providefor the commutation ofthe cols wie (sie Bak io to manufacture ‘ofc. machines are of 3-phase type, the three windings of spaced 120 electrical degrees apart, ot Ae haar (®) A group of adjacent slots belonging to one phase under one pol pole pair is ke ‘The angle subtended by a phase belt is known as phase spread. The Sepheee P hase et, always designed for 60° phase spread. windings are 12.6 ARMATURE WINDING OF ALTERNATOR With very few exceptions, altemators are 3-phase machines because of the advantages service for generation, transmission and distribution. ‘The windings for analtemator arcane than that of a d.c, machine because no commutator is used. Fig. 12.5 shows a ape double-layer, full-pitch, distributed winding for the stator of an alternator. There are 19.408 each slot contains two coil sides. The coil sides that are placed in adjacent slots belong tg ae at phase such as a, a, oF dy a constitute a phase belt. Note that in a 3-phase machine, phage always 60° electrical. Since the winding has double-layer arrangement, one side ofa col, aay is placed atthe bottom ofa slot and the other side ~ a, is placed at the top of another slot span pole pitch apart, Note that each coil has span of full pole pitch or 180 clerical depres, Thee the winding is a full-pitch winding. a, 1 Phase belt 60° 12.5 Fig. 12.6 ‘ Note that there are 12 total coils and each phase has four coils. The four coils in each phast connected in series so that their voltages aid. The three phases then may be connected to form Yor connection. Fig, 12,6 shows how the coils are connected to form a ¥-connection, é 12.7. WINDING FACTORS ‘The armature winding of an alternator is distributed over the entire armature, The produces nearly a sine waveform and the heating is more uniform. Likewise, the winding are not full-pitched i.., the two sides ofa coil are not at corresponding points und poles. The fractional pitched armature winding requires less copper per coil and at he Beer et out voltage is improved. The distribution and pitching of the coils affe in the coils. We shall discuss two winding factors : (i) Distribution factor (K,), also called breadth factor (ii), Piteh factor (K,), also known as chord factor Principles of Elect rT Meat Mihinggternators istributi (Ky). A windin, " () Distribution factor (K,) : rakes a canine winding, In this type of winding, d/phase in eral a Pe, vm of the individual coil e.m.f's in that phase, However, if the coilsiphase are dicts ee ‘sireal slots in space (distributed winding), the em. distribu ev £sin the coils are not in phase ( hase differenc got zero) but are displaced from each by the slot angle o-(The angulge displacement in electrical is s between the adjacent slots is called slot angle), The em. ‘phase will be the phasor sum of es fs. The distribution factor K, is defined ag : Phasor sum of ig with only one’slot the e.m.f. generate K, = ££ with distributed winding mf. with concentrated winding = —Phasor sum of coil e.m.fs/phase arithmetic sum of coil e.m.Es/phase Note that numerator is less than denominator so that K, < 1, Expression for K, p = 180° electrical ae Sag Ot ee of slots/pole n = slots per pole per phase The distribution factor can be determined by constructing a phasor diagram for the coil em.s. Lein= 3. The three coil e.m.fs are shown as phasors 4B, BC and CD [See Fig. 12.7 ()] each of which isa chord of **circle with centre at O'and subtends an angle a at 0. The phasor sum of the coil em4fs subtends an angle a (Here n = 3) at O. Draw perpendicular bisectors of each chord such as. Or, Oy ete (See Fig. 12.7 (i) sii gigs 2A Ax nxAB~ nx(2Ay) nx Ay A xin (na/2) nx OAx sin (a2) sin (na/2) 4 nsin (a/2) Ry Note that 7 a: is the phase spread. a Phasor BC ‘concentrated winding has the following drawbacks : ee Pigaialarmre Hoe eevcing sve waveform of {sinc inthiscase,wavefom ane rote ic Wen vie che tboty sa hen he uve ABCD wil bene par ofa ciel a hen n is | us t v: Principles of Electiog ‘ Pitch factor (K,). A coil whose sides are separated b: es ). A coil who y one pole pitch (ie, ‘electrical is called a full-pitch coil. With a full-piteh coil, the e.m.{s induced inte easy, in phase with each other and the resultant e.m.f. is the arithmetic sum of individual em idea the waveform of the resultant e.m,f can be improved by making the coil pitch less ae i, Such a coils ealled short-pitch coil. This practice is only possible with double-layer yn Poi Theem-f induced ina short-pitch coilis ess than that ofa full-ptch coil. The factorgysp ii per coil is reduced is called pitch factor K,, It is defined as Mich np kK ~ Smnuf. induced in shortpitch coil ° induced in full-pitch coil Expression for K,.. Consider a coil AB which is short-pitch by an angle B electric shown in Fig, 12.8, The e.m.£s generated in the coil sides A and B differ in phase by an gee can be represented by phasors E, and E respectively as showm in Fig. 12.9. The dagaeg lS! parallelogram represents the resultant e.m.f. Ey of the coil. Sle Pole pitch (180° electrical) —1 8 Fig. 12.8 Fig. 12.9 Since E, = Ey, E, = 2£,cosB/2 £. in short-pitch coil m.f, in full-pitch coil = FLEE cosa 4 K, = cos B/2 For a full-pitch winding, K, = 1. However, for a short-pitch winding, K, < 1. Notelhatfi always an integer multiple of the slot angle a. Example 12.1. Calculate the value of the distribution factor for a 3-phase winding ofa alternator having 36 stots. Solution. em, Ey : ' i: . Pitch factor, K, = ‘Number of slots/pole = 36/4 = 9 180° 180° 3 = 180° ~ 99° (elect oa! eh Saale ESET LR A Number of slots/pole/phase,n = 9/3 = 3 ener _ sin(ma/2) _ sin Gx 20°/2) Distribution factor, Ky sin (@/2) ~ 3sin (20"/2) a ee "annem: 22° Example 12.2, The stator winding of an alternator has 48 slots. A 4pole 31 ‘made on the stator Each coil spans 11 slots. Calculate the pltch-factor. Solution. Fig. 12.10 shows the conditions of the problem. The pole pitoh i the coil spans 11 slots. nin a ~-@oibpitch = HE se 180 = 165° (let)Fig. 12.10 Coil is short-pitched by = 180°—165° = 15° Pitch factor, K, = cos B/2 = cos 15°/2 = 0.99 Example 12.3. Calculate the distribution factor for a sin; igle-phase alternator having 6 slots/pole adjacent slots per pole are wound, the ia i () when all the slots are wound and (ii)’ when only four remaining slots being unwound. Solution. () When all the slots are wound n=6 ; Slotangle, a= 180°/6 = 30° (clect) Distribution factor, K, = Sia(wa/2) _ sin 6x30*/2) : in (@/2) ~ 6 sin G0"/2) sin90° _ 9, Sens” O44 (ii) When only 4 adjacent slots per pole are wound n= 4; a= 30° (elect) sin (n@/2) _ sin (4x30°/2) Be pane (a/2) 4 sin G0*/2) i = S060 20-437 | 4sin 15° Example 12.4. An alternator has 9 slots per pole. Ifeach coil spans 8 slot pitches, what is the value of the pitch factor ? ; Solution. Coil pitch S180" = 160° (elect.) Coil is short-pitched by B = 180°- 160° = 20° (elect.) : Pitch factor, K, = cos B/2 = cos 20°/2 = cos 10° = 0-985 Example 12.8. The stator ofa 3-phase alternator has 9 slots per pole and carries a balanced 3- phase, double-layer winding. The coils are short-pitched and the coil pitch is 7 slots. Find the distribution factor and pitch factor. Solution. ae 180° = 180 = 29° (elect.) Slot angle, © = yS-pFslots/pole ~ 9 QAR: 1 No. of slots/pole/phase, n Coil pitch = 3x 180° = 140° (elect.) 1180" — 140° = 40° (elect.) Coil is short-pitched by B = an a. sin (na/2) _ sox Disribitide aay ty sa) a 3 sin (20°/2)_Principles of Electrical jy, sin 30° sin 10° 0-9598 Fitch factor, K, = cos (B/2) = cos(40°/2) = cos 30° Example 12.6. Calculate the pitch factor for a winding having 24 stator slots when the coil spans 5 slots Solution. Fig. 12.11 shows the conditions of the problem. The Pole pitch is 6 slots. But the coil spans 5 slots ! Coil pitch = 3 «180° = 150° cea ALT Tepes Coil is short-pitched by ; B = 180°-150° = 30°%(elect) 1. : Pitch factor, K, = cos 8/2 = cos 30°/2 cos 15° = 0-9659 1. A certain altemator has 6 slots per pole and the coils are short-pitch by 1 slot (Le, coil pitch isSeio pitches). What is the value of pitch factor? 1096 2. Calculate the value of distribution factor for a 3-phase alternator having 12 slots per pole (0-958) 3. Calculate the distribution factor for a 36-slot, 4-pole, single-layer, 3-phase winding, 09 12.8 E.M.F. EQUATION OF AN ALTERNATOR : Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series per phase = Flux per pole in webers P = Number of rotor poles N = Rotor speed in r.p.m. In one revolution (i.e., 60/N second), each stator conductor is cut by Po webers ie, dy = Pd; dt = 60/N Average e.m.f. induced in one stator conductor de Sede nay at ~ 6N ~ 60 ‘ Since there are Z conductors in series per phase, Ean. 60 ee ay 60 P = 2f$Zvolts Average value/phase x form factor 2fOZx VI = 2-226 Z volts volts Average e.m.f./phase = Zz RMS. value of e.m.f./phase a Exms/Phase = 2-22 fo Z volts a If K, and K, are the pitch factor and distribution factor of the armature winding, then, a E,ms/phase = 222K, K,f¢ Z volts i ‘i cast Sometimes the tums (7) per phase rather than conductors per phase are specified, Int (ii) becomes : Exms/Phase = 444K, K,f@ T volts age The line voltage will depend upon whether the winding is star or delta connected.pornos gxample 12.7. 4 3-phase, 50 He, star-connected alternator has 180 conductors per ph parper pote is 00343 Wb, Find ()) emf. generated per phase and (ii) em i come Mrinals. Assume the winding to be full pitched and distribution factor 1o be 0-96 lb Solution. Generated em.f/phase, Ey, = 222K, K,Zf = 2:22 1 x 0:96 x 180 x 50 x 0.0543 = 10415 y @ Line voltage, #, = J3 £,, = V3 x1o4i5 = 180393 Example 12.8. Find she number of armature conductors in series per phase required forthe smanre of a 3-Dhase, 50 Hz, 10-pole alternator The winding 1s starcomurs tage of 1000 ¥. The fx per pole is 016 WB, Assume K, = Me S098. et to sa Solution. Generated e.m.f./phase, Ey, = E,/3 = 11000/V3 = 6352 Let Z be the number of conductors in series per phase. Eu = 222K, K,Zfo Eon 0 | BORK, K, Jt ~ BDxIROaGxSOROTG ; p Ky %1%096 x 50% 016 | Example 12.9. The armature of an 8-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternator has 18 slots and 10 | conductors/slot. A flux of 0:04 Wb is entering the armature from one pole. Calculate the induced | emf per phase. | Solution. Since the values of K, and K, are not given, they will be assumed 1. Total no. of conductors = 18x10 = 180 No. of conductors/phase,Z = 180/3 = 60 Induced e.m.£,/phase, Ey, = 222K, K,fo = 222% 1«1% 60% 50x004 = 2664V = 3725 | Example 12.10. A 3-phase, 16-pole synchronous generator has a star-connected winding with | Idslots and 10 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0-03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the peed is 375 rpm. Calculate (i) the frequency and (ii) line induced e.mf. Solution, ; nF 375*16 1 0 Line frequency, f = 555 = = = 50 Hz ni 18, AB X29" (elect. . @ Slot angle, 2 = NooF slots/pole 144/16 cere 144 No. of slots/pole/phase, n= Tes = 2) x 20°/2) Distribution factor, Ky = mae 2 we G02) sin 30° = Sin30% 2 996 Sainte 44 x10 No. of tums/phase, T= mee = 240 ‘Assuming pitch factor K, = 1 (since itis not given), Induced e:m.£/phase, Ey = 444K, Ky TS 4-44 x 1x 0:96 x 240 x 50 x 0:03 = 1534 NS Eg = ¥3x1534 = 2687 Induced line voltage, £,Principles of Phase, star-connected alternator ono 4 pl Pen circuit is required ty 45 ‘wien driven at 500 rpm. The wan has 3 slog perneateneaeg Calculate () the number ofpoles and (iy Useful fluxpper payee be connected in Series and the coils to be full-pitch, @ ota, 8 , Sam 500% P or ea Die ge Reel (i) No. of slots/phase = 3x 12'= 36 No, of conductors/phase, Z = 36x10 = 360 EME/phase, £, = - = 2080 V No. of slots/pole/phase;n = 3 180° ple No.of slots/pole ~ 3x3 = 20°(elect) Distribution factor, K,, = ae a oe Slot angle,a = sin 30° ~ 3sintge ~ 996 : Pitch factor, K, = «for fullpitch coils Induced e.m.£./phase, Ey = 2:22 K, K, 2f or 2080 = 222% 1x 096x360 50% = 00543 Wb Example 12:12. 4 4-pole, 3-phase, 50-He, star-connected alternator has 60 slots with 4 conductors per slot, Coils are short-pitched by 3 slots. If the phase spread is ‘60%, find the line | voltage induced for a flux per pole of 0-943 Wb, distributed sinusoidally. All the turns per phase are in series, Sey ae Solution. ite No. of slots/pole/phase,n = 60/4x3 = 5 Phase spread = na Phase or _ ( Slotangle,a. = FUasespread SE = 12 (elect) (n in (5 x 0.957 fae ee _ ; sh = jpx 18 = 144" (cect)Alternators Example 12.13. 4 12-pole, 3-phase, star-connecte Ses recites nected alternator has 72slots. The flux perpole (the speed of rotation ifthe frequency of the generated e,mf is $0 Fh (ii) the terminal emf. for full-pitch coils and 8 conductors per ilo) (ithe terminal em fi the coll span is reduced to 2/3 ofthe pole pitch Solution. @ Synchronous speed, N, = 120f _ 120%50 RK : Pes ain (ii) Slotangle, a, = —180°(elect) _ 180° 180° No. of slots/pole ~ 72/12 ~~ ¢ > 30% (elect) No. of slots/pole/phase, n 2 2x3 Distribution factor, K, = $it-(a/2) _ sin @x30°/2) | in (a:/2) 2sin (30°72) ; sin 30" g¢6 2sin 15? : Pitch factor, = | toh factory Ky = 1 full-pitched coils | of slots/phase. = 72/3'= 24 | Ne onductors/phase,Z = 24x8 = 192 i Ey = 222K,K,2f6 b | : x 1x 0-966 x 192 x 50 x 0-0988 = 2034V Terminale.mf,£, = V3 Ey = V3x2034 = 3523 2 (iii) Coilpitch = 5 %180° = 120°(elect) 4 Coil is short-pitched by B = 180°- 120° = 60° (elect,) | Pitch factor, K, = cos (B/2) = cos 30° = 0:86 Terminalem.f. = 3523 x 0-866 = 3051V Example 12.14. Find the no-load phase and line voltage of a star-connected 3-phase, 6-pole alternator which runs at 1200 rp.m., having flux per pole of 0.1 Wb sinusoidally distributed. ts stator has 54 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns and the coil ischorded by | slot, } Solution. ; Coil pitch = (8/9) « 180° = 160° Coil is short-pitched by B = 180° 160° = 20° Pitch factor, K, = cos B/2 ~ cos 20°2 = 0.98 i j 180° de aan | Slot angle, = No, ofslots/pole 54/6 meh 4 54/63 = 3 sin (no/2) _ sin(3x20°7/2) . 9.96 Distribution factor, Ky = “ing (9) ~ 3in20°72) Line frequency, = NP/120)= 1200 6/320: 60,2 it~ No. of slots/pole/phase, No of conductors/phase, Z = *54* 8/3 = 144 No. oftumns/phase, 7 = 144/2 = 72 : ne joe: number of ‘conductors for th phases 7 Each coil occupies two slots so that the totalEy = Induced line voltage, Z, = Example 12.15, 4 50 Hz, 600 rp. @ maximum value of | Wb/m*. The altern span is 15 slots and phase spread is 60° Find (i) fluxipole (ti) pitch factor (iii) dis () peak value of e.mf. per coil (vi) nm.s, Solution. @ No. of poles, P = Area under one pole pitch, A= Average flux density, B,, = Flux/pole, 6 = (ii) Coil pitch = Coil is short pitched by p Pitch factor, K, (iii) Slotangle,a = .m., salient pole alternator has a si jator has 180 slots wound wit The armature diameter is istribution factor (iv) peal Phase and line voltage Principles of Electrical Machines 444K, K, TS 4.44 «0.98 x 0.96 x72 x60x0.1 = 1805 3 Ey, = V3 x1805 = 3125 inusoidal flux density having th 2-layer, 3-turn coils. The coit 1.25 m and core length 0.45 m, ik value of e.mJ. per conductor if the machine is star-connecteg 120,fN, = 120 x 50/600 = 10 RDI _ xx1.25x0.45 ze 10 (Qin) B,, = (2/n) «1 = 2m Woim? B,,* A = (2/n) x 0.1767 = 0.1125 Wb (15/18) x 180° = 150° (elect.) 180° - 150° = 30° cos (B/2) = cos (30/2) = 0.966 180° 180° No. of slots/pole 180/10 = 0.1767 m? = 10° (elect) ‘The phase spread is no. and its value is given to be 60°. Therefore, n =60°/10° = 6, Note that nis the number of slots/pole/phase. Distribution factor, Ky = () RMS.emf/conductor = 2.22, = 2.22 x 50x 0.1125 = 12.49 V V2 x12.49 = 17.66V 12.49 x 6 x 0.966 = 12.39 x 60 x 0.956 = 4152 V V3 x4152 = T191.5V circuit generates 360 V at 60 Hz when the field current uit e.m.f. when the frequency is 40 He ard‘aiternators a Example 12.17. Find the no-load line voltage he following data of a star-connected 4-pole, 50 Hz alternator from — Flux per pole = 0.12 Wb ; No. of slots/polefphase = 4 : Conductors/slot = 4 ; Two layer winding with coll span 1508 Solution, Total number of slots = 4x 4x3 = 4g Total number of conductors = 48 x 4 192 Total number of turns 192/2 = 96 No. of tums in series, 7 = 96/3 = 32 No. of slots/pole/phase, n 4 Slot angle, a = ns io 159 No. ofslots/pole ~ 4/4 1> leet) sin (no./2) 60°/ Distribution factor, Ky = Tee = ae = eas Coil is short pitched by B = 180°- 150° = 30° Pitch factor, K, = cos (B/2) = cos (30°72) = 0.966 Induced e-m.£/phase, E,, = 444K, KTS 4.44 x 0.966 x 0.958 x 32 x 50 x 0.12 = 789 V V3 Ey, = V3x789 = 13666 V TUTORIAL PROBLEMS 1. A2-pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected a,c. generator has 9 slots/pole and 6 conductors per slot. What is the flux/pole if the terminal voltage on open-circuit is 11000 V ? Take the coil span as unity. [0-1656 Wo] 2. Find the no-load phase and line-voltage of a star-connected, 3-phase, 6-pole alternator which runs at 1200 rp.m. having flux per pole of 0"1 Wb sinusoidally distributed. Its stator has 4 slots having double layer winding. Each coil has 8 turns and the coil is chorded by one slot. 11805 V ; 3125 V) 3, A 3:phase synchronous generator has 4 poles and runs at 1500 rp.m. ‘The total number of armature conductors is 720 accommodated in 72 slots. If the flux per pole is 0:035 Wb, determine (i) the frequency of the e.m.f. (fi) the magnitude of e.m-f. for a star connection with coils short-chorded by two slot pitches. [@ 50 Hz (i) 2650 V] Calculate the number of stator conductors per slot for a 3-phase, 50 Hz.altemator if the winding is star- connected and has to give line voltage of 13 kV when the machine is on open-circuit. The flux/pole is 0-15 Wo. Assume full-piteh coils and the stator to have 3 slots/pole/phase. The speed is 300 rpm. 18] The resultant air-gap flux of a 16-pole, 3-phase alternator is 16 x 10% Wb/pole and is distributed sinusoidally over the pole. The stator has 2 slots/pole/phase and 4 conductors pe slot are accommodated intwo layers. The eoll span is 150 electrical degrees. Calculate the em. generated in each phase when the machine runs at 375.r.p.m. {795 V 129 ARMATURE REACTION IN ALTERNATOR running i the armature When an alternator is ai no-load, there will be no current flowing through Winding. The flux produced in the air-gap will be only due to the rotor see iat the alternator is loaded, the three-phase currents will rode a je magnetic field in the airgap. ir-gap flux i Joad condition. c , the air-gap flux is changed from the no- : The effect of armature flux on the flux produced by field ampere-turns (i.e. rotor ampere-turns) ‘called armature reaction. Induced line voltage, E, =54a Principles of Electrical Machines _Two things are worth noting about the armature reaction in an alternator. First, the armature fy and the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns rotate atthe same speed (synchronous Speed) in the same direction and, therefore, the two fluxes are fixed in space relative to each other. Secondly, the modification of flux in the air-gap due to armature flux depends on the magnitude of stator cane and on the power factor of the load. Its the load power factor which determines whether the armature Aux distorts, opposes or helps the flux produced by rotor ampere-tums. To illustrate this important” point, we shall consider the following three cases : (®) When load p.f. is unity (ii) When load p.f. is zero lagging (ii!) When load p.f. is zero leading () When load p.f. is unity. Fig. 12.12 () shows an elementary alternator on no-load. Since the armature is on open-circuit, there is no stator current and the flux due to rotor current is distributed symmetrically in the air-gap as shown in Fig. 12.12 (i). Since the direction of the rotor is assumed clockwise, the generated e.m.f. in phase RR, is at its maximum and is towards the paper in the conductor R, and outwards in conductor R,. No armature flux is produced since no current flows in the armature winding, Fig. 12.12 Fig. 12.12 (ii) shows the effect when a resistive load (unity p.f.) is connected across the terminals of the altemator, According to right-hand rule, the current is “in” in the conductors under N-pole and “out” in the conductors under S-pole. Therefore, the armature flux is clockwise due to currents in the top conductors and anticlockwise due to currents in the bottom conductors. Note that armature flux is at 90° to the main flux (due to rotor current) and is behind the main flux. In this case, the flux in the airgap is distorted but not weakened. Therefore, at unity p,f, the effect of armature reaction is ‘merely to distort the main field ; there is no weakening of the main field and the average flux practically remains the same. Since the magnetic flux due to stator currents.(i.e., armature flux) rotates synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion remains the same for all positions of the rotor. (ii), When load p.f. is zero lagging. When a pure inductive load (zero p-f. lagging) is connected across the terminals of the alternator, current lags behind the voltage by 90°. This means that curtent will be maximum at zero e.m.f. and vice-versa. (max), . anys i ties ~ > Paes GES VP as Fig, 12.13 anticunk caucus wean:ynalons Fig. 12.13 @ shows the condition when th savellas current in phase R, Ry ‘ee ductive load, the current in il 4 pre induct nt in phase R, R, will anced 90° electrical as shown in Fig, 12.13 (i) Now the are field flux is from leftto right. All the flux ode produced by armature oppo: pefield Mux and, therefore, weakens it. In other words, a eee ye ence at 2e70 pS: lagging, the armature reaction weakens the main flux. This causes ererarn ppegenerated emf . This causes a reduction in (ii) When load pf. is zero leading, When a pure capaci connect , acitive load (zero p-f. leading) i sss ieoninals oft altemator the curent in amature windings cece ay oq?. Obviously, the effect of armature reaction will be the reverse that inductive load. T ‘ fo rane fhux now aids the main fx and the gonemedemi nieeeaad (max) or imax) @, Fig. 12.14 Fig. 12.14 (@) shows the condition when alternator is supplying resistive load, Note that e:m.f as well as current in phase R, R, is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator is supplying @ pure capacitive load, the maximum current in R, R, wil occur 90 electrical before the occurrence of maximum induced e.m.f, Therefore, maximum current in phase R, R, will occur if the position of the rotor remains 90° behind as compared to its positionunder resistive load. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.14 (ji) Itis clear that armature flux is now inthe same direction as the field flux and, therefore, strengthens it, This causes an increase in the generated voltage. Hence at zero p,f. leading, the armature ae strengthens the main flux. dw) GHA For intermediate values of p.f,, the effect of amature reaction is partly distorting and partly weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive (;,. loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly strengthening. Note that in Practice, loads are generally inductive. Armature aia; Flux oteaa Principles of Electrical m, (@) When the load p.f is unity, the effect of armature reaction is wholly distorting. 1g words, the flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened. As shown in Fig. 12.15 ‘armature flux is 90° electrical behind the main flux. The result is that flux is stren, the trailing pole tips and weakened at the leading pole tips. However, the average fix a air-gap practically remains unaltered, oo (6) When the load p.f. is zero lagging, the effect of armature reaction is wholly demagnetis In other words, the flux in the air-gap is weakened. As shown in Fig. 12.15 (ii, the tne Tepresenting the main flux is moyed backwards through 90° (elect:) so that it is in direc, opposition to the armature flux. ‘This considerably reduces the air-gap fTux and hence the generated e.m.f. To keep the value of the generated e.m-f. the same, the field excitation yi have to be increased to compensate for the weakening of the air-gap flux. (©) When the load p.£. is zero leading, the effect of armature reaction is wholly magnetising, other words, the flux in the air-gap is increased. As shown in Fig. 12.15 (fi), the wave representing the main flux is now moved forward through 90° (elect.) so that it aids the armature flux. This considerably increases the air-gap flux and hence the generated e.m.f. To keep the value of the generated e.m.f, the same, the field excitation will have to be reduced. (@ For intermediate values of load p.f., the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect is partly distorting and partly strengthening, Fig. 12.15 (iv) shows the effect of armature reaction for an inductive load. In practice, load on the alternator is generally inductive. 12.10 ALTERNATOR ON LOAD Fig. 12.16 shows Y-connected alternator supplying inductive load (lagging p.f.). When the load on the alternator is increased (i.e., armature current J, is increased), the field excitation and speed being kept constant, the terminal voltage V (phase value) of the alternator decreases, This is due to (@ Voltage drop /, R, where 2, is the armature resistance per phase. (@ Voltage drop /, X, where X, is the armature leakage reactance per phase. (iii) Voltage drop because of armature reaction. (® Armature Resistance (R,). Since the armature or stator winding has some resistance, there will be an LR, drop when current (I,) flows through it. The armature resistance per phase is generally small so that 1,, drop is negligible for all practical purposes. (ii) Armature Leakage Reactance (X,). When current i ;Alternators caused by the change in flu ofan inductive reac armature reaction effect is ace the presence ofa actance X, qn the armature winding reactance of armature reaction. The Value of Xj is such that 1 drop due to armature reacti jis % Equivalent Circuit, Fig. 12.18 shows the equivalent circuit oft ee ‘llthe quantities are per phase. Here ori londed alternate for ne pie Ey = No-loadem.f E = Load induced emf, Itis the induced e.m.£ after allowing for armature reaction. It is equal to phasor difference of Ey and 1, Xp V- = Terminal voltage: It is less than E by voltage drops in X;, and Ry, Eo= V+, (®, 7%) and Ey = E+, (X42) 12.11 SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE (X,) The sum of armature leakage reactance (X,) and reactance of armature reaction (X,g) is called synchronous reactance X, [See Fig, 12.19 (i)]. Note that all quantities are per phase, X, = Xt Xp ‘Ounted for by assuming. ‘The quantity X pis called qn represents the voltage Fig. 12.18 eae r the voltage effects in The synelironous reactance isa fictitious reactance employed meri pe _ minaree the armature circuit produced by the actual armature leakage cee naatte flux caused by armature reaction. The circuit ere to ee He Synchronous impedance, Z, = Rati% lire The See impedance is the fictitious ‘impedance ae voltage effects in the armature circuit produced by the actual een istance, ‘ armature leakage reactance and the change in the air-gap flux produced b armature es E> V+LQaVth tse) ee ATOR 1242 PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A LOADED aarnint mata F220 so mig cmc ema Nem rePrinciples of Electrical Fig. 12.20 Fig: 12.20 (i) shows the phasor diagram of an alternator for the usual case of inductive load, The tad fe utrent J, lags the terminal voltage V by p.t. angle 4. The phasor sum of V and drops R, and [,.X, gives the load induced voltage E. Itis the induced e.m.f. after allowing for armature reaction? The phasor sum of £ and J, X,9 gives the no-load e.m-f. Ey. The phasor diagram for unity and leading P-f is left as an exercise for the reader. Note that in drawing the phasor diagram either the terminal voltage (V) or armature current (/,) may be taken as the reference phasor. Example 12.18, 4 500AVA, 3-phase, star-connected alternator has a rated line-to-line voltage 2f 3300 ¥. The resistance and synchronous reactance per phase are 0°3 and 4 Q respectively Calculate the line value of the em. generated at full-load, 0°8 pf. lagging. Solution, 50010? EL. o it cr ty Lge = = 875A ied aM PEC Fig. 12.21 shows the phasor diagram of the alternator. Note that current /, has been taken as the reference phasor. From the phasor diagram, we have, Ey = VW cos +1, RY +V sino+I, X,P Now cos =08 ». sing = 06 1, R, drop = 87:5 x 03 = 26-25 volts 1, X, = 87.54 = 350 volts 9, — \ ‘Terminal voltage/phase is ie ee V = 3300/,/3 = 1905 volts Fig. 12.21 y= 90508 + 2625)? +1905 06 +350)? = 2152 volts Line'emf = J3 By = )V3%2152 = 3727 vous Example 12.19. 4 1000 kVA, 2300 ¥, 3-phase, star-connected alternator has a resistance of 0-309 Q/phase and a synchronous reactance of 3-31 ‘Q/phase. Calculate the change of line ; voltage when the rated output of 1000 kVA at power factor of 0-8 lagging is switched off. Assume the) = aiternators : 1, R, drop = 251 x0:309 = 776 volts — 1, X, drop 331 = 831 volts a ermine 328 volts + (1328 06 +831) = 1987 vons Line value V3 «1987 = 3441 vons Cha ine voltage = 3441-2300 = 1141 volts Example 12.20 AVA, 6.6 KY, 3-phase, star-connected dlternator has effective armature whee / 1@ synchronous reactance of § Q/phase. Find the percentage change aialpatucllige ¥ rated oulput of 1500KVA at (i) unity pf. (it) 08 lagging pf (iii) 08 s he speed and excitation current remain unchanged. Solution, : PLicuretiee abe 24.18 | ¥3x66x10° | erminal voltage/phase, V = 6-6x10°/J3 = 3810 volts [,R, drop = 1310-5 = 65-5 volts 1,X, drop. = 131.5 = 655 volts Unity pf. In drawing the phasor di raft gram for unity p.f. [See Fig. 12.22], voltage has been nce phasor, 1, Re +, X) \G810 + 655)? + (655) = 3930 volts/phase centage change in terminal voltage Ey-t _ 3930-3810 5 100 = 100 = 315% ve 3810 : i; i ; Of voce | Fig. 12.22 Fig. 12.23 j ig. 12. : ; 0-8 pal, lagging. In drawing the phasor diagram for 0'8 pf, lagging [See Fig. 12.23], current taken as the reference phasor. cos = 08 sing. 06, i Ey = VU cones 1, Ra) + Hsing 1 Xe) [apid208 655)" + GBIO* 06+ 655)" = 4283 volis/phase GB10 x 08 + 655)" +CPrinciples of Electrica) Percentage change in terminal voltage r = Aya 4283 ~3810 \ oe mw 810 00 = 124% 7100 3a10 100 = 124 % (ai) 08 p.f. leading. Fig, 12.24 shows the phasor 2 ¥.008¢ Je~ diagram for 0°8 p.f. leading. Note that current has been 9 taken as the reference phasor, OB = OA+AB = Voosp+I,R, BC = BD-CD = Vsing~1,X, In right angled triangle OBC, Ey = (By + (acy = VU cos +I, 8, + sin b=, X,)° = 810 x08 + 655)’ + (3810x 06 - 655)? Fig, 12.24 = 3515 volts/phase Percentage change in terminal voltage E,-V 3515-3810 210028 copia Example 12.21. 4 60 kVA, 220 ¥, 50 Hz, single-phase alternator has effective resistance of 0:016 Qand an armature leakage reactance of 0-07 2. Find the voltage induced in the armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at a load pf. of (i) unity (ii) 0:7 lagging and (i) 0-7 leading. x100 = -7.7% ‘ Solution, Rated current, /, = 2°10 _ >79.7 4 | (00h 220 Terminal voltage, V = 220 volts J,R, drop = 272-72 x 0016 = 4:3 volts 1, X, drop = 272-72 x 0-07 = 19 volts (0. Unity p.f. In drawing the phasor diagram for unity p.£ [See Fig. 12.25 (i)}, currenthasbeea taken as the reference phasor. E= \V+1,R,) +, X,) = (220+ 43)? +09? = 225 volts ‘ Fig. 12.25 (if) 0-7 pf. lagging [See Fig: 12.25 (i)]. cosg = 07 sing" = Ly) PA VO 08 847, RO sin O41, xX) (220 x 0-7 + 43)? + (220 x 07 + 19)2 (iti) 0-7 pf. leading [See Fig, 12.25 (ii) - neg SS e VU cos 6+ 7, RY 4 Wain ba xP = (220x074 43)? @20n07 =1g2 x07 ~19)? Example 12.22. 4 3-phase, 10 kVA, 400 V, 50 He, o etarae 08 pf lag. If armature resistance is 0.5 Q and synohronna ne regulation. ius reactance fe Solution. Fig. 12.26 shows the phasor diag current has been taken as the reference phasor, Voltage/phase, ¥ = 400/J3 = 231 volts EL. current, J, = 234 volts = 208 volts tupplies the rated load 102. find the voltage am of the altemator at 0:8 p:f. lagging. Note that Armature current /, 10x10? ¥3x400 I,R, drop = 14.405 = 7.2 volts 1,X, drop = 14.4 10 = 144 volts cos} = 0.8 lag ; sing = 0.6 Ey = \Vcosh + 1,R,)' +V sing + 1,X,)° = (231«0.8+7.2)? +(231x0.6+144)? = 342 volts Fo eY 100s ooo e100 idee EB 231 = 144A % Regulation Example 12.23, A 3-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected, 2000 kVA, 2300 V alternator gives a short- cireuit current of 600 A for a certain field excitation. With the same excitation, the open circuit voliage was 900 V. The resistance berweena pair of terminals was 0.12 2 Find thefull-load regulation a1 08 pf. lagging. Solution. 0.6 wwoltagelphases Synchronous impedance, Z, = "$C gurrentiphase 900/13 600 f terminals is 0.12 Q. Itis the resistance of two phases connected (0.12/2 = 0.06 Q. The a.c. resistance is 1,5, for same excitation 0.866 2 The resistance between a pair o! in series, Therefore, d.c. armature resistance per phase = times this value i.e. ‘Armature resistance/phase, R, = 0.06 * 1.5= 0.092 (2-2 = 0.866? -0.09° = 0.862 2000%10" _ 599 a FL. Armature current, J, = 5.9300 I,R,, = 500 * 0.09 = 45 volts 1,X, = 500 * 0.86 = 430 volts Phase voltage, V= 2300//3 = 1328 volts Synchronous reactance/phase, X,Principles of Electrical Machings iy Fig. 12.27 1 Fig: 12.27 shows the phasor diagram of the altemator at 0.8 pf lagging. Note that current hag |? been taken as the reference phasor. 5 eee a io Ey = JV cosd+ i,k, Vsino+1,x,P i = (0328%0.8+45)? + 0328%0.6+430)? = 1653 v a i 1653-1328 % = =t—x100 = P2278 100 = 24.5% % Regulation a iE a aa TUTORIAL PROBLEMS es 1. A3-phase, star-connected altemator is rated at 1S000KVA, 11 KV. The armature resistance is 1-5Q/phase and synchronous reactance is 30 02/phase. To what value will the terminal voltage rise when full-loadat i) p.f. 0'8 lagging is switched off ? (13970 vy 2. A 3-phase, I1kV, star-connected alternator has armature resistance of | Q/phase and a synchronous a eartance of 20 Q/phase. Find the percentage change in terminal voltage fora load of 1500 KW ata pL of () 0°8 lagging (ii) unity (it) 0°8 leading [© 22% (ii) 4.25 % (ii) 13.4% a 3. A single-phase alternator, having a synchronous Feactance of 5:5 Q and armature resistance of 0-6 bel delivers a current of 100 A. Calculate the em.f. generated in the stator winding when the terminal ie voltage is 2000 V and the power factor of the load is 0°8 lagging, [a2 ee 12.13 VOLTAGE REGULATION The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no-load to fult-load (the speed and field excitation being constant) divided by full-load voltage. % Voltage regulation = N®-load voltage ~ Full-load voltage | Full-load voltage ri 100 v Note that £, ~ Vis the arithmetic difference and not the phasor difference. The factors affecting the voltage regulation of an alternator are : (9 1,R, drop in armature winding (i) 1,%, drop in armature winding (iii) Voltage change due to armature reaction We have seen that change in terminal voltage due to © armature reaction depends upon the armature current as well g as power-factor of the load. For leading load p.f., the no-load inal voltage (volts) Termi Load current (amperes) Fig, 12,28