Note: Definitions are in bold. The explanation will be in paragraphs.

UNIT 1
LEARNING

Learning​ is the act, process or experience of gaining knowledge or skill.

➔ A relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about by experience.

➔ Change through maturation is instinctual learning. It doesn't require external
effort.
➔ Learning can occur as a participant as well as an external learner.

A ​stimulus​ is a physical energy source that has an effect on a sense organ thus
producing a response.

A ​response​ is the action, behavior or reaction triggered by the stimulus.

Learnt behaviour always has a response and stimulus.

The environment includes:

● External factors
● Variables
● Conditions
● Influences affecting or influencing our behaviour.

A variable is a behaviour, factor, setting or event that can change in amount.

Threshold is important in these circumstances.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response
after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response.
Classical conditioning requires the ability to cause a response that was previously by
another stimulus. This is the process that essentially allows us to predict what is going
to happen.

PAVLOV’S EXPERIMENT

Ivan pavlov
● Russian physiologist
● Studied the digestive process in dogs
● Nobel prize in 1904
● Focal point - salivation

When Pavlov first observed the dogs, they would salivate when the lab assistant
brings food or when heard clatter of food or during a particular time of the day.
The dog saw the meat which is the UCS (Unconditioned stimulus). And it salivated
which is the UCR (Unconditioned Response) to it.
At this point no manipulation/conditioning is done. So the food isn't doing anything
and therefore is NS (Neutral Stimulus).
Pavlov attached a tube to the salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to measure the
dog’s salivation. He, then, rang a bell and presented the dog meat.
With the continued association of the meat with bell, the meat is a stimulus that is
conditioned. So the bell is now CS (Conditioned Stimulus).
As the dog's response is now manipulated into responding to the bell, it's response- the
salivation- is the CR (Conditioned Response).

In a jist

Before Conditioning
Neutral stimulus- sound of stimuli
(Response- alertness)
Unconditioned Stimulus - Meat
Unconditioned Response- Salivation

During Conditioning
Neutral stimulus -bell
Unconditioned Stimulus - Meat
 Unconditioned Response- Salivation

After conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus- sound of bell
Conditioned Response- salivation

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the naturally occurring stimulus that leads to

involuntary response.
Unconditioned response is an involuntary response to a naturally occurring
stimulus.

Neutral stimulus has no effect on the desired response.

Conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that is able to produce a learned reflex

response by being paired with the originally unconditioned response.

Conditioned response is a learners reflex response to a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition is the repeated pairing of the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned
stimulus.

Stimulus generalization is the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only

similar to the original conditioned stimulus.
Eg: a person who reacts with anxiety to sound of dentists drill might react similarly to
sound of electronic sounding machine.
Little Albert- generalised all white furry things

Stimulus discrimination is the tendency to stop making a generalised response to

a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar
stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
i.e the dog will stop salivating if there is no food after the bell again and again.

Higher order conditioning occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is further

paired with a neutral stimulus causing the neutral stimulus to become a second
conditioned stimulus.
This occurs when a second stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus. The process
bascially repeats itself over.
For example, if snapping fingers was added to the bell ringing it would also eventually
produce salivation.

Extinction is the disappearance/weakening of a learned response following the

removal/absence of an unconditioned stimulus​ (in classical conditioning) ​or
reinforcement​. (in operant)
● The UCS is the reinforcer of the CS-CR association. If UCS is removed, CR
will weaken over time and disappear.
● But CR is not entirely gone. It's only inhibited because of the lack of
association.

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a learned response after extinction

has occurred.

Emotional responses/conditioned emotional responses

Emotional responses are more likely to be learned through classical conditioning
processes. Failure of this process is there being no response to the neural stimulation.

APPLYING CONDITIONING TO HUMAN BEHAVIOUR

Emotional responses are very likely to be learned through classical conditioning

processes

Little Albert

John B Watson was the founder of behaviourism - believed that everything could be
explained in terms of learning including phobias.
Therefore he conducted an experiment with Little Albert, an eleven month old and a
white rat as a demonstration of a phobia.
It a typical classical conditioning experiment.
Watson paired the presentation of a white rat with scary noises. Albert was not scared
of the rat before.
But he was scared of the loud noise. After conditioning, he started crying every time
he saw the rat. He then feared similar white and/or fluffy objects like the rat.
PTSD, phobia, SONG memories symptoms were experienced.
Extinction helps, to remove fear.
Also, it is not vanished forever.
 The unconditioned stimulus is the loud noise
the (unconditional) response to it was fear.
Conditioning took place.
the conditioned stimulus was the white rat
the conditioned response was fear.

A conditioned emotional response is a response that has become classically

conditioned to occur to learned stimulus.
For example a fear of dogs.
Or having an emotion; a reaction when you see a crush.

This is predominantly seen in advertising. They use it to elicit fear such as in drug
warning ads or for an attraction like a beautiful woman or a cute baby.

Vicarious conditioning: classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by

watching the reaction of an other person.
Giving alcoholic a drug that makes them feel nauseous so that they won't have it
again.
Or
For instance, if you were raised by a parent who had a serious fear of elevators and
who always told you how dangerous elevators are it is very likely that you would have
gained a "vicarious" fear of elevator use.

Biological preparedness is the tendency of animals to learn certain sensory

associations with only a few pairings due to the survival value of learning.
For example most mammals will avoid eating something that smells similar to a food
that made them fall ill in the past.
It's a survival mechanism cause it further prevents them from eating ‘bad’ food and
dying.
In an experiment by dr. john garcia the coyotes stopped eating sheep meat after eating
drugged sheep meat that made them fall ill (they ate lithium chloride coated meat)
In case of birds, they experience the same thing with vision and avoid moths which
look like butterflies (which are poisonous for them)

Classical conditioning
- Acquisition
- Extinction
 - Spontaneous recovery
- Generalisation
- Discrimination

CHALLENGES FOR BASIC ASSUMPTIONS FOR CC

1. CC provides us with only a partial explanation of how we learn.

2. According to Pavlov; the process of linking the stimuli and responses occurs in
a mechanistic, unthinking way. But in contrast, learning theorists have argued
that learners actively develop an understanding and expectancy about which
particular unconditioned stimuli are matched with specific conditioned stimuli.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending

on its favourable or unfavourable consequences.

Difference between CC and OC

Classical conditioning
● Goal is to create a new response to a stimulus that doesn't normally a produce
that response.
● Responses are involuntary and reflexive
● Antecedent stimuli (The unconditioned stimulus is what will become the
conditioned stimulus) important in forming an association
● CS must occur immediately before the UCS
● An expectancy develops for UCS to follow CS

Vs

Operant conditioning
● Goal is to increase the rate of an already occurring response.
● Responses are voluntary.
● Consequences (What's in it for me) are important in forming on association
● Reinforcement must be immediate.
● An expectancy develops for the reinforcement to follow a correct response.
THORNDIKE’S LAW OF EFFECT

Edward thorndike attempted to explore the laws of learning voluntary responses.

He placed a hungry cat inside a “puzzle box” from which only way to escape was
from lever located near floor of the box. In an attempt to get out it walked all over and
pushed the lever by mistake. It was also fed on coming out.
Every time it took lesser time to come out even though it didn't figure it out right away

the cat then learned that pressing the paddle was associated with the desirable
consequence of getting food.

Thorndike's Law of effect is the law stating that if a response is followed by a

pleasurable consequence it will tend to be repeated and if followed by an
unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.

BF Skinner
● Was a behaviourist
● Succeeded Watson in his work
● Coined the term ‘operant conditioning’
● Here operant refers to any behaviour that is voluntary.
● Skinner’s box, a chamber with a highly controlled environment that was used
to study operant conditioning processes with laboratory animals.
● Skinner's box typically contained a rat that got a few pellets of food on pressing
the bar in the cage.
● Sometimes it also included a light to warn the rat of an impending shock
● Skinner became interested in specifying how behaviour varies as a result of
alterations in the environment.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html

REINFORCEMENT

The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding

behaviour will be repeated is called reinforcement.
 ● “What's in it for me?”
● Reinforcement means strengthening. Means to say that enjoyed actions will be
repeated because they are ‘strengthened’
Example: getting out of the box and food are reinforcers for Skinner's rat.

Reinforcer is any stimulus or event that increases the probability that a

preceding behavioural response will occur again.

Primary reinforcer
Any reinforcement that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological
need.
● satisfies some biological need (hunger drive, liquid drive and pleasure drive)
● Easily reinforced in infants, preschoolers and animals

Secondary reinforcer
Any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary
reinforcer.
● Becomes reinforcing cause of association with PR.
A child understands the appreciation related to money but not a direct monetary
reward.
● They get their impact from CC

Positive reinforcement: a stimulus added to the environment that bring about an

increase in preceding response.

Negative reinforcement: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an

increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated.

Premack principle: principle stating that a more preferred activity can be used to
reinforce a less preferred activity.

Conditioned reinforcement acquire their capacity to act as positive reinforcers through

association with primary reinforcers.

Other operant concepts:

Shaping is the reinforcement of simple steps in behaviour that lead to a desired more
complex behaviour.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/operant-conditionin
g/​ (more on shaping) Ex: training animals to do tricks and learning a language for
humans.

Extinction in OC involves removal of reinforcement

Spontaneous recovery occurs here as well.

Discrimination stimulus is any stimulus (such as a doorknob) that provides the

organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement.

EXAMPLE FOR DISCRIMINATION IN OC

In operant conditioning, discrimination refers to responding only to the
discriminative stimulus and not to similar stimuli. For example, imagine
that you have trained your dog to jump in the air whenever you say the
command, "Jump!" In this instance, discrimination refers to your dog's
ability to distinguish between the command for jumping and similar
commands such as sit, stay, or speak.

PUNISHMENT
A stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behaviour will occur again. It
refers to procedures that weaken or decrease the rate of behaviour.
Reinforcement > Punishment

● Punishment suppresses behaviour, temporarily to provide an opportunity to

reinforce a person for subsequently behaving in a more desirable way.
Rare case: punishment is humane approach- autism- tearing their skin, banging
heads can be stopped. Positive punishment.
● Punishment is frequently ineffective.
● In positive punishment, behaviours are followed by aversive stimulus events
termed punishers.
● In negative punishment, the rate of behaviour is weakened or decreased
because the behaviour is linked to loss of potential reinforcements.
● Physical punishment can convey to the recipient the idea that physical
aggression is desirable.
● Punishment reduces self-esteem and doesn’t convey any information about
what an alternate behaviour might be. Hence, reinforcing.
Schedules of reinforcement

They are different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired
behaviour.

Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing of a behaviour everytime it occurs.

Partial: reinforcing of a behaviour some but not all the time.

Fixed ratio schedule: a schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific
number of responses are made.

Variable ratio schedule : a schedule by which reinforcement occurs after a varying

number of responses rather than after a fixed number.

Fixed interval: a schedule that provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed
time period has elapsed, making overall rates of response relatively low.
Variable interval: a schedule by which the time between reinforcements varies around
some average rather than being fixed.

Discrimination: the process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli is known as

stimulus control training.
In stimulus control training, a behaviour is reinforced in the presence of a specific
stimulus, but not in the absence.
A discriminative stimulus signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a
response.

Generalisation: the phenomenon in which an organism learns a response to one

stimulus and then exhibits the same to slightly different stimulus.

Autoshaping: is any variety of experimental procedure, where reinforcer is paired with

a stimulus that is independent of the subjects behaviour until subject makes a response
to stimuli.

Chaining: series of related behaviours- reinforcements to those events.

Applying operant conditioning

BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

It is the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about the desired

changes in behaviour.
Example Teachers giving a ‘star’ or other incentive for good work in primary school.

Here the star is to reinforcer.

It's also a token economy; a secondary reinforcement
A token economy is a kind of behaviour modification in which desired behaviour
is awarded with tokens.

It refers to the formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable

behaviours and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.

Applied behaviour analysis (ABA) is a modern term for a form of behaviour

modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behaviour/ response.

This is carried out by giving prompts and reinforcements.

People with severe mental retardation have for the first time started dressing and
feeding themselves.
Techniques used are:
- Reinforcement scheduling
- Shaping
- Generalisation training
- Discrimination training
- Extinction

COGNITIVE APPROACHES TO LEARNING

It places importance on the cognition involved in learning and behaviour.

LATENT LEARNING
It is learning in which a new behaviour is acquired but is not demonstrated until
some incentive is provided for displaying it.

Example:
Tolman- rats- maze

● Edward Tolman taught 3 groups of rats a maze one group at a time. The first
two groups were experimental groups.

● Each rat of the first group was rewarded with food ( reinforcement) after
solving the maze. This was repeated until it learnt completely.
● In second group, the rats got no reinforcement. They too were made to repeat
until the end of the experiment( the 10th day). On tenth day they started getting
reinforcement for solving the maze.
● The third group; ​the control group​ was not given food through out . They
weren't reinforcement even the last day.
Although the first group performed well, even the second group did the same. On
being offered reinforcement, they solved almost immediately.
The unrewarded rats had learned the layout of the maze early in their exploratory
wandering of 9 days, they just never displayed this latent learning because no
reinforcement was offered.Instead the rats seemed to develop a cognitive map of the
maze in the meanwhile.
Also,due to reinforcement, the experimental groups learned the maze faster and with
fewer errors than the control group.
This was termed as latent learning.

At times, lack of reinforcement might lead to learned helplessness- the tendency to

escape from situations because of a past unpleasant failure.

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING:

​ earning by observing the behaviour of another person or model ​(through

L
imitations)

Bobo doll experiment​:

1. Albert Bandura
2. children- aggression
 ● Preschool children were exposed to a model interacting with toys.
● In one condition, the ‘bobo’ doll was ignored and other toys were played with
in an non aggressive manner.
● In another condition, the model was very aggressive with the bobo doll;
kicking, throwing in air, and hitting with hammer

● When the children were left to play, they imitated the model's behaviour.
● The child exposed to second condition imitated the aggression ​without any
reinforcement.

Four elements of observational learning [explain the points a bit to bs.]

● Attention: The extent to which we focus on others’ behaviour.
● Memory/ retention: The ability to retain a representation of observed behaviour
● Imitation: The ability to act on the memory and reproduce/ imitate it.
● Motivation: The usefulness/result of the information acquired

Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring spells in which the

operant conditioning technique of shaping is inappropriate.
It may have a genetic basis.

INSIGHT LEARNING:

Insight learning is the sudden realisation of a relationship among different parts

of a problem leading to a solution.
Insight learning is not the result of responding to an environmental stimulus, or the
result of observation.It is a completely cognitive experience that requires the ability to
visualise the problem and the solution internally in the mind’s eye, so to speak- before
imitating a behavioural response.

● Wolfgang Kohler - a gestalt psychologist

● Sultan the chimp was faced with a banana placed outside the cage.
● He used hands and the sticks available individually to reach it.
● It then suddenly occurred to him that they can be used to together and then got
the banana

This moment of realisation was the moment of all the aspects coming together.
Kohler also said that Sultan's ‘perception of relationships’ cannot be gained through
trial and error and is spontaneous.

Kohler- chimps- bones- bananas

 UNIT 2
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

MOTIVATION

It is defined as the process by which activities are started, directed and continued
to meet physiological or psychological need / want to be met.

Also, the factors that motivate can be either intrinsic or extrinsic.

Theories of motivation

INSTINCT APPROACH

Instincts are the inborn patterns of behaviour that are biologically determined
rather than learned.

The instinct approach assumes that motivation, people and animals are born
programmed with sets of behaviour in appropriate directions.

Example: Instinct to reproduce is responsible for sexual behaviour.

Psychologists do not agree on what or even how many primary instincts exist. Still,
Freud’s work suggests that instinctual drives of sex and aggression motivate
behaviour

DRIVE REDUCTION

Theories suggesting that a lack of a basic biological requirement produces a drive to

obtain that requirement.
A need is a requirement of material that is essential for the survival of an
organism.

Drive is an psychological tension and physical arousal energising the organism to

act in order to fulfill a need.

Motivational cycle: (steps are only for understanding)

VERY IMPORTANT
The drive reduction theory assumes that behaviour arises from physiological
needs that cause internal drives to push the organism to satisfy the need and
reduce tension and arousal.

There are two types of drives:

1. Primary drives: basic drives ie hunger and thirst.

2. Secondary drives: drives that are learnt through experience or conditioning ie
need for social approval.
HOMEOSTASIS
​A state of physiological balance within a body.
When there is a primary need the body is imbalanced and the state of tension/arousal
is felt with it. Then there is a need to restore homeostasis by behaviour to reduce the
the drive.

Drive reduction theories cannot freely explain a behaviour in which the goal is not to
reduce a drive but rather to maintain or even increase the level of excitement or
arousal such as bungee jumping or rock climbing.
Both curiosity and thrill seeking behaviour then shed doubt on drive reduction
approaches as a complete explanation for motivation.

To solve this-> arousal theory

AROUSAL THEORY

A stimulus motive is one that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation.
Example: playing or exploring

● People are said to seek optimal level of stimulation.

● Performance will suffer if arousal is too high or too low.
● Moderation is key

The belief is that we try to maintain certain levels of stimulation and activity
increasing or reducing them as necessary.
In contrast to drive reduction, it suggests that if levels of stimulation and activity are
too low, we will try to increase them by seeking stimulation.

The Yerkes Dodson law explains that performance is related to arousal; moderate
levels of arousal lead to better performance than arousal that are too high or too low.
This effect varies with the difficulty of the task:
Easy task requires high-moderate arousal
Difficult tasks requires low-moderate arousal

Or

The law states that increased levels of arousal will improve performance, but only up
until the optimum arousal level is reached. At that point, performance begins to suffer
as arousal levels increase. Additionally, if you're doing a complex task, high or low
levels of arousal will affect you more than if you're doing something simple.

Example: students experiencing test anxiety may seek to reduce arousal to improve
performance.

A sensation is someone who needs more arousal than others.The need to seek arousal
is seen even in babies. It can determined of they are “low approach motivated” or
”high approach motivated”

INCENTIVE APPROACH

Incentives are things that attract or lure people into action.

Incentive approach theory of motivation explains behaviour as a response to the

external stimulus and it's rewarding properties.

● Suggest that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external
goals or in centuries.
● They exist independently of arousal.

Expectancy value theory

It assumes the actions of people can't be fully understood without understanding
the beliefs, values and importance that they give it atm

Although the theory explains why we may succumb to an incentive even though we
lack internal cues, it does not provide a complete explanation of motivation because
organisms sometimes seek to fulfill needs even when needs are not apparent.

COGNITIVE APPROACHES

● Behaviour is determined by thoughts about future outcomes and how current

actions can help achieve goals.
● Incentives are the outcomes. People go through pain to achieve them.
● Examples plenty in work motivation.
Intrinsic- own enjoyment
Extrinsic- for tangible reward

HUMANISTIC -MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow’s model places motivation needs in a hierarchy and suggests that before more
sophisticated higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied.

5. SELF ACTUALIZATION
4. ESTEEM
3. LOVE AND BELONGINGNESS
2. SAFETY NEEDS
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

Self actualisation is a state of self fulfillment in which people realise their highest
potential in this own unique way.

SDT: SELF DETERMINATION THEORY

(Edward Dui, Richard Ryan) people have three basic needs of competence, autonomy
and relatedness.
Competence is the need to produce desired outcomes.
Autonomy: perception that we have control over our own lives.
Relatedness: need to be involved in close, warm relationships with others.

TYPES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL MOTIVATION

HUNGER
Biological factors
➔ Brain:
- lateral hypothalamus is involved in recognising hunger
- Ventromedial nucleases of the hypothalamus is involved
- Paraventricular nucleus- hypothalamus- regulating hunger

➔ Digestive system:
 - Body converts food to glucose, a simple sugar-> energy for cells. The level of
glucose affects hunger. High G- low hunger.

THIRST
Double depletion hypothesis (DDH)
Gilman showed that injecting dogs with a salt solution caused them to drink
more than normal. When salt levels on the blood are high, cells go dry.
DDH: volume of water inside cells w.r.t. volume of water in the whole body

SENSUAL MOTIVATION
Masters and Johnson’s studies

SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE

1. Excitement phase
2. Plateau phase
3. Orgasm phase
4. Resolution phase

MATERNAL DRIVE:
The maternal drive or instinct refers to the tendency for the female of the species to
perform the maternal behaviours of nesting, sheltering and probing their offspring.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVATION

ACHIEVEMENT
Need for achievement: stable learned characteristic in which a person obtain
satisfaction by striving for and attaining a level of excellence.

AFFILIATION
Need for affiliation: an interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people.
POWER
Need for power: a tendency to seek, impact, control or influence over others and to be
seen as a powerful individual.

PARENTING METHODS
The way of rearing children
1. Authoritarian: the parents follow very strict methods, children turn rebel
mostly.
2. Permissive: to be lenient with children
3. Ideal parents, give children their space but are strict when required.
4. Uninvolved

EMOTIONS
Feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that
influence behaviour.

Functions of emotions:
Psychologists have identified several important functions that emotions play in our
life.

1. Preparing us for action: emotions act as a link between events in our

environment and our responses.
Example: snake attacking- emotional reaction (fear) would be associated with
the physical activation of the fight or flight response.
2. Shaping our future behaviour: emotions promote learning that help us make
appropriate responses in our future.
3. Helping us interact more effectively with others: we often communicate the
emotions we experience through our verbal and non-verbal behaviours, making
our emotions obvious to observers.
These signals the observer, allowing them to understand better.
ELEMENTS OF EMOTION
Physiological arousal: this involves heart rate, blushing, sweating, etc.

Subjective experiences: this includes anger, joy, sadness, etc.

Cognitive interpretations: blaming others, recognising the object as fear.

Behavioural expressions: crying, smiling, gazing longingly.

ORGANISING EMOTIONS
One approach to organising emotions is to use a hierarchy, which divides emotions
into increasing narrow sub categories.

THE JAMES LANGE THEORY

William James and Carl Lange were among the first researchers to explore the nature
of emotions, emotional experience is very simply, a reaction to instinctive bodily
events occurring as a result of an external situation.
I FEEL SAD BECAUSE I AM CRYING

For every major emotion there is an accompanying physiological or ‘GUT’ reaction of

internal organs- called a VISCERAL EXPERIENCE.

CRITICISM: the theory has some serious drawbacks.

● For the theory to be valid, visceral changes would have to occur relatively
quickly because we experience some emotions almost instantaneously. Yet,
emotional experiences frequently occur even before there is time for certain
physiological changes to be set in motion.
● Physiological arousal does not invariably produce emotional experience.
● Our internal organs produce a relatively limited range of sensations, although
some types of physiological changes are associated with specific emotional
experiences.

THE CANNON BARD THEORY

Walter Cannon and Philip Bard suggested an alternative view. They proposed that
both physiological arousal and emotional experience are produced simultaneously by
the same nerve stimulus.
The theory states that after we perceive an emotion-producing stimulus, the thalamus
is the initial site of the emotional response. Next, the thalamus sends a signal to the
autonomic nervous system, thereby producing a visceral response. At the same time,
the thalamus also communicates a message to the cerebral cortex regarding the nature
of the emotion being experienced.

DRAWBACKS:
The thalamus doesn’t play an important role, the hypothalamus and limbic system do
the job.
There is ambiguity in the simultaneous occurrence of the physiological and emotional
responses.

THE SCHACHTER SINGER THEORY

According to the SS theory of emotion, emotions are determined jointly by a
non-specific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation based on
environmental cues.
Drug expt. <--> strong emotions <--> response
The purpose of the expt. Was to determine how the participants would react
emotionally to the confederate’s behaviour.
The results suggest that participants turned to the environment and the behaviour of
others for an explanation of the physiological arousal they were experiencing.
The results of the SS expt. then supported a cognitive view of emotions in which
emotions are determined jointly by a relatively non-specific kind of physiological
arousal.
It emphasis that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our
environment and by comparing ourselves with others.

COGNITIVE APPRAISAL THEORY

Proposed by Richard Lazarus, his original mode of emotion suggested that emotion
arose from the individual’s appraisal of the environment.
Primary- the initial evaluation of the environment- is it +ve, -ve or neutral.
Secondary- what is the best way to cope with this environment and what option are
available.
OPPONENT PROCESS THEORY

Proposed by Richard Solomon and said that we are motivated to seek goals which
give us good emotional feelings and avoid goals resulting in displeasure.
Motivating states are followed by opposite states.

THEORY OF RELATIONSHIP AMONG EMOTIONS

Robert Plutchik proposed a descriptive theory that is concerned with what are called
primary or basic emotions and the ways they can be mixed together.

EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION

Masking: attempting to hide an emotion is called masking.

Modulation: an attempt to exaggerate or minimize the expression of an emotion.
Stimulation: an attempt to express an emotion we do not actually feel.

MULTIPLE PERSPECTIVES ON EMOTION

Psychologist, Paul EKman convincingly demonstrated the six primary emotions.

DISPLAY RULES
Rules that prescribe under what situations we should or should not display signs of
particular emotions. They are culturally influenced.
Each culture has a particular set of display rules.

FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS

Our awareness of facial expression influences the way in which we feel.
The hypothesis that facial expressions not only reflect emotional experience but also
help determine how people experience and label emotions.

FACIAL AFFECT PROGRAM

Activation of a set of nerve impulses that make the face display the appropriate
expression.
 UNIT 3
INTELLIGENCE
The capacity to understand the world, think rationally and use resources effectively
when faced with challenges.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. SPEARMAN’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

The English psychologist, Charles Spearman, in 1904 proposed his theory of

intelligence called two factor theory.
According to him, intellectual abilities are comprised of two factors, generic ability
known as G-factor and specific ability known as S-factor.
Intelligence= S factor + G factor
G Factor:
- Universal inborn ability
- General mental energy
- Constant
- Amount of G differs from individual to individual
- Used in every activity of life.
- Greater the G = Greater the success in life

S Factor:
- Learned and acquired
- Varies from activity to activity in the same individual
- Individuals differ in the amount of S ability

G factor represents nature intelligence; thus, when we respond to any situation or

perform an intellectual task, our general mental ability or G factor is mainly
responsible for it and our specific ability in that particular task is responsible for the
rest.

There are a large number of specific abilities such as the ability in that particular task
is responsible for the rest.
There are a large number of specific abilities such as the ability to draw inferences,
ability to complete sentences, ability to code messages, etc.

Different individuals differed both in their G as well as S factors.

For example, an individual’s performance in literature is partly due to the general

intelligence is partly due to the general intelligence is partly due to the general
intelligence and partly due to the specific aptitude for the language.
That is G+S
The factor G is present in all specific activities.

2. GUILFORD'S STRUCTURE OF INTELLIGENCE (SI MODEL)

J P Guilford developed a model of intelligence using factor analysis in 1966. He

outlines topography of the structure of intellect, providing an integrated rationale for
for describing the many dimensions of intellectual performance.

He suggests that there are 3 basic parameters along which any intellectual activity
takes place.
A. Operations- act of thinking
B. Contents- the terms in which we think
C. Products- the ideas we come up with

Guildford identified 5 operations, 5 contexts and 6 products.

Thus, the maximum number of factors is 150 (5*5*6)
Operations:
A. Cognition: refers to discovery, rediscovery or recognition.
B. Memory: simply remembering what was once known.
C. Convergent thinking: this type of thinking, by reasoning, results in useful
solution to problems.
D. Divergent thinking: seeking and searching variety and novelty.
E. Evaluation: making judgements.

Contents:
A. Visual: size, form, colour.
B. Auditory: language, speech, sound.
C. Symbolic: letters, digits and other conventional signs.
D. Semantic: verbal meaning or ideas we get from others.
E. Behavioural: social behaviour.

Products:
A. Units: understanding meaning.
B. Classes: classification of ideas.
C. Relations: discovering relations of words and ideas
D. Systems: ability to structure objects in space and to structure symbolic
elements.
E. Transformation: ability to look into future lines of development.
 F. Implications: the ability to utilize present information for future needs.
Guilford's theory of intelligence seems to be the most comprehensive theory as it
attempts to take into considerations all the possible aspects of intellectual activity.

3. THURSTON’S GROUP FACTOR THEORY

Louis Thurston came out with the group factor theory (1937) saying that intelligence
is a cluster of abilities.
These mental operations then constitute a group. A second group of mental operations
has its own unifying primary factor; a third group has a third primary factor and so on.
Each of them has its own primary factor. Each of these primary factors is said to be
relatively independent of others. He pointed out that there were seven Primary Mental
Abilities and later on added two more.

A. Verbal Comprehension Factor: this factor involves a person’s ability to

understand verbal material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and
reading comprehension.

B. Verbal Fluency Factor: This ability is involved in rapidly producing words,

sentences, and other verbal materials.

C. Numerical factor: This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and

in solving simple arithmetic word problems.

D. Perceptual Speed Factor: This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid

recognition of letters and numbers.

E. Inductive Reasoning Factor: This ability requires generalisation- reasoning

from the specific to the general.

F. Spatial Visualization Factor: this ability is involved in visualising shapes,

rotation of objects and how pieces of a puzzle fit together.

G. Memory Factor: it means the ability to recall and associate previously learned
items effectively or memorize quickly.

Later on, factors like Deductive Reasoning and problem solving ability factor.
 4. CATTELL THEORY

Raymond Bernard Cattell’s theory of fluid and crystallised intelligence proposes that
general intelligence is actually a conglomeration of perhaps 100 abilities working
together in various ways in different people bring out different intelligences.

Fluid intelligence:
● It represents the biological basis of intelligence. Measures of fluid
intelligence such as speed of reasoning and memory, increase into
adulthood and then decline due to aging process.
● It involves being able to think and reason abstractly and solve problems.
● It is considered independent of learning, experience and education.

Crystallized intelligence:
● The knowledge and skills obtained through learning and experience.
● As long as opportunities for learning are available, crystallised
intelligence can increase indefinitely during a person’s life.
● Involves knowledge that comes from prior learning and past
experiences.

5. GARDNER’S THEORY

Howard Gardner identified seven distinct intelligences.

According to his theory of Multiple Intelligences: “we are all able to know the world
through language, logical mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical
thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things an understanding of
other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves where individuals differ ”

6. PIAGET'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

7. TRIARCHIC THEORY