UNIT 2 THEORIES OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Psychodynamic Theories
2.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory
2.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychsocial Theory

2.3 Humanistic Theories

2.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s Theory
2.3.2 Carl Roger’s Theory

2.4 Behaviouristic Theories

2.4.1 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
2.4.2 B. Frederick Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
2.4.3 Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning

2.5 Cognitive Theory

2.5.1 Jean Piaget’s Theory

2.6 Let Us Sum Up

2.7 Unit End Questions
2.8 Suggested Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered why children are different from adults, and require
special care? Have you ever thought of the differences in behaviour of different
individuals? These are just a few of the fascinating aspects of the field of “human
development”. This unit of Theories of Human Development introduces you to
different theories which will unfold all of the fascinating aspects of life. Theories
are like fantasies which take you into a world of ideas and suggest methods for
exploring human behaviour.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 discuss the psychodynamic perspective of development;
 enumerate the use of defense mechanisms;
 list the differences between Id, Ego and Super-Ego;
 explain humanistic viewpoint;
 explain cognitive theory of development;
 differentiate classical conditioning and operant conditioning; and
 evaluate strengths and weaknesses of each theory.
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 Theories of Human
2.2 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES Development

Psychodynamics, also known as dynamic psychology, is the study of the

interrelationship of various parts of the mind, personality, or psyche as they relate
to mental, emotional, or motivational forces especially at the unconscious level.
(Hall, Calvin, S.1954).

2.2.1 Sigmund Freud’s Theory

The proponent of this theory is Sigmund Freud, who believed that human behaviour
is brought about by inner forces over which the individual has little control. He
was of the view that both conscious and unconscious forces influence the personality
of an individual.
The Structure of Personality: Freud likens that the human mind to an iceberg.
In terms of the thoughts and impulses in our minds, we are only aware of the “tip
of the iceberg.” He put forward three constituents of personality the id, the ego
and the superego.
The Id: Id refers to the raw, unorganised, inherited part whose main goal is to
reduce tension created by our primitive needs drives such as hunger, thirst, sex,
aggression etc. Id operates on pleasure principle, in which its goal is immediate
gratification of the needs and reduction of tension caused by the emergence of
needs.
The Ego: This is the “I” of the Personality. An executives, which develops as the
child interacts more and more with the world. It acts as a the buffer between the
id and the world’s realities. Ego’s job is to meet the needs of the id, while taking
into consideration the reality of the situation. The ego is responsible for higher
cognitive functions such as intelligence, thoughtfulness and learning.
The Superego: This is the moral arm of the personality. According to Freud, as
child learn to obey parents and caregiver by controlling the many Id unpulses,
learn to let training, does things as requires by parents, the child also in corporate.
The super ego represents the rights and wrongs of the society. It has two subparts:
the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents the child from doing
morally bad things. The ego-ideal motivates the child to do what is ideal. The
superego helps to control the id’s impulses, making them less selfish and more
morally correct.
Topographical Model: Freud believed that the majority of what we experience
in our lives, the underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses are not available
to us at a conscious level. He put forward and the concept of conscious,
preconscious and unconscious. There are explained below:
Conscious: The conscious mind includes everything that is in our awareness. This
is that aspect of our mental processing which we can think and talk about in a
rational way. Example: consciously we know we have to go for a painful test. But
we forget the appointment on that day when we have to go for test. The former
is conscious the latter is unconscious.
Unconscious: A reservoir of unacceptable or unpleasant feelings, thoughts, urges,
and memories that lie outside of our conscious awareness.
Pre conscious: This is not in our active conscious but can be accessed, if
prompted example: our old telephone number, some childhood memories etc.
19
which are stored in the preconscious.
Life Span Development: Defense Mechanisms: When the ego is threatened by unconscious impulses, it
Introduction
employs defense mechanisms to protect the conscious self. These are called Ego
Defense Mechanisms or Defenses. When the ego has a difficult time making both
the id and the superego happy, it will employ one or more of the following
defenses.
DEFENSE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
1. Denial Arguing against an Denying that your
anxiety provoking physician’s diagnosis of
stimuli by stating cancer is incorrect and
that it doesn’t exist seeking a second opinion
2. Displacement Passing on the Slamming a door instead
impulses on a less of hitting a person.
threatening target Yelling at spouse after an
argument with the boss
3. Intellectualisation Avoiding Focusing on the details of
unacceptable the funeral arrangements
emotions by focusing as opposed to the sadness
on the intellectual and grief
aspects
4. Projection Passing off the When a person indulges
unacceptable in promiscuous
impulses in relationship and feels
withinself onto guilty, states that the
someone else other person is
preconscious.
5. Rationalisation Supplying a logical Stating that you were
or rational reason as fired because you didn’t
opposed to the real kiss the boss, when the
reason real reason was your poor
performance
6. Reaction Taking the opposite Having a bias against a
formation belief because the particular race or culture
true belief causes and then embracing that
anxiety race or culture to the
extreme
7. Regression Returning to a A child who is toilet
previous stage of trained starts wetting the
development bed after new sibling
arrival.
8. Repression Pushing things into Forgetting sexual abuse
the conscious. from ends childhood due
to the trauma and anxiety,
cured.
9. Sublimation Acting out Sublimating one’s your
unacceptable aggressive impulses
impulses in a socially toward a career as a
acceptable way boxer. Becoming a
surgeon because of one’s
desire to cut. Lifting
weights to release ‘pent
up’ energy
Apart from the defense mechanisms, another important as part of personality
development is the manner in which it unfolds.
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Psychosexual Stages of Development: There are in all five stages of development.
1) Oral Stage (Birth-18 Months): Sexual gratification is obtained through oral Theories of Human
Development
activities. If a child is not sufficiently nourished, he or she tends fixate their
pleasure seeking energies on particular stage. Fixation may lead to gullibility,
smoking, alcohol abuse, nail biting and/or excessive optimism/pessimism.
2) Anal Stage (18 -36 Months): Sexual gratification is obtained through
contraction and relaxation of the muscles that control elimination (Fixation
may lead to anal-retentive or anal-expulsive traits). The child either becomes
anal expulsive - disorganised and often late for to appointments, etc. or anal
retentive - highly controlled, rigid, and compulsively neat.
3) Phallic Stage (3 - 6 Years): Libidinal energy is shifted to the phallic regions
(penis for boys and clitoris for girls).
 Oedipus complex: A conflict of the phallic stage in which the boy wishes
to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival.
 Electra complex: Similar to the Oedipus complex in that a young girl
longs for her father and resents her mother.
4) Latency Stage (6 years to Puberty): The pressures of the Oedipus and
Electra complexes cause children to repress their sexual urges and enter a
period of latency where their urges remain unconscious.
5) Genital Stage (Puberty- Adulthood): The mature stage of psychosexual
development, characterised by the preferred expression of libido via intercourse
with an adult of the opposite gender.
 Libido: According to Freud, the energy generated by sexual instinct.
 Fixation: According to Freud, a partial or complete halt at some point
in the individual’s psychosexual development.
 Reaction Formation may occur, which would be taking the lingering
desire for pleasure from some source and acting in the opposite way.
Evaluation of Freud’s psychosexual theory of personality
 Difficult to test, but the evidence that has been gathered is not favorable.
 The crucial events (example, how the libido is used) are unobservable, and
there are no good means to measure them.
 There is an awfully long time between the occurrence of the causal stimulus
and its presumed effect. Relationships between early events and later traits
tend to be weak and inconsistent.
 This theory of development was conceived without studying children; rather,
it was developed from patients’ recollections, dreams and free associations.
According to Freud, personality development gets completed by the time the
child is 5 years of age, after which not much changes of personality can be
explain.Then the child even at 2 years will have that personality he had when he
was 5 years of age.

2.2.2 Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory (1902-1994)

Erikson was a psychoanalytic like Freud, but differ from Freud in regard to
psycho sexual development. This means that he accepts Freud’s ideas as basically
correct. Erikson is much more culture-oriented than Freud and his theory is
labeled Psychosocial instead of Psychosexual.
The epigenetic principle
Development functions by the epigenetic principle which means that we develop 21
Life Span Development: through a predetermined unfolding of our personalities in eight stages. Our progress
Introduction
through each stage is in part determined by our success, or lack of success, in
all the previous stages.
Psychosocial virtues or strengths (positive outcomes)
Each stage involves certain developmental tasks that are psychosocial in nature
and has a certain optimal time as well. If a stage is managed well, we carry with
us certain virtue or psychosocial strength that will help us through the rest of the
stages of our lives.
Psychosocial maladaptations and malignancies (negative outcomes)
If a child is able to pass through successful through the different stages and
development , one can expect a positive healthy person. However if the person
faces more failure than success, his personality will be unhealthy. Maladaptations’
and ‘Malignancies’ represent the negative outcomes arising from an unhelpful
experience through each of the crisis stages. If we do not manage the task well,
we may develop maladaptations and malignancies, which will endanger all our
future development. A malignancy involves too little of the positive and too much
of the negative aspect such as a person who does not trust at all whereas
maladaptation involves too much of the positive and too little of the negative,
such as a person who trusts too much.
The Eight stages of development
Erik Erikson explained eight stages of development through which a healthy
developing person would pass. These are:
1) Trust vs. Mistrust (Infants, 0 to 1 year)
The task of the first stage, infancy or the oral-sensory stage is to develop trust
without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. This stage focuses on
the infant’s basic needs, being met by the parents. If the parents expose the child
to warmth, regularity, and dependable affection, the infant’s view of the world will
be one of trust. If the parents fail to provide a secure environment and fail to meet
the child’s basic need, a sense of mistrust will result. If proper balance is achieved,
the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that, even when things
are not going well, they will work out well in the end. Failing this, maladaptive
tendency or sensory distortion may develop and the malignant tendency of
withdrawal will develops.
2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3 years)
The second stage is the anal-muscular stage of early childhood. This is an important
period of Holo” and let go. As children gain control over eliminative functions and
motor abilities, they begin to explore their surroundings. If parents and caregivers
encourage self-sufficient behaviour, toddlers develop a sense of autonomy that is
a sense of being able to handle many problems on their own. But if caregivers
demand too much too soon, refuse to let children perform tasks of which they are
capable, children may instead develop shame and doubt about their ability to
handle problems. If a child gets proper, positive balance of autonomy the person
will develop the virtue of willpower, or else, the maladaptive tendency of impulsivity
and the malignant tendency of compulsion will develop.
3) Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years)
This is the play age and school going age. The child has to learn to take initiative
without too much guilt. Initiative means a positive response to the world’s
challenges, taking on responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful etc.
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Parents must encourage initiative in children and help them to try out their ideas.
The child is now capable, as never before, of imagining a future situation, one that Theories of Human
Development
is not a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make that non reality a reality.
A good balance leads to psychosocial strength in children or else the child may
develop maladaptive tendency of ruthlessness and the malignant tendency of
inhibition.
4) Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)
This is called the Latency stage, and the child has to develop a capacity for
industry while avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Industry here refers to
purposeful or meaningful activity. It’s the development of competence and skills,
and is a crucial aspect of school years experience. Erikson described it as a sort
of ‘entrance to life’. A child who experiences the satisfaction of achievement will
move towards successful negotiation of this crisis stage, whereas experience of
failure may lead to feelings of inferiority and uselessness. The right balance of
industry and inferiority will develop if the child experiences positive achievements
and the child develops the virtue called competency. If the child experiences
failure then he may develop maladaptive tendency of narrow virtuosity and the
malignant tendency of inertia.
5) Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescents, 13 to 19 years)
The task during adolescence is to achieve ego identity and avoid role confusion.
Identity means essentially how the persons see themselves in relation to their
world. Role Confusion is the negative perspective that is the person cannot see
clearly or identify who they are and how they can relate positively with their
environment. If the person successfully negotiates this stage the individual will
develop the virtue called fidelity. It failed to negotiate this stage, the individual may
develop maladaptive tendency of fanaticism and the malignant tendency of
repudiation.
6) Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adults, 20 to 34 years)
The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as opposed to remaining in
isolation. Intimacy means the process of giving and receiving physical and emotional
connection, support, love, comfort, trust, and all the other elements that we would
typically associate with healthy adult relationships. Isolation conversely means
being and feeling excluded from the usual life experiences of mutually loving
relationships and is characterised by feelings of loneliness, alienation, and social
withdrawal. If the person successfully negotiates this stage, he/she you will carry
the virtue of love. If fails to negotiate successfully may develop maladaptive
tendency of promiscuity, and the malignant tendency of exclusion.
7) Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 35 to 65 years)
The task here is to cultivate the proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is a concern for the next
generation and all future generations. Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-
absorption, self-interest and caring for no one. It is the disposition that represents
feelings of selfishness, self-indulgence, greed, etc. They show lack of interest in
young people and future generations, and the wider world. If the person is are
successful at this stage, the individual will have the capacity for caring that will
serve the person through the rest of life. Failure in this regards may lead to
development of maladaptive tendency of overextension and the malignant tendency
of rejection.
8) Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Seniors, 65 years onwards)
This is a review and closing stage. The task is to develop ego integrity with a 23
Life Span Development: minimal amount of despair. Integrity means feeling at peace with oneself and the
Introduction
world. Such person are more likely to look back on their lives positively. If the
person is nor at at peace with self the person would develop despair and/or
‘disgust’ (that is rejection, denial, or ‘sour grapes’ feeling towards what life might
have been) etc. They represent the opposite disposition: feelings of wasted
opportunities, regrets. The maladaptive tendency is called presumption and the
malignant tendency is called disdain. Someone who approaches death without
fear has the strength Erikson calls the wisdom.
Table 1: Stage wise summary of Erikson’s psychosocial theory
Stage (age) Psychosocial Significant Psychosocial Psychosocial Maladaptations
crisis relations modalities virtues & malignancies
I (0-1) – trust vs Mother to get, to hope, faith Sensory
infant mistrust give in return distortion –
withdrawal

II (2-3) – autonomy vs Parents to hold on, to will, Impulsivity --

toddler shame and let go determination compulsion
doubt
III (3-6) – initiative vs Family to go after, to purpose, ruthlessness –
preschooler guilt play courage inhibition
IV (7-12 or so) – industry vs neighborhood to complete, competence Narrow
school-age child inferiority and school to make virtuosity –
things inertia
together
V (12-18 or so) – ego-identity peer groups, to be oneself, fidelity, fanaticism --
adolescence vs role- role models to share loyalty repudiation
confusion oneself

VI (the 20’s) – intimacy vs partners, to lose and love promiscuity –

young adult isolation friends find oneself exclusivity
in a
another

VII (late 20’s to 50’s) – generativity household, care to make be, overextension –
middle adult vs self- workmates to take care rejectivity
absorption of

VIII (50’s and beyond) – integrity vs mankind or to be, wisdom presumption –

old adult despair “my kind” through despair
having been,
to face not
being
(Source: Chart adapted from Erikson’s 1959 Identity and the Life Cycle:
Psychological Issues vol.1, #1)
Summary of Psychosocial Theory
Erikson’s psychosocial theory is very powerful for self-awareness and
improvement, and for teaching and helping others. It should be taught to everyone
especially to school children, teachers and parents. It is certainly accessible enough,
24 and would greatly assist all people of all ages to understand the connections
between life experiences and human behaviour. Further more it provides clues as Theories of Human
Development
to what the grown ups can do and help rather than hinder children’s development.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What is the concept of psychodynamic theory?
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2) Explain the following terms: Id, Ego, Super ego, Conscious, Unconscious
and Subconscious.
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3) Explain positive and negative aspect of psychosocial strengths.
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4) Describe Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.
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.................………………………………………………………………

2.3 HUMANISTIC THEORIES

Humanistic theories of personality gained prominence in the early 1960s, when
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) published their
first books outlining important humanistic ideas (Matlin 1999) and paved the way
for this new approach to understand personality and improve the overall satisfaction
of individuals. These theories includes mainly Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl
Rogers theory.

2.3.1 Abraham Maslow’s Theory

Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model the basis of which
is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower
needs are to be satisfied before higher needs can be first satisfied.
i) Representations: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is most often displayed as a
pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up of the most basic 25
Life Span Development: needs including the need for food, water, sleep and warmth, while the more
Introduction
complex needs are located at the top of the pyramid. Once these lower-level
needs have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs, which
are for safety and security. As people progress up the pyramid, needs become
increasingly psychological and social. Soon, the need for love, friendship and
intimacy become important. As one ascents the pyramid, the need for personal
esteem and feelings of accomplishment take priority.
ii) Deficiency needs: The lower four layers of the pyramid contain what Maslow
called “deficiency needs” or “d-needs” which include physiological (including
sexuality), security of position, friendship and love, and esteem. With the
exception of the lowest (physiological) needs, if these “deficiency needs” are
not met, the body gives no physical indication but the individual feels anxious
and tense.
iii) Growth Need: Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid as growth
need (also known as being needs or B-needs). Growth needs do not stem
from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
He laid out five broad layers viz; (1) physiological needs, (2) needs for safety and
security, (3) need for love and belonging, (4) needs for esteem, and (5) need to
actualise the self, in that order.
1) Physiological Needs: These include the most basic and instinctive needs
that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air, food and sleep. All
other needs become secondary until these physiological needs are met.
2) Security Needs: When the physiological needs are largely taken care of, this
second layer of needs comes into play. These include needs for safety and
security. Security needs are for example: employment, health insurance, etc.
which are important for survival, but they are not as demanding as the
physiological needs.
3) The Love and Belongingness Needs: When physiological needs and safety
needs are, by and large, taken care of, a third layer starts to show up. These
include needs for belongingness, love and affection. Maslow considered
these needs to be less basic than physiological and security needs.
4) Esteem Needs: After the first three needs have been satisfied, esteem needs
becomes increasingly important. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs,
a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for respect of
others, the need for status, fame, glory, recognition, attention, reputation,
appreciation, dignity, even dominance. The higher form involves the need for
self-respect, including such feelings as confidence, competence, achievement,
mastery, independence, and freedom. The negative version of these needs is
low self-esteem and inferiority complexes.
Homeostasis
He also talks about these levels in terms of homeostasis. Homeostasis is the
principle by which the persons thermostat operates. Maslow simply extends the
homeostatic principle to needs, such as safety, belongingness, and esteem that we
do not ordinarily think of in these terms.
5) Self-actualising Needs: The last level is a bit different. Maslow has has
26 called it growth motivation (in contrast to deficit motivation). These are
 called being needs (or B-needs, in contrast to D-needs), and self- Theories of Human
Development
actualisation. Maslow defines self actualisation as an intrinsic growth of
what is already in the organism, or more accurately of what is in the organism
itself. Self-actualisation is growth-motivated rather than deficiency-motivated”.
This is the highest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. These are needs that
do not involve balance or homeostasis. Once engaged, they continue to be
felt and experienced.
Criticisms of Maslow theory
In their extensive review of research based on Maslow’s theory, Wahba and
Bridgewell found little evidence for the ranking of needs Maslow described or
even for the existence of a definite hierarchy at all. Some psychologists have also
argued that fundamental human needs are non-hierarchical, and are ontologically
universal and invariant in nature. He was also heavily criticised for his limited
testing of only 100 students.

2.3.2 Carl Roger’s Theory

Carl Rogers was one of the founders of the Humanistic Approach and also the
most influential therapist in the 20th century. His theory is based directly on the
“phenomenal field” personality theory of Combs and Snygg (1949). Rogers believed
that all people have a tendency toward growth means ‘Actualisation’ to maintain
and enhance life. The goal of existence is to satisfy this need on any one of these
levels: 1) Physical – staying alive by eating, keeping warm, avoiding physical
danger etc. 2) Psychological – self-actualisation is about testing and fulfilling our
capabilities. We seek out new experiences, master new skills, quit boring jobs
and find more exciting ones etc.
Fundamental ideas
Rogers has given two fundamental ideas. (1) He talked about healthy development
in terms of how the individual perceives their own being. According to him a
healthy individual will tend to see congruence between their sense of who they
are (self) and who they feel they should be (ideal self).
While no one tends to experience perfect congruence at all times, the relative
degree of congruence is an indicator of health.
2) The second fundamental idea is Rogers’s concept of the conditions for healthy
growth, and the role of a therapist in fostering healthy growth. Through a process
Rogers called person-centered therapy; the therapist seeks to provide empathy,
openness, and unconditional positive regard.
Nineteen Propositions
His theory was based on nineteen propositions (Rogers, C. 1951)
1) All individuals (organisms) exist in a continually changing world of experience
(phenomenal field) of which they are the centre.
2) The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This
perceptual field is “reality” for the individual.
3) The organism reacts as an organised whole to this phenomenal field.
4) A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the
self.
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Life Span Development: 5) The structure of the self— an organised, fluid but consistent conceptual
Introduction
pattern of perceptions is formed as a result of interaction with others.
6) The organism has one basic tendency and striving that is, to actualise, maintain
and enhance the experiencing organism.
7) The best vantage point for understanding behaviour is from the internal frame
of reference of the individual.
8) Behaviour is basically the goal directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its
needs as experienced, in the field as perceived.
9) Emotion accompanies, and in general facilitates, such goal directed behaviour,
that the kind of emotion being related to the perceived significance of the
behaviour for the maintenance and enhancement of the organism.
10) Values experienced directly by the organism, and in some instances the
values taken over from others, but perceived in distorted fashion, as if they
had been experienced directly.
11) As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either, a) symbolised,
perceived and organised into some relation to the self, b) ignored because
there is no perceived relationship to the self structure, c) denied symbolisation
or given distorted symbolisation because the experience is inconsistent with
the structure of the self.
12) Most of the ways of behaving that are adopted by the organism are those
that are consistent with the concept of self.
13) In some instances, behaviour may be brought about by organic experiences
and needs which have not been symbolised. Such behaviour may be
inconsistent with the structure of the self but in such instances the behaviour
is not “owned” by the individual.
14) Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is assimilated
on a symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self.
15) Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies awareness of
significant sensory and visceral experiences. When this situation exists, there
is a basic or potential psychological tension.
16) Any experience which is inconsistent with the organisation of the structure of
the self may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions
there are, the more rigidly the self structure is organised to maintain itself.
17) Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of threat to
the self structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it may be perceived
and examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such
experiences.
18) When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated
system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more
understanding of others and is more accepting of others as separate individuals.
19) As the individual perceives and accepts into his self structure more of his
organic experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value system -
based extensively on introjections which have been distortedly symbolised -
with a continuing organism valuing process.
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Development of Personality Theories of Human
Development
Rogers talked about fully functioning person.
1) Fully functioning person: Rogers used the term fully functioning person for
someone who is self-actualising. He listed characteristics of a fully functioning
person (Rogers 1961) as given below:
 An increasingly existential lifestyle – living each moment fully – not
distorting the moment to fit personality or self concept. This results in
excitement, daring, adaptability, tolerance, spontaneity, and a lack of
rigidity and suggests a foundation of trust. (Rogers 1961)
 Increasing organismic trust – they trust their own judgment and their
ability to choose behaviour that is appropriate for each moment. They
do not rely on existing codes and social norms.
 Freedom of choice – not being shackled by the restrictions that influence
an incongruent individual, they are able to make a wider range of
choices more fluently. They feel responsible for their own behaviour.
 Creativity – it follows that they will feel more free to be creative. They
will adapt creatively to their own circumstances without feeling a need
to conform.
 Reliability and constructiveness – they can be trusted to act
constructively. An individual who is open to all their needs will be able
to maintain a balance between them.
 A rich full life– he describes the life of the fully functioning individual
as rich, full and exciting who experience joy and pain, love and
heartbreak, fear and courage more intensely.
The second aspect about personality was the actualisation tendency which is
presented below:
2) Actualisation tendency: “There is one central source of energy in the human
organism; it is perhaps best conceptualized as a tendency toward fulfillment,
toward actualisation, toward the maintenance and enhancement of the
organism.” To be self-actualising, one is (1) open to experience, (2) trusting
in one’s experience, (3) holds an internal locus of evaluation, and (4) the
willingness to be in process.
The third aspect of personality was that all humans are good. This is described
below:
3) Humans as basically good: Rogers believed that people are trustworthy,
resourceful, capable of self-understanding and self-directing, able to make
constructive changes and able to live effective and productive lives.
The fourth aspect was the valuing process explained below:
4) Organismic Valuing Process: When an individual feels that an activity is
valuable worth doing, it is worth doing and my total organismic sensing of
a situation is more trustworthy.
The fifth aspect was the phenomenological domains
5) Phenomenological Field: In this what one perceive experiences at the moment
is important.
29
Life Span Development: This sixth aspects of personality is the unconditional positive regard. That is only
Introduction
when the individual experiences he would develop self-regard which would be
unconditional. The needs for positive regard and self-regard would never be at
variance with organismic evaluation, and the individual would continue to be
psychologically adjusted, and would be fully functioning.
The sixth aspect is self congruence given below:
6) Self congruence: The self doesn’t exist at birth but that infants gradually
differentiate self from non-self. The self is constantly evolving. One way of
looking at the self is to look at the ideal self and the actual self. The ideal
self is the person you would like to be. The actual self is what you are now
or even what you think you are. When you are self-actualised then there is
congruence (i.e. harmony or agreement) between the real and the actual
selves.
The eight aspect is incongruence. According to this, Rogers assumes two main
categories of defenses; these two are given below:
a) Distortion of Experience: distortion of experience is when you try to change
you perception of an event from what you really know it to be.
b) Preventing threatening experiences from reaching awareness at all, that is
using keep off the under thought.
The last aspect of personality is psychotherapy. According to Rogers the individual
has within self vast resources self understanding, altering self concept, attitudes,
and self directed behaviours. All these resources can be tapped if only a definable
climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided. His therapy has
been called “client-centered therapy” or person-centered therapy.
Summary of Roger’s Theory
According to Rogers, the main determinant, of whether we will become self-
actualised or not, starts from childhood experience. He believed that it is crucial
for children to receive positive regard, from the important people in their lives,
particularly their parents. It is important for persons to receive unconditional
positive regard, that is affection and acceptance with no strings attached. Often
however, this regard is conditional and thus comes with strings attached. If the
conditions are few and reasonable then the child will be fine but if the conditions
of worth are severely limiting then self actualisation will be severely impeded.
Self Assessment Questions
1) What is the meaning of Hierarchical needs of Maslow theory?
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2) List out the characteristics of fully functioning person.
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30 .................………………………………………………………………
 Theories of Human
3) Put forward Roger’s theory of personality development. Development

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2.4 BEHAVIOURISTIC THEORIES

These theories are based on principle of learning. Every behaviour, according to
this theory, is learned and so can be unlearned. Whatever the organisms do
acting, thinking and feeling are all part of behaviours. Behaviour acts on the
principle of stimulus response relatives. The main respondents of this theory are
Pavlov, Thondike, Watson and Skinner. Each of these theories are given below:

2.4.1 Ivan Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory

One of the best-known aspects of behavioural learning theory is classical
conditioning discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
Definition of Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning is a form of associative
learning. The original and most famous example of classical conditioning involved
the salivary conditioning of Pavlov’s dogs. During his research on the physiology
of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the
presence of meat powder (an innate response to food that he called the
unconditioned response), the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab
technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called these psychic secretions. From
this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus in the dog’s surroundings
were present when the dog was presented with meat powder, then this stimulus
would become associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his initial
experiment, Pavlov used a metronome to call the dogs to their food and, after a
few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the metronome.
Procedure in Classical Conditioning: The typical procedure for inducing classical
conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus along with a stimulus of
some significance. The neutral stimulus could be any event that does not result in
an overt behavioural response from the organism under investigation. Pavlov
referred to this as a conditioned stimulus (CS). Conversely, presentation of the
significant stimulus necessarily evokes an innate, often reflexive, response. Pavlov
called these the unconditioned stimulus (US) and unconditioned response (UR),
respectively. If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two
stimuli become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioural
response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).
Basic Processes: The basic processes of classical conditioning are:
i) The Unconditioned Stimulus: This is one that unconditionally, naturally, and
automatically triggers a response.
ii) The Unconditioned Response: This is the unlearned response that occurs
naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.
iii) The Conditioned Stimulus: Here the previously neutral stimulus, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned
response. 31
Life Span Development: iv) The Conditioned Response: This is the learned response to the previously
Introduction
neutral stimulus.
Principles of Classical Conditioning: Behaviourists have described a number
of different phenomena associated with classical conditioning. These elements are
important in understanding the classical conditioning process.
1) Acquisition: Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is
first established and gradually strengthened. Once the response has been
acquired, you can gradually reinforce the response to make sure the behaviour
is well learned.
2) Extinction: Extinction occurs when the occurrences of a conditioned response
decrease or disappear. In classical conditioning, this happens when a
conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
3) Spontaneous Recovery: In this theory reappearance of the conditioned
response after a rest period or period of lessened response. If the conditioned
stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated, extinction will
occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.
4) Stimulus Generalisation: This is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus
to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. For
example, if a rat has been conditioned to fear a stuffed white rabbit, it will
exhibit fear of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus.
5) Discrimination: This is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned
stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned
stimulus. For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus,
discrimination would involve being able to tell the difference between the bell
tone and other similar sounds.
Types of Conditioning: There are different types of conditioning which are
presented below:
1) Forward conditioning: During forward conditioning the onset of the CS
precedes the onset of the US. Two common forms of forward conditioning
are delay and trace conditioning. In delay conditioning the CS is presented
and is overlapped by the presentation of the US. During trace conditioning
the CS and US do not overlap. Instead, the CS is presented, a period of
time is allowed to lapse during which no stimuli are presented, and then the
US is presented. The stimulus free period is called the trace interval. It may
also be called the “conditioning interval”.
2) Simultaneous conditioning: During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and
US are presented and terminated at the same time.
3) Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning occurs when a conditioned
stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus.
4) Temporal conditioning: The US is presented at regularly timed intervals,
and the CR acquisition is dependent upon correct timing of the interval
between US presentations.
5) Unpaired conditioning: The CS and US are not presented together. Usually
they are presented as independent trials that are separated by a variable, or
pseudo-random, interval.
32
6) CS-alone extinction: The CS is presented in the absence of the US. This Theories of Human
Development
procedure is usually done after the CR has been acquired through forward
conditioning training. Eventually, the CR frequency is reduced to pre-training
levels.
Summary: Classical conditioning is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in
which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally
evoked by another stimulus.

2.4.2 B. Frederick Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory

The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of
change in overt behaviour. Changes in behaviour are the result of an individual’s
response to stimuli that occur in the environment. A response produces a
consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem.
When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond. Let us see in detail what is operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning: This is also referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a
method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour.
Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behaviour and
a consequence for that behaviour. It is the use of consequences that occur which
are used for modifying a behaviour.
Components of Operant Conditioning: Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
i) A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it
follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers, viz: positive and negative
reinforcers.
 Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented
after the behaviour. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a
response or behaviour is strengthened by the addition of something,
such as praise or a direct reward.
 Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable event or
outcome after the display of a behaviour. In these situations, a response
is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behaviour increases.
ii) Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or
outcome that causes a decrease in the behaviour it follows. There are two
kinds of punishment, positive and negative.
Positive punishment involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome
in order to weaken the response it follows. On the other hand negative punishment
by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behaviour
occurs.
In both of above cases of punishment, the behaviour decreases.
Extinction: Extinction is the lack of any consequence following a behaviour.
When a behaviour is inconsequential, producing neither favorable nor unfavorable
consequences, it will occur with less frequency.
Schedules of reinforcement: These are important component of the learning
process. When and how often we reinforce a behaviour can have a dramatic
impact on the strength and rate of the response. There are two types of
reinforcement schedules, viz; continous and partial reinforcement. 33
Life Span Development: In continuous reinforcement, the desired behaviour is reinforced every single time
Introduction
it occurs. Once the response if firmly established, reinforcement is usually switched
to a partial reinforcement schedule.
In partial reinforcement, the response is reinforced only part of the time. Learned
behaviours are acquired more slowly with partial reinforcement though there are
more resistance to extinction. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement:
 Fixed-ratio schedules are those where a response is reinforced only after
a specified number of responses.
 Variable-ratio schedules occur when a response is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of responses.
 Fixed-interval schedules are those where the response is rewarded only
after a specified amount of time has elapsed.
 Variable-interval schedules occur when a response is rewarded after an
unpredictable amount of time has passed.

2.4.3 Difference between Classical and Operant

Conditioning
Classical conditioning is where one thing is “programmed” into the brain, and
is associated with another. It just involves the pairing of stimuli and the association
that results between the two. A behaviour that would normally be the result of
one stimulus becomes the result of the other also due to the association created.
Operant conditioning is where something is learned by the consequences, and
if more of a trial-and-error type of learning. It requires the subject to perform
some action and that action is either rewarded or punished to either encourage
or discourage the behaviour. It’s usually used for behaviour modification.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Explain classical conditioning and its types.
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2) Define reinforcement and punishment.
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3) Elucidate Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning.
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 Theories of Human
2.5 COGNITIVE THEORY Development

It concerns about cognitive development, focusing on a child’s development in

terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language
learning etc. The Theory of Cognitive Development is a comprehensive theory
about the nature and development of human intelligence. Here we will be dealing
with Piaget’s cognitive theory of development.

2.5.1 Jean Piage’st Theory

Piaget’s stage theory describes the cognitive development in children. Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget’s view,
early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later
progresses into changes in mental operations.
1) Key concepts of Piaget’s Theory
Schemas: Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and
understand the world.
Adaptation: Piaget saw adaptation as a fundamentally biological process. All
living things adapt, even without a nervous system or brain. Assimilation and
accommodation are the two sides of adaptation process.
Assimilation: The process of taking in new information into our previously existing
schemas is known as assimilation.
Accommodation: Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas,
as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be
developed during this process.
Equilibration: Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between
assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget
called equilibration.
2) Stages of cognitive development
Piaget concerned the cognitive development in terms of stages.
a) Sensory motor stage: The first stage is the sensorimotor stage which lasts
from birth to about two years old. The infant uses his or her senses and
motor abilities to understand the world, beginning with reflexes and ending
with complex combinations of sensorimotor skills. This stage can be divided
into six separate sub-stages as given below.
i) Reflexes (0-1 month): The child understands the environment purely
through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
ii) Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months): Between one and four
months, the child works on an action of his own which serves as a
stimulus to which it responds with the same action, and around and
around we go.
iii) Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months): The child becomes
more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action
in order to trigger a response in the environment.
iv) Coordination of Secondary Reactions (8-12 months): Develop
certain focuses on the demand object. Responses become more
coordinate and complex. 35
Life Span Development: v) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-24 months): Children begin a period
Introduction
of trial-and-error experimentation during this sub-stage.
vi) Early Representational Thought: Children begin to develop symbols
to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensory motor
sub-stage.
b) Preoperational stage: The preoperational stage lasts from about two to
about seven years old. Now that the child has mental representations and
is able to pretend, it is a short step to the use of symbols. Language
development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children
are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism. Egocentrism is when children experience difficulty in
experiencing other person’s perspective.
c) Concrete operations stage: The concrete operational stage begins around
age seven and continues until approximately age twelve. During this time,
children gain a better understanding of mental operations. They begin thinking
logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts.
Logic
Piaget stated that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at
the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience
to a general principle.
Conservation
It refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance.
If you show a child four marbles in a row, then spread them out, the preoperational
child will focus on the spread, and tend to believe that there are now more
marbles than before. The concrete operations child, on the other hand, will know
that there are still four marbles.
Reversibility
By seven or eight years of age, children develop conservation of substance: If a
ball of clay is taken and roll it into a long thin rod, or even split it into ten little
pieces, the child knows that there is still the same amount of clay. And he will
know that, if you rolled it all back into a single ball, it would look quite the same
as it did - a feature known as reversibility.
In addition, a child also learns classification and seriation during this stage.
d) Formal operational stage: The formal operational stage begins at
approximately age twelve to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people
develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, deductive reasoning,
and systematic planning
Logic
Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational
stage and this requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific
outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required
in science and mathematics.
Abstract Thinking
The ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during this stage. Instead of
relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes
36 and consequences of actions.
Problem Solving Approach: In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to Theories of Human
Development
solve problems. The ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges. Children are often able to quickly plan an organised
approach to solve a problem.
Piaget’s Impact on Education: Piaget’s focus on qualitative development has an
important impact on education. Many educational programs are built upon the
belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally
prepared (Driscoll, 1994). Piaget’s however was criticised for his research methods.
Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age
than Piaget thought, and it is said that Piaget’s underestimate children’s abilities.
He was also criticised for his sample. Because of this unrepresentative sample, it
is difficult to generalise his findings to a larger population.

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth,
development, and learning. According to Freud’s theory, child development occurs
in a series of stages focused on different pleasure areas of the body. While
Erikson’s theory shared some similarities with Freud’s, it is dramatically different
in many ways. Erikson believed that social interaction and experience play a
decisive role. His eight-stage theory of human development described this process
from infancy through death.
Cognitive theory however tired to describe and explain the development of thought
processes and mental states. It also looked at how these thought processes
influence the way we understand and interact with the world. Ivan Pavlov’s
discovery and research on reflexes influenced the growing behaviourist movement.
His research also demonstrated techniques of studying reactions to the environment
in an objective, scientific method. As a behaviourist, Skinner believed that internal
thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behaviour. Instead, he
suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human
behaviour.

2.7 UNIT END QUESTIONS

1) What is Psychodynamic perspective?
2) Discuss Freud’s structure of personality.
3) Explain psychosexual stages of development.
4) What are the defense mechanisms?
5) What are psychosocial virtues and maladaptations in Erikson theory?
6) Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning.
7) Explain schedules of reinforcement.
8) Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
9) What are the characteristics of a fully functioning person of Roger’s theory?
10) Discuss key concepts of Piaget’s theory.

37
Life Span Development:
Introduction 2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS
Elizabeth B. Hurlock (1980). Developmental Psychology: A Life-Span Approach,
Prentice Hall, New Delhi.
Matlin, M. W. (1999). Psychology, Third Edition, Harcourt Brace College
Publishers, Orlando.
Maslow, Abraham (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.
pp. 236.
References
Freud, Sigmund (1923). The Ego and the Id. Norton & Company.
Hall, Calvin, S. (1954). A Primer in Freudian Psychology. Meridian Book.
ISBN 0452011833.
Hofstede, G (1984). The Cultural Relativity of the Quality of Life Concept.
Academy of Management Review 9 (3): 389–398.
Maslow, Abraham (1971). The Further Reaches of Human Nature. New York:
Harper.
Piaget, J. (1972). To Understand Is To Invent. New York: The Viking Press,
Inc.
Rogers, C.R. (1969). Freedom to Learn. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Rogers, C.R. and Freiberg, H.J. (1994). Freedom to Learn (3rd Ed). Columbus,
OH: Merrill/Macmillan.
Sigel, I. and Cocking, R. (1977). Cognitive Development from Childhood to
Adolescence: A Constructivist Perspective. NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Singer, D. and Revenson, T. (1978). A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks.
NY: International Universities Press, Inc.
Skinner, B.F. (1950). Are Theories of Learning Necessary? Psychological Review,
57(4), 193-216.
Skinner, B.F. (1984). The Operational Analysis of Psychological Terms.
Behavioural and Brain Science, 7 (4): 547–581.
Wahba, A and Bridgewell, L (1976). “Maslow reconsidered: A review of research
on the need hierarchy theory”. Organisational Behaviour and Human
Performance (15): 212–240.
What is psychodynamics? - WebMD, Stedman’s Medical Dictionary 28th Edition,
Copyright© 2006_Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
David R. Shaffer and Katherine Kipp: Developmental Psychology: Childhood
and Adolescence, Holt, Rurehart and Watson New York.

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