Grammar 2nd semester

Unit 4: expression of hypothetical meaning

Conditional sentences: the verb phrase is the most important feature
Definition and main features

• Two or more clauses that express subordinate meaning. Conditional clauses

are considered adverbial clauses, they express a condition and the result of the
condition.
• Most common type of a conditional sentence: the if clause: a preposition stating
what happens if the condition is fulfilled… If x occurs, then Y occurs

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• In spoken English there’s no preference for the result clause to be placed in
initial position. However, in written English, there’s a slight tendency for if
clauses to occur first… If you’re ill, you must stay in bed
• Conditional clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as if,
provided/providing (that), as long as, unless, even if, on condition, but for +
noun/nominal

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• Real conditionals: the conditions and the result, can be fulfilled
1. Generic factual conditionals: express a fact that appears to be a
scientific truth. These conditionals take a simple present tense in both
clauses… If a gas is heated, it expands.
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2. Habitual factual conditionals: express situations or events in the present
or past, as being the usual. Same tense in both clauses… If I make a
promise, I keep it/if he had business in Baltimore, he stayed at the Hyatt.
3. Inference conditionals: inferred from the if clause, they can be about the
present or the past… If he likes Italian food, then he likes Italian wine.
4. Future conditionals: express predicted future results of conditions. They
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may be about plans or other contingencies… If you don’t leave now,

you’ll miss your plane.
• Unreal conditionals: the if clause is an imagined condition and the result is an
imagined outcome
1. Hypothetical conditionals: express speculations about imagined events
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or states in the present/future… If you found a wallet on the subway,

would you return it to the owner?
2. Counterfactual conditionals: impossible states in the present or
speculations about the past (didn’t happen)… if I were you, I would sell


the car.
• More combinations: REAL CONDITIONALS
S. Present + S. Present… If I feel like some exercise, I take the dog for a walk
Pr. Continuous + S. Present/Pr. Continuous/Will have to… They are breaking
the law if they give you that information
S. Past + S. Past/Pa. Continuous/Pr. Perfect… If you gave him your money,
you made a mistake
• More combinations: WILL/WOULD + BARE INFINITIVE in both clauses when
there’s a meaning of WILLINGNESS, PREDICTION, OR POLITENESS… If you
will take a seat, I’ll try and find the Headmaster
• More combinations: WILL + BARE INFINITIVE in the if clause to make
EMPHASIS on a HABIT or to express REFUSAL… If she won’t listen, she will
never learn

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 • More combinations: SHOULD + BARE INFINITIVE to express a FUTURE
ACTION that’s UNLIKELY TO HAPPEN… If you should run into Peter, tell him
to call me
• More combinations: Instead of WILL, use modal verbs such as MAY, MIGHT,
CAN, SHOULD, MUST and OUGHT TO… If you finish your work on time, you
may go home
• More combinations: PAST PERFECT (PROGRESSIVE) in the if clause and
CONDITIONAL in the main clause to talk about a present result of a past
condition… If he had taken care of himself, he wouldn’t be sick now
• More combinations: PAST PERFECT in the if clause and CONDITIONAL in the
main clause to talk about the future result of a past condition… I he had got the

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job, he would be moving to New York next week
• More combinations: S. PAST to talk about the past result of a present
condition… If I didn’t have a bike, I would have taken the bus
• More combinations: combine a present unreal, counterfactual conditional clause
(expressed in the S. PAST) with a past result in the main clause (expressed in a
CONDITIONAL PERFECT)… If I were rich, I could have bought that Ferrari we
saw yesterday
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More combinations: to express INFERENCES OR DEDUCTIONS… If she was
sleeping all day, she will feel better now/If Sandra left an hour ago, she must be
at home now
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Unit 5: relative clauses
A relative or adjectival clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a modifier to a
noun or nominal (generally as a post modifier of a noun group). It expands the meaning
and specifies the reference of the head noun, which is called the antecedent. Also, it
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gives information about nouns or nominal (people, places or things). In most cases, the
relative clause directly follow the noun it is describing… I live in a house that has 4
bedrooms.
Relative words are introduced by a relativizer, which can be:
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• Pronoun: who, whom (personal antecedent), which (non-personal antecedent)

and that (personal and non-personal)… Daniel, who is my brother, studies
French.
• Adverb: where, when and why… The house where I live, is my father’s.


• Determiner: whose… Sam, whose friend lives in Paris, is travelling to France

today.
Relative clauses are classified into defining and non-defining clauses:
Defining: people who steal are thieves.
Non-defining: my father, who lives in Brazil, is a doctor.
Functions:
1. Subject: Children who eat a lot of candy can get sick
2. Direct object: The arguments that she gave didn’t sound convincing
3. Indirect object: The man to whom you were giving the books is my English
teacher

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 4. Prepositional complement: The country which I come from has many
economic problems
Contact clauses: defining relative clause that omits the relative pronoun and must be
adjacent to the noun phrase (antecedent)
I have just read the letter I received yesterday (OD)
The woman I bought this present for is my wife (OI)
The person I was speaking about was a great hero (C.Prep)
Sentential relative clauses: refers back to the predicate, non-defining, separated by

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intonation or punctuation from the antecedent, commonly introduced by which (and
prepositions such as in, from, of, at, for) He failed the exam, which surprised us.
Choice of relative pronouns
➢ THAT can’t be used in
• non-defining relative clauses
• after prepositions
➢

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WHOM is more formal than WHO, but they both can be used as objects

Unit 6: nominal clauses

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A nominal clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun. There are four types:
1. That clause: introduced by the subordinating conjunction THAT, which can be
omitted. They can have the following functions:
• Subject: THAT can’t be omitted…That you may have lied to me disturbs
me deeply.
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• Extraposed subject: preferred subject position, THAT can be omitted…

It disturbs me deeply (that) you may have lied to me.
• Direct object: long sentences THAT is usually obligatory, short
sentences THAT may be omitted… Everybody could see (that) he was
terrified/Everybody could see, I believe, that he was terrified.
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Also, the that clause as object can come before the another clause, and
in that case THAT is obligatory… That George was terrified, I can’t
believe
• Real direct object: or extraposed, when anticipatory it is used… He
doesn’t like it that she smokes.


• Subject complement: THAT can be omitted… The truth is (that) he is

very shy
• Appositive: restricted THAT can be omitted, non-restrictive THAT can’t
be omitted… The explanation (that) she was French is irrelevant/The
answer from the company, that they buy a new table, angers me
• Adjectival complement: certain adjectives that refer to personal feelings
or states of the mind (afraid, certain, delighted, glad, interested, pleased,
satisfied, surprised, disappointed), THAT may be omitted… I’m afraid
(that) the house will catch fire.

2. WH interrogative clauses: they are used when there is a gap of information.

They can perform the following functions:

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 • Subject: Who came first isn’t clear
• Direct object: I can’t guess what you really mean/What you really mean,
I can’t guess.
• Subject complement: The question is what caused the accident.
• Prepositional complement: I’m not sure about why she behaves like this
• Adjectival complement: I’m not sure which she prefers.
• Appositive: My doubt, who will take care of my pet, still remains

3. Yes-No interrogative clauses: the gap is filled in indirect questions by using the
subordinating conjunctions if or whether. They can function as:

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• Subject: whether he will be able to help you is a difficult question
• Extraposed subject: It is a difficult question whether/if he will be able to
help you
• Direct object: We don’t know whether/if he will be able to help you
• Subject complement: The question is whether he will be able to help you
• Adjectival complement: We are doubtful whether he will be able to help

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you
• Prepositional complement: It depends on whether he will have enough
money.
• Appositive: Our doubt, whether he will be able to help you, is still
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present in our minds.
>>>IF cannot introduce
the subject unless is extraposed
the subject complement
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a prepositional complement
an appositive
an adjectival complement
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4. Nominal relative clauses: there is no gap of information, introduced by WH

pronouns, adverbs or determiners. They are basically a noun phrase modified
by relative clauses, but the WH element is merged with its
antecedent>>>implicit, omitted. This WH element may be
 A pronoun: She tasted what I cooked


 A determiner: She was against whatever decision I made

 An adverb: Here’s where I bought the book
They can function as:

• Subject: What he is looking for is a new job

• Direct object: She saw what food I bought
• Indirect object: He told the truth to whoever asked
• Subject complement: This is what I am
• Object complement: You can call me what(ever) you like
• Appositive: Let us know your college address: where you live
• Prepositional complement: I’m happy with what I am

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 THE HEAD NOUN DELETION RULE: The head noun can be omitted when the
use of both the head noun and the relative adverb is redundant… Sam knows
(the time) we are meeting.
THE FREE RELATIVE SUBSTITUTION RULE: allows who or what to replace a
noun and a relative pronoun in subject, object or predicate position… The new
teacher is just (the person) we are looking for.

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