Topic 1: Modular Arithmetic

Introduction

Modular arithmetic is sometimes described as ‘clock arithmetic’ because it is

similar to the arithmetic you perform on a 12-hour clock. Instead of saying 20 hours,
we say its 8 or 8 0’clock. In this case the modulus is the number 12 and 8 is the
remainder upon division by 12. In general, any integer positive can be the modulus.
By modulo, we simply mean the remainder upon division by m.

Key Concepts:

To find the value of n mod m, just take away as many multiples of m as possible
until you are left with 0 to m - 1. In short, we find remainder upon division by m.
Examples:

For every positive integer m, the integers modulo m are:

Zm : 0, 1, 2, …, m - 1
with arithmetic operations of addition (+m) and multiplication (xm) defined as follows:

a  m b  (a  b)  mk In other words, a  m b = remainder of (a+b) upon division by m

a  m b  (axb)  mk
In other words, a  m b = remainder of (axb) upon division by m

where mk refers to the closest multiple of m less than or equal to (a+b) or (a x b).

Example 1: The addition and multiplication tables for Z4 are

From the addition and multiplication tables, we can readily identify the additive
and multiplicative inverses.
Example 2: The addition and multiplication tables for Z5 are:

From the addition and multiplication tables, we can readily identify the additive
and multiplicative inverses.

Congruence in Modulo m

Defintion: If a and b are integers and m is a positive integer, then a is congruent to b

modulo m if m divides a - b. In other words, if a and b leave the same remainder upon
division by m.
We use the notations:
a is congruent to b modulo m
a is not congruent to b modulo m

Example 1: Determine whether 15 is congruent to 7 modulo 4.

Solution:
15 - 7 = 8 and 4 divides 8, therefore 15  7 (mod 4)
Note: 15 and 7 leave a remainder of 3 upon division by 4

Example 2: Determine whether 39 is congruent to 21 modulo 9.

Solution:
39 - 21 = 18 and 9 divides 18, therefore 39  21 (mod 9)
Note: 39 and 21 leave a remainder of 3 upon division by 9

Example 3: Determine whether 31 is congruent to 11 modulo 3.

Solution:

31 - 11 = 20 and 3 does not divide 20, therefore 31 11 (mod 3)

Note: 31 leaves a remainder of 1, while 11 leaves a remainder of 2 upon
 division by 3.
Addition and subtraction rules for congruences

Example 4:
a) 9 (mod 4) = 1 and 6 (mod 4) = 2
9 )mod 4) + 6 (mod 4) = 1 + 2
(9 + 6) (mod 4) = 3
15 (mod 4) = 3
3 (mod 4) = 3

b) 13 (mod 11) = 2 and 15 (mod 11) = 4

13 (mod 11) + 15 (mod 11) = 2 + 4
(13 +15) ( mod 11) = 6
28 (mod 11) = 6
6(mod 11) = 6

Multiplication Rule for congruences

Example 5:
9 (mod 4) = 1 and 6 (mod 4) = 2
9 (mod 4) x 6 (mod 4) = (1 )( 2)
(9 x 6) (mod 4) = 2
54 (mod 4) = 2
2(mod 4) = 2

Drills and Exercises:

1. Find the value of the following:
(a) 15 (mod 7) (f) 17  7 9 
13  27 33 
(b) 102 (mod 35) (g)
(c) -5 (mod 13) (h) 63  35 95 
(d) 2134 ( mod 419) ( i) 48  21 56 

(e) -21 (mod 55) (j) 72 34 21 

2. Which of the following congruences are true?
Topic 2: Functions

Introduction

Key Concepts:

Let X and Y be nonempty sets. A function f from X to Y, denotes as f: X → Y is a

matching/correspondence/assignment of each element of X to exactly one element of
Y. We write f(x) = y if y is the unique element of Y assigned by the function f to the
element x of X. We call the set X as the domain and the set Y as the range.

A function can also be defined as a relation ( set of ordered pairs) such that no two
ordered pairs have the same first element.

Given a function f : X→Y, we say f maps X to Y or f is a mapping from X to Y.

X Y
f
x y
y = f(x)

X is called the domain of f, while Y is called the codomain of f. If f(x) = y, then y is

called the image of x under f while x is called the preimage of y.

Given the function f whose mapping is shown below, answer the questions that
follow.

X Y

-2 -2

-1 -1

0 0

1 1

2
Questions:
1. f(-1)=
2. What is the image of 2?
3. What is the domain of f ?
4. What is the codomain of f?
5. What is the pre image(s) of 1?
A function can also be presented in the form of an arrow diagram.

This is not a function as 2

is mapped to 7 and 9

A function can also be presented as a graph like the ones below. The vertical line test
can be used to determine whether the graph is of a function or not.

Types of Functions

A. Injections

A function is said to be one to one, if and only if for all a and b in the domain,
f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b. A function is said to be an injection if it is one to one.
If the graph is given, a horizontal line test can determine whether a given function is
injective or not. The line must only cut the graph once.

Example: Show that f(x) = 3x - 2 is an injection.

Solution: x1 ≠ x2 f(x1) ≠ f(x2)
We have to show that f(x1) = f(x2) x1 = x2
f(x1) = f(x2)
3x1 - 2 = 3x2 - 2
3x1 = 3x2
x1 = x2 , therefore the function is injective
If we graph the given function, its graph would be

The horizontal line cuts the graph at

one and only one point, hence it is
injective.

Exercises: Determine whether the function given is one to one.

1. f : R→ R
f(x) = x2
Solution:
Disprove by a counter example.
f(2) = 22 = 4 Two different values of x gave
f( - 2) = ( - 2) = 4
2 the same value of the function
But 2 is not equal to - 2, so f is not one to one

2. f : R→ R
f(x) = 3x
Solution:
To show: f(x1) = f(x2) whenever x1 = x2
x1 = x2 No two values of x will give
3x1 = 3x2 the same function value
x1 = x2
So if x1 = x2, then f(x1) = f(x2), that is, f is one to one
Drills: Determine whether the following functions are one to one.

1. A function f from {a, b, c, d} to {1,2,3,4,5} with f(a) = 4, f(b) = 5, f( c) = 1

and f(d) = 3
2. f(x) = x3 from the set of integers to the set of integers.
3. f(x) = x + 1 from the set of real numbers to itself.

Surjection

A function f from X to Y is called onto, if and only if for every element y  Y there
is an element x  X with f(x) = y. A functions is called a surjection if it is onto. In
other words, if the range and the codomain of a function are equal, the function is
onto or surjective.

Take note that in the first mapping, although C is an element of Y, it is not part of the
range of the function. In the first example the codomain is Y={ A,B,C,D}, while the
range is {A,B,D} which obviously are not equal.

Example: Show that f(x) = 3x - 2 for the set of real numbers is surjective. What about
for the set of integers?
Solution: y = 3x - 2
Lets solve for x in terms of y
y + 2 = 3x
y2
x
3
a) Checking for f: R→R
Assign y values and solve for x, and check whether the results are real
numbers
If y = 0, x = 2/3
y = 1, x = 1
The resulting x values are real numbers, therefore f: R→R is surjective

b) Checking for f: Z→Z

If y = 1, x = 1
y = 0, x = 2/3, however 2/3 is not an integer, therefore f: Z→Z is not surjective
Exercises:
1. Determine whether the function f from {m, n, o, p} to {2,4,6} defined by f(m) =2,
f(n) = 4, f(o) = 6 and f(p) = 2 is an onto function.

Solution:

Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the codomain are images(range) of the
elements in the domain. If the codomain were changed into {2,4,6,8}, f would not be
onto.

2. Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of integers to itself onto?

Solution:
No, f is not onto because there is no integer x with x2 = - 4, for example.

Bijection
A function f is a bijection if it is both one to one and onto, both injective and
surjective.

Examples:
1. A linear function y = mx + b is a bijective function from the set of real numbers to
itself.
2. The cubic function f(x) = x3 is bijective from the set of real numbers to itself.

Drills and Exercises:

Answer the following based on the mappings given

A.
A 0 Is f injective?
Is f surjective?
B 1 Is f bijective?

C 2

D 3
B.
Mulan Arendelle Is f injective?
Is f surjective?
Elsa Te Fiti Is f bijective?

Moanah DunBroch

Merida Antartica

China

C.
Ana Statistics Is f injective?
Is f surjective?
Minda Biology Is f bijective?

Marla Physics

Miriam Geometry

History

D.

Cagayan Bayombong Is f injective?

Is f surjective?
Isabela Cabaroguis Is f bijective?

Nueva Vizcaya Tuguegarao

Quirino Basco

Batanes Ilagan

E. Determine whether each of the function on the set of real numbers listed below is
or is not a) injective and b)surjective.
Topic 3: Equivalence Relations

Relation

A relation is a subset of the Cartesian Product

Example: Let A = {1,2,3,4,5}
B = {1,2,3,4,5}

1. Find AxB
Solution: AxB = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5),
(3,1), (3,2),(3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,1), (4,2), (4, 3), (4,4), (4,5), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3),
(5,4), (5,5)}

2. Find AxB={(a,b)| a<b}

Solution: Ax B= R: A B
R = {(a,b)| a<b}
R = {(1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5) (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)}
Note: the relation is the set of all ordered pairs from AxB such that the 1st number
is less than the second number

3. Let A ={ 2,4,6,8} and R on A is defined by (x,y)  R such that x divides y

Solution:

Equivalence Relation

An equivalence relation satisfies the following properties:

1. Reflexive Property
(a, a) R. ( a R a) a is related to a.
This means every element is related to itself.

2. Symmetric Property
If (a, b) R, then (b, a) R.
( if a R b, then b R a) If a is related to b, then b is related to a.
This means every element of R can be reversed.

3. Transitive Property
If (a,b) R and (b, c) R then (a,c)  R. ( a R b and b R c, then a R c). If a is
related to b and b is related to c, then a is related to c.
If the R (relation) satisfies these three properties, then R is an equivalence relation.

Example 1: Let A = {1,2 ,3}

Example 2: Let A = {1,2 ,3}

Drills/Exercises:

2. Let the relation R on the set {1, 2,3,4} be defined by the rule

3. Consider the relation R on the set {1,2,3,4,5}. Is R an equivalence relation?

4. Consider the relation below. Show whether or not it is an equivalence relation