People' s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

University Echahid Hamma Lakhdar, El-Oued

Faculty of Arts and Languages Department of English Language

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) : Lectures for

Third-Year LMD Students

Designed by:

Dr. NESBA Asma

Academic year: 2021 / 2022

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1. Definition of English for Specific Purposes ESP

Objectives: This lesson aims at providing different definitions to ESP.

ESP is an abbreviation that stands for English for Specific Purposes. It is an approach to

language teaching and learning. Thus, it is a branch in Didactics. ESP is related to an urgent

need to be satisfied for a clear benefit that can be gained in a pre-set time. “ESP is generally

used to refer to the teaching of English for a clearly utilitarian purpose.” Mackay and

Mountford (1978: 2).

ESP is also related to ‘‘situations where the student has some specific reasons to learn a

language” Harmer (1983: 1). This reveals that learning a language is closely tied to the leaners’

motives and their conscious learning.

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19), ESP is ‘‘An approach to language teaching

in which all decisions as to content and methods are based on the learner’s reason for

learning”.. This clarifies that the learner’s reasons and needs are the ones to decide about the

“what” and the “how” of the course.

“ESP is particular case of general category of special-purpose language training. The same

principles apply no matter which language is being learnt and taught”. Strevens (1988: 24).

This is why different languages inspired from ESP methodology and theories to teach a

special language to a special group to satisfy specific needs for learners. Languages for

specific purposes (LSP) then share similar principles and methodologies.

Tasks:

- Why was ESP introduced in your country? (Hutchinson and Waters1987:8)

- What factors decide about the “what” and the “how” of an ESP course? Explain.

- "Tell me what you need English for and I will tell you the English that you need"

became the guiding principle of ESP. Explain this principle.

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2. ESP versus EGP ( English for General Purposes)

Objectives: This lesson aims at clarifying the distinction between ESP and GE. This will

enable students to have a clear idea about what makes ESP different and special.

ESP and EGP are both concerned with the issue of teaching and learning a language. In

fact, even though ESP differs significantly from EGP as far as practice is concerned, they still

have the same theory. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state that there is no difference between

the two in theory; however, there is a great deal of difference in practice. The table below

illustrates the major differences between ESP and EGP

Table 01. Major Differences Between ESP and EGP

ESP EGP

-Uses a learner-centred approach to teaching -Uses a language –centred approach

-Based on the learners’ needs and goals - Covers all the language skills

- addresses adult learners who are aware and -Is a compulsory subject taught to schools’ pupils /

conscious about their leaning needs and young learners.

- aims at satisfying specific leaners’ needs -with the final aims to succeed in the examination.

-taught in public or private schools or any - taught in public institutions (schools / universities)

workplace such as factory, hospital..etc

- represents an “urgency”: the teaching -represents long term goals to be achieved : success in

should be provided in a limited time final examinations.

- leaners should have prior knowledge of - learners can be novice; no prior knowledge of the

general English. target language is required

-Materials and textbooks are designed by -Content and textbooks are designed in the

ESP teachers most of the time. curriculum at a higher level : ministry of education.

- aims at acquainting learners with a kind of - aims at providing general knowledge about the

language required in a particular domain, language mainly developing the four skills: listening,

vocation, or occupation. speaking, reading and writing

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- The content is relevant to a particular field - The content covers different domains.

or subfield or a discipline

- ESP syllabuses are designed to prepare -syllabuses are designed to acquaint learners with

learners to gain professionalism in wider knowledge of the world.

conducting activities related to their

occupations or their academic careers.

- classes of small number of learners. - Classes with big numbers of learners .

Possibility of having even one-student

classes.

General English (GE) adopts fixed methodologies. However ESP uses diverse

methodologies that vary according to the specificities of situations tied by the leaners’ learning

needs and aims. This made ESP dynamic in nature .

Tasks:

- How far would you agree with Hutchinson and Waters (1987)’s view that the difference

between ESP and GE relies mainly on practice rather than theory?

- What differences can you draw between your learning experience at the secondary

school having the GE in a form of a compulsory subject and your learning of the

subject specialism at the university being a learner of a special domain in a form of

specialized modules such as study skills or didactics?

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3. ESP Origins / Genesis

Objectives: This lesson seeks to present an overview about the ESP origins.

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 6) “ESP was not a planned and coherent

movement, but rather a phenomenon that grew out of a number of converging trends”. They

also added that “we can identify three main reasons common to the emergence of all ESP.”

1987: 6): the demands of a brave new world, a revolution in linguistics and a new focus on the

learner.

Concerning the first reason, they illustrate that the end of World War II and the Oil

Crisis in the 70s were two historical periods that played an important role in the creation of

ESP. The Second World War was an era of expansion in scientific, technical and economic

activity world-wide. There had been a need to focus on an international language which was

the English language. This privileged status of English came from the economic expansion of

the United States in the post-war world. Moreover, this high status of English was

strengthened by the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s which resulted in Western money. The

interest then was on English as a representative of knowledge about the oil-rich countries.

Consequently, this led to the rethinking of methodologies of the English language

teaching and learning. Accordingly the profession of teaching had to cope with this rapid and

new demand of learning English.

The second reason that contributed significantly in the emergence of ESP was a

revolution in linguistics. Linguists’ most work in the 60s and 70s of the 20 th century focused on

the ways in which language is used in real communication. However, the works of traditional

linguists focused on describing the features of language. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point

out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and written English vary.

Variations in English, resulted from different situations and contexts, then led the teaching
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profession to think about ways to tailor a specific instruction that meets the learners’ needs.

Therefore, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English

for Science and Technology (EST).

The final reason mentioned by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) is that during 70’s of the

20th century more attention was given to the means and ways through which a learner acquires

and learns a language. Hence, that period witnessed a shift of focus from methods of language

learning to the items related to the psychology of the learners such as the different learning

strategies, the different motives and motivating needs. Accordingly, this led to a focus on the

learners' needs and therefore designing specific courses that meet the specific needs. There had

been a shift from language-centred approach to learner- centred approach to teaching which is a

basic principle in ESP.

Tasks

- Was ESP a planned and coherent movement at its beginning ? Explain.

- What are the three main reasons that led to the emergence of ESP ?

- Why is the learner-centred approach to teaching basic for ESP ?

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4 Characteristics of ESP

Objectives: This course seeks to present the characteristics of ESP

Dudley-Evans and St. Johns (1998) define ESP by suggesting two types of characteristics:

absolute characteristics as well as variable characteristics.

4.1. Absolute Characteristics

1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners;

2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;

3. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genre

appropriate to these activities.

4.2. Variable Characteristics:

1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;

2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of

General English;

3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a

professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;

4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. Most ESP courses

assume some basic knowledge of the language systems, but it can be used with beginners.

(Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998:4)

Tasks:

- Is ESP designed for professional work situations only ?

- Why is ESP generally designed for intermediate or advanced adult students?

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5. Types of ESP

Objectives: by the end of the lesson students will be able to know the different branches of

ESP.

ESP is divided into two broad divisions: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and

English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). The former is related to English found in academic

settings such as universities and educational institutions while the latter is related to English

which is required in the real context of work to conduct English language- related activities. In

many cases, the academic settings are preparing learners for the professional settings. The

following diagram shows the different branches of ESP.

Figure 1: Branches of ESP (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1997 (p.7)

The classification mentioned in the tale above is not the only one. Many classifications have

been suggested by different linguists.

5.1. English for Academic Purposes Versus English for Occupational Purposes

English for Academic Purposes (EAP) deals with purely academic issues. It is

related to English found in academic settings such as universities and educational institutions.

Activities then rely on writing academic texts, , listening to formal academic discourses,

taking notes and observations. However, English for Occupational Purposes (EOP) is the
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English aiming at training individuals to perform on the job. Teaching EOP can be performed

in a class or on-the-job training using the language used in job performance.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) state that there is not a clear-cut distinction between

EAP and EOP:

People can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many
cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be
used later when the student takes up, or returns to a job.

(Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 16).

Accordingly, it is not necessary that EOP can only be provided while exercising a

profession. The preparation for the job language activities can be provided at earlier stages in

a form of EAP at a university setting. For example, some courses of Business English

presented to students of commerce or Medical English presented to medical students to be used

later on after graduation in their real context of work took place in a purely academic

environment first.

Tasks:

- What makes EAP different from EOP?

- Name some EAP and EOP teachings provided in your country.

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6. Historical Developments in ESP

Objectives: The aim of this lesson is to track the changes occurred to ESP in the course of its

development

ESP has undergone four phases

6.1. First Phase: The 1960s and the Early 1970s

Focus of this period was on the sentence-level characteristics. This was done through

extensive analyses of the lexical and grammatical features of academic and professional

registers such as the language of the electrical engineering. Researchers found that English for

Science and Technology (EST) uses the present simple tense, the passive and noun

compounds. Their analysis of “business letters” made them conclude that they contain a fixed

format, formulaic expressions (such as the opening salutations and closings), a limited

vocabulary for the sake of conciseness , and a limited set of conjunctions. Accordingly, these

results led to the construction of grammar-based curricula. Swales’ Writing Scientific English

(1971) is one of the most known books in this phase.

6.2. Second Phase: Late 1970s and Early 1980s

In this phase register analysis, opted for the integration of grammatical form with

rhetorical function. Tarone et al examined the function of the passive in a single genre

( astrophysics papers). They stated that “one of the most salient grammatical features of the

register of English for scientific English (EST) as compared to registers of ‘general English’ is

its relatively frequent use of the passive”. A rhetorical analysis was also conducted by Tarone

et al “ to determine the systematic functions of the passive voice, as opposed to active, within

the text as a whole” (Tarone et al.,1981,p.124). The researchers found that the writers of

astrophysics journal articles use the passive when:

(a) they are following established procedures rather than discussing their own procedural

choices.
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(b) They are discussing others’ work in contrast to their own.

(c) They are referring to their own future research.

(d) They wish to front and topicalize certain information in sentences.

Researchers in this phase consider that mere counting of linguistic features is insufficient

to describe special registers. They must be accompanied with rhetorical functions. Thus, the

focus of register analyses became more rhetorical.

The researchers and practitioners of this phase began to examine the organization and

functions of the entire discourse at a number of levels of abstraction. The Washington State

ESP Group, consisting of Trimble, Selinker, Lacksrtorm, and Bley Vroman focused on the

rhetorical analyses of discourse. The discussion of their EST register studies appears in

Trimble’ s “EST: A Discourse Approach (1985)”, in which the Rhetorical Process Chart for

the levels of abstraction in scientific discourse shown in the figure 2 on the next page was

proposed.
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Level Description of Level

A. The objectives of the total discourse

Examples: 1. Detailing an experiment

2. Making a recommendation
3. Presenting new hypotheses or theory
4. Presenting other types of EST information

B. The general rhetorical functions that develop the objectives of level (A

Examples: 1. Stating purpose

2. Reporting past research
3. Stating the problem
4. Presenting information on apparatus used in an experiment-
a) Description
b) Operation
5. Presenting information on experimental procedures

C. The specific rhetorical functions that develop the general rhetorical functions of
Level B

Examples: 1. Description: physical, function, and process.

2. Definition
3. Classification
4. Instruction
5. Visual-verbal relation

D. The Rhetorical techniques that provide relationships within and between the
rhetorical units of level c.

Examples: I. Orders
1. Time orders
2. Space orders
3. Causality
II. Patterns
1. Causality and result
2. Order of importance
3. Comparison and contrast
4. Analogy
5. Exemplification
6. Illustration

Figure 2: EST Rhetorical Process Chart (Trimble, 1985, p.11)

The interest in rhetorical function led other ESP researchers to begin their investigation on

the rhetorical moves (also called macropurposes) within spoken and written discourse. This

marked the beginning of interest in Moves Analysis Theory. “Move Analysis” is a text

analytical approach whether spoken or written text. MA was first developed by John Swales

(1981) to investigate the underlying generic structure of research articles (RAs) in terms of

‘moves’ and ‘steps’ for pedagogical purposes.

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Swales’1981 examination of 48 scientific articles’ introductions from a number of

disciplines, led to identify four moves. In 1990, Swales reorganized them in three moves as

shown in the figure 03 below

Move 1 Establishing a territory

Step 1 Claiming centrality
and/or
Step 2 Making topic generalization(s)
and/or
Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research
Move 2 Establishing a niche
Step 1A Counter-claiming
or
Step 1B Indicating a gap
or
Step 1C Question-raising
or
Step1D Continuing a tradition
Move 3 Occupying a niche
Step 1A Outlining the purposes
or
Step 1B Announcing present research
Step 2 Announcing principal findings
Step 3 Indicating RA structure

Figure 3: Swales’ (1990) CARS Model

Moves analysis was not restricted to written discourse only. Neu (1986), for example

studied rhetorical moves in the American English business negotiations which is a form of

spoken discourse. She found that this negotiation consists of four successive moves which are:

a- An opening / exchange

b- Mention of the first price

c- Bargaining and other discussion of prices

d- A closing
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6.3. Third Phase

It is an overlapping phase in ESP since it integrates the discoveries of phase 01 and phase

02. The focus of this phase was upon systematic analyses of the target situations in which

students are found to be employing spoken English. This led to construct a “ notional-

functional” curriculum. According to Munby1978, the interest of this phase is on:

a- The communicative purposes of the speaker/writer

b- The setting for language use

c- The mode of communication and language use. (Munby, 1978).

The curricula of this phase is based on the communicative purposes ( or “ functions) of a

speakers within a specified context. All other features of language (eg grammar and

vocabulary) are subsumed under these purposes. Thus, the notional functional syllabuses of

this phase are not organized grammatically as in phase one nor based on rhetorical functions or

purpose like in phase 02. Textbooks are rather organized based on chapter headings such as “

agreeing and disagreeing”

6.4. Fourth Phase

This phase benefited from studies in psycholinguistics and elsewhere. The focus of

this phase is upon the strategies which learners employ to acquire the target language.

Accordingly, needs assessment concentrates on activities or procedures which lead to effective

thinking and learning. ESP is then based on the learner-centred approach. The foremost

proponents of this learner-centred ESP approach are Hutchinson and Waters (1987).

Table 02 on the next page presents the teaching historical development suggested by Kern

& Warschaeur. ESP also inspired from the novelties of each phase.
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Table 02: Historical Developments of Teaching Practices Kern & Warschaeur (2000, p 11)

Stage 1970s-1980s 1980s-2000s 21st Century

Teaching Modes Structural Communicative Integrative

View of Language Structural (a formal Cognitive (a mentally- Socio-cognitive

structural constructed system) (developed in
system) social
interaction)

English-Teaching Grammar Translation & Communicative Content-Based,

Language
Paradigms Audio- Lingual Teaching ESP/EAP

Tasks:

- Define the following terms: grammar-based curriculum / formulaic expressions / Moves/

Moves Analysis.

- Conduct a moves analysis of a letter of complaint in which you show your dissatisfaction

about a service or an article bought.

- Design a suitable syllabus devoted to biology students for each of the following kinds of

syllabi by filling in the table blow.

Table 03:Different Syllabuses

Grammar–Based Rhetorical syllabus Notional- Functional syllabus

syllabus

- Present simple - general truth - Writing laboratory reports

- Adjectives - description - Presenting a description

- - -

- - -

- - -

- - -
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7. Contributions of ESP to Language Teaching

Objectives: This lesson aims at shedding light on the contributions brought to language

teaching by ESP

The contribution of ESP to the language teaching is a significant one. Practically, we can

mention three major contributions which are: the needs analysis principle, materials design and

the issue of authenticity.

7.1. Needs Analysis (NA)

One of the greatest contributions to language teaching was introducing the issue of

the learners’ needs in designing the curricula.

Needs analysis is a key stage in ESP. It is the corner stone of ESP and leads to a

focused course (Brown, 1995; Chambers, 1980; Dudley-Evans and St John, 1988; Ellis and

Johnson, 1994; Jordan, 1997). Strevens (1977) , suggests that needs analysis is a necessary

first step for teaching English for specific purposes. Dudley- Evans and St John (1988: 121)

also state that " needs analysis is the process of establishing the what and how of a course "

7.1.1. Components of ESP Needs Analysis

The fundamental components of ESP learners’ language needs suggested by different

ESP scholars are : the Target Situation Analysis (TSA), the Learning Situation Analysis ( LSA)

and the Present Situation Analysis (PSA).

7.1.1.1. Target Situation Analysis (TSA)

It focuses on identifying the learners’ language requirements in the occupational or

academic settings. Jordan (1997) argues that the TSA is related to any needs analysis focusing

on the learners' needs at the end of learning a language course. For Robinson (1991, p8), “a

needs analysis, which focuses on students’ needs at the end of a language course, can be called
 16

a TSA (Target Situation Analysis)”. Munby (1978)[ formulates the best-known framework of

TSA type of needs analysis represented by Munby' s (1978) model of needs analysis. Dudley-

Evans & St. John (1998, p124) argue that “TSA refers to tasks and activities learners are/will

be using English for target situation”. They also add that “TSA includes objective, perceived

and product-oriented needs. The objective and perceived needs are derived by outsiders from

facts, from what is known and can be verified. Therefore, ‘to be able to spell English words

correctly’ is an objective/perceived need. Product-oriented needs are derived from the goal or

target situation”.

7.1.1.2. Learning Situation Analysis (LSA)

It refers to subjective, felt and process-oriented needs (Dudley-Evans & ST John, 1998).

The ‘what’ and ‘why’ to learn are included in LSA. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) also

clarify that subjective and felt needs are derived from insiders and correspond to cognitive and

affective factors while process-oriented needs originate from the learning situation.

7.1.1.3. Present Situation Analysis (PSA)

It seeks to estimate students' present strengths and weaknesses in the language skills and in

the experience of learning (Dudley-Evans and St John, 1998). PSA is based on identifying

learners' control of the target language at the beginning of the language course (Jordan, 1997).

Richterich and Chancerel (1980) formulate the most extensive range of devices for establishing

the PSA. They suggest that there are three basic sources of information: the students

themselves, the language-teaching establishment, and the ‘user-institution’, Munby 1978 argues

that PSA represents constraints on the TSA. According to (McDonough 1984), PSA involves

‘fundamental variables’, which have to be considered before the TSA.

Figure 04 on the next page illustrates how Dudley-Evans & St John developed some

statements under the headings TSA (Target Situation Analysis), LSA (Learning Situation

Analysis), and PSA (Present Situation Analysis).

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Figure 04: Developed Statements Related to TSA, LSA and PSA (Dudley-Evans & St John (1998,

p124)

7.1.1.4. Means Analysis

Means analysis involves information of the local situation (e.g., the teachers, teaching

methods, management, students’ facilities, etc) to see how a language course may be

implemented (Jordan 1997, Holliday. & Cooke 1982). Dudley-Evans & St John (1998) state

that means analysis directs the environment in which a course will be run or the environment in

which a project will take root, grow healthily and survive. Dudley-Evans & St John (1998,

p124] state also that :“Means analysis is an acknowledgement that what works well in one

situation may not work in another”. Swales (1989) argues that means analysis helps in taking

decisions about the approach and content to the specific programs.

7.1.1.5. Language Audits

Jordan (1997, p28) states that “language audits are large-scale research in examining

language needs”. He argues that language audits are executed for companies, regions or

countries. For West R. (1994), language audits provide data about the current situation of

language needs in the sector which can help the government to develop an integrated policy or

strategy which would take months or years to implement (West R. 1994; 27:1-19).
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7.1.2.. Models of ESP Needs Analysis

Many models have been suggested by different scholars: Munby (1978), McDonough

(1984), Hutchinson & Waters (1987), Robinson (1991), West (1994), Jordan (1997) and

Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998). Despite the fact that the models are similar to a certain

extent, each ESP scholar has his own views about the focus of needs analysis, the data

analysis and the development of the training program in the context of ESP.

7.1.2.1. Munby’s “Communicative Syllabus Design (1978)

It is very early model of analyzing ESP needs. The figure 05 below illustrates its

components.

Figure 05: Communication Needs Processor (Source: Munby 1978)

This ‘Communication Needs Processor’ (CNP) was a detailed profile of the students’ need.

It is a systematic and comprehensive model. Hence, it was adopted and developed by many

scholars to meet other situations.

This model covers many aspects. However, it had been subject to criticism by different

scholars. Hutchinson and Waters (1987) criticized it because they see that different factors such
 19

as teachers, learners and sponsors were ignored when dealing with the target needs. This model

was also criticized by West, Dudley-Evans and St John and Jordan.

7.1.2.2. McDonough’s (1984) Model Resulted from Munby’s Work.

The figure 06 below illustrates the needs analysis model suggested by McDonough’s

(1984). This model resulted from Munby’s Work.

Figure 06: ESP Needs Analysis Model (Source: McDonough 1984)

McDonough (1984) provides the use of an integrated procedure for needs analysis,

Firstly, the procedure suggests that students must be at the centre of the system. Secondly, the

“needs” are not seen as static, but developing and changing. The third aspect is that the system

is so complex that it allows the needs analysis to be carried out from different perspectives:

learners, teaching institutions and the sponsoring bodies. The fourth aspect of the procedure

consists in having a great interdependence of decision-makers and decisions. Finally, the

procedure also considers the degree of details and explicitness that may vary with the

requirements of different situations. This model is considered as an effective model for ESP

needs analysis. However, it has also its limitations. The model does not concentrate on learning

needs. It only concentrates on target and present needs. It does not emphasize on other aspects

of needs analysis (such as lacks, wants and so forth).

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7.1.2.3. Hutchinson & Waters (1987) Model

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) focus on target needs, present needs and learning needs,

which are very important components of ESP needs analysis. They dealt with objective and

subjective needs. They also focused on the three key features of needs analysis which are

necessities lacks and wants. This is shown on table 04 below:

Table 04: ESP Needs As Necessities, Lacks And Wants (Source: Hutchinson & Waters 1987)

OBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE
(i.e. as perceived by course (i.e. as perceived by learners)
designers
The English needed for To Reluctantly cope with a
NECESSITIES success in Agriculture or
‘second-best’ situation
Veterinary Studies

(Presumably) areas of Means of doing Medical

LACKS English needed for Studies
Agriculture or Veterinary
Studies
To succeed in Agricultural or To undertake Medical
WANTS Veterinary Studies
Studies

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) explain necessities, lacks and wants as:

- Necessities’ are the type of needs that is determined by the demands of the target situation,

and necessities are what learners need to know so as to function effectively in the target

environment.

- ‘Lacks’ are the type of needs where the ESP practitioners need to investigate what the

learners already know, so that the ESP practitioners can decide which necessities the learners

lack.

- ‘Wants’ are what the learners want to learn.

The model suggested by Hutchinson and Waters (1987) does not consider means analysis,

linguistic analysis, discourse analysis and genre analysis, which are prioritized by Dudley-

Evans & St John (1998).

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7.1.2.4. Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) Model

Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) introduced one of the most recent needs analysis models

which is illustrated in the figure 07 below.

Figure 07: What Needs Analysis Establishes (Source: Dudley-Evans and St John 1998)

Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) needs analysis model is very important. It focused on

different aspects shown on the figure 07 above which are: learners’ professional information,

learners’ personal information, learners’ language information about the target situations,

learners’ lacks, learners’ needs from course, language learning needs, communication

information in the target situation, and environmental information. Dudley-Evans & St John

(1998) defined those components as follows:

A. professional information about the students: the tasks and activities students are/will be

using English for-target situation analysis (TSA) and objectives needs.

B. personal information about the students: is concerned with learners’ general profile, previous

language learning experiences.

C. English language information about the students: what their current skills and language use

are- present situation analysis (PSA)-this could allow us to assess (D). PSA determines

strengths and weakness in language skills.

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D. the students’ lacks: the gap between (C) and (A)-lacks

E. language learning information: effective ways of learning skills and language in (D)-learning

needs-Learning Situation Analysis (LSA)

F. knowledge of how language and skills are used in target situation-linguistic analysis,

discourse analysis and genre analysis.

G. students’ needs from the course: what is wanted from the course?

H. environmental situation: information about the environment in which the course will be run-

means analysis

7.2. Materials Design

Material design is an important contribution to language teaching brought by ESP.

Textbooks used to be designed at higher levels. e.g. ministry of education. ESP brought the

idea of designing materials that fit the special situation of learning and meets the learners’

needs. The ESP teacher is no longer someone who applies what the others have designed,

he/she is responsible for measuring the appropriateness of materials used and can design his/

her own materials or introduce significant changes to already existing materials designed by

other institutions and scholars.

The Grammar- based syllabuses as well as the notional –functional syllabuses inspired ESP

researchers to develop three other types of syllabuses: Task-based syllabuses, project-based

syllabuses and Process-based syllabuses.

7.2.1. The Task-Based Syllabuses: they are of 02 types

- Type 01: The researcher identifies a number of tasks which students must perform in a

target situation e.g. business negotiation, then s/he builds the syllabus upon task

assignments.

- Type 02: This second type begins with the learning process involved in the completion of

a task
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7.2.2. The Project-Based Syllabuses: They are closely related to task- based syllabuses. The

difference lies on the scope of teaching units and the nature of the tasks involved. In

Task- based syllabuses the tasks do not always require a completed visible product.

The project- based syllabuses, however, result in one or more tangible products.

7.2.3. The Process-Based Syllabuses: In this kind of syllabi, the product or the task is the

syllabus itself. The process of developing the syllabus is determined mainly by the

students. However the preliminary decisions that concern different issues such as the

form of participation, the procedure of tasks (number of tasks their order etc.) are

taken by the teacher before the beginning of the course. There exists a sort of

agreement between teachers and learners this is why this kind of syllabuses is flexible

and changeable at any point of the teaching procedure for the sake of meeting the

leaners’ needs

7.3. The Authenticity

The third important contribution brought by ESP is the issue of authenticity and using

authentic materials. “An authentic text is a stretch of real language, produced by a real speaker

or writer for a real audience and designed to convey a real message of some sort” (Morrow,

1977, p. 13).

According to Nunan (1989, p. 54), “A rule of thumb for authentic here is any material

which has not been specifically produced for the purposes of language teaching”. Another

definition was provided by Richards in which he states that “Authentic materials refers to the

use in teaching of texts, photographs, video selections, and other teaching resources that were

not specially prepared for pedagogical purposes” (Richards 2001). Task- based, project based

ad product- based syllabuses in ESP environment are based on authentic materials.

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Tasks:

- Define the following terms: TSA, LSA and PSA. Give examples to each definition.

- Conduct a needs analysis using Hutchinson & Waters (1987) Model.

- Conduct a needs analysis using Dudley-Evans & St. John (1998) Model.

- List the three contribution s of ESP to the English language teaching.

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8. Stages in the ESP Teaching Process

Objectives: This lesson attempts to present the different stages undergone by an ESP

practitioner so as to conduct a successful ESP course . The lesson also highlights the multiple

roles assumed by the teacher to accomplish the process.

The ESP Course design is a whole complicated process. The figure 08 below shows the

different steps that exist while designing a course.

Figure 08: A Learning-Centred Approach to Course Design (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987,

p.74).

The course design is also a road map to ESP teachers. It clarifies clearly what should be

taught and how to teach i.e. it clarifies the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of a course. Figure 09 on the

next page shows the different factors that affect an ESP course design.
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Figure 09: Factors Affecting ESP Course Design (Hutchinson and Waters 1987, p. 22)

The ESP course design undergoes different stages. According to Dudley-Evans and St.

Johns (1998:121), “The key stages in ESP are needs analysis, course (and syllabus) design,

materials selection (and production), teaching and learning, and evaluation.” A dynamic

interaction exists between these stages which are linearly-related activities. Hence, they

represent overlapping phases which are interdependent.

Course design in ESP according to Hutchinson and Waters is:

“The process by which the raw data about learning needs is interpreted to

produce an integrated series of teaching- learning experiences, whose ultimate

aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge. This

entails the use of the theoretical and empirical information available to

produce a syllabus, to adapt or write materials in accordance with the

syllabus, to develop a methodology for teaching those materials and to

establish evaluation procedures by which progress towards the specific

goals will be measured”.

Hutchinson, T., and Waters, A., (1987): op. cit. p. 65

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The following cyclical representations are suggested by Dudley-Evans and St. Johns to

illustrate the theory and the reality of the stages in ESP process.

Evaluation Needs Evaluation Needs

Analysis Analysis

Assessment Assessment

Course Course

Design design

Teaching Teaching

Learning Learning

Figure 10: Stages in the ESP Process: Theory Figure 11: Stages in the ESP Process: Reality

(Dudley-Evans & St. Johns, 1998, p.121) (Dudley-Evans & St. Johns, 1998, p.121)

Basing on the above two figures, six successive stages can be identified in the process of

ESP course design.

8.1. Needs Identification and Analysis (NIA)

Identifying the needs of the learners is the first important step to be realized by an ESP

teacher. “The idea of analyzing the language needs of the learner as a basis for course

development has become almost synonymous with ESP” (Mc.Donough 1984: 29). The

importance of NA is also signaled as being the basis for any course. “…any course should be

based on an analysis of learner need” (Hutchinson & Waters 1987: 53). This reveals that the

learners’ s needs are the factors that decide about the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of an ESP lesson.

The NA facilitates the ESP teacher’ task since it will lead to a focused course. This idea was

also highlighted by Johns:

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“The rationale for needs analysis is that by identifying elements of students'

target English situations and using them as the basis of EAP/ ESP instruction,
teachers will be able to provide students with the specific language they need to
succeed in their courses and future careers”.

(Johns, 1991: 67).

8.2. Syllabus Design

After identifying the leaners’ needs, the second stage consists in designing a suitable

syllabus that meets those specific needs. Hutchinson & Waters (1987: 80) define “Syllabus” as

“... a document which says what will (or at least what should) be learnt”. In the same context,

Robinson (1991: 34) states that the syllabus is “a plan of work and is, thus, essential for

the teacher, as a guideline and context of class content.” This implies that the syllabus

guides the teacher while presenting the content. The syllabus is also defined by

Basturkmen (2006:20) who argues that “in order to specify what language will be

taught, items are typically listed and referred to as the syllabus”.

Seven features can characterize the syllabus. They are clarified in figure 12 below.

A syllabus:
1- Consists of a comprehensive list of
- content items ( words, structures, topics)
- process items ( tasks, methods)
2- Is ordered ( easier, more essential items first)
3- Has explicit document
4- Is a public document
5- May indicate a time schedule
6- May indicate preferred methodology or approach
7- May recommend materials

Figure 12: Characteristics of a Syllabus

(Course in Language Teaching, CUP, 1996:177 qtd in Basturkmen 2006:21)
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The syllabus is also the tool that enables the needs to be translated into aims. The

syllabus is then “an instrument by which the teacher,..., can achieve a certain coincidence

between the needs and the aims of the learners, and the activities that will take place in

the classroom” (Yalden 1987:86).

8.2.1 Types of Syllabi

According to Long & Crookes, (1993) the syllabi are of two types: synthetic and

analytic. They illustrate this classification in figure 13 below.

Syllabi

Synthetic Analytic

-Structural (Grammmatical) - Task-Based

- Functional- Notional - Procedural
- Lexical -Process
- Relational - Content-Based
- Skill- Based - Learner-centred
-Situational - Natural approach
-Topical

Figure13: Classification of Syllabi (Long and Crookes, 1993).

According to Basturkmen (2006:21) syllabuses can be “synthetic” in which the

“language is segmented into discrete linguistic items for presentation one at a time”, or

“analytic” wherein “language is presented as whole chunks at a time without linguistic

control”.

Synthetic‟ syllabus represents the classical approaches to syllabuses. However, the

“Analytic‟ one represents the modern approaches in language teaching methodologies.

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The Synthetic Approach to syllabus design is based on determining discrete items (lexical

items, grammar structures, communicative functions, etc.) to be taught to learners. In this

approach, the learner is expected to re-synthesize the discrete items. The Analytical Approach,

however, is based on determining the reason and the procedure learners use to learn. In this

approach, recognition of linguistic regularities by the learners is expected by syllabus

designers. According to Wilkins, the Analytic Syllabuses “are organized in terms of the

purposes for which people are learning language and the kinds of language performance that

are necessary to meet those purposes.” (Wilkins 1976: 13)

ESP rejects “synthetic” approaches to course design (Basturkmen 2006:103). Wilkins also

signals that

“Age teaching strategy is one in which the different parts of language are taught

separately and step- by-step so that acquisition is a process of gradual

accumulation of the parts until the whole structure of the language has been built

up”.

(Wilkins 1976: 2)

Concerning the learners’ tasks Wilkins adds that

“The learner’s task is to re-synthesize the language that has been broken down into a large

number of smaller pieces with the aim of making his learning easier. ... It is only in the final

stages of learning that the global language is reestablished in all its structural diversity”.

(Wilkins 1976: 2)

8.3. Material Production

Textbooks are not always available it is up to teachers to design the suitable materials

that fit the special group to be taught. The ESP teacher has to develop materials in most of the

time. However, many textbooks are available and ready made for different ESP groups.
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Designing syllabuses by ESP teachers is not an easy task to perform, this is why, they

should be trained to such responsibilities. “Few teachers have had any training in the skills and

techniques of materials writing”.(Hutchinson & Waters‟, 1987: 106). Assistance and guidance

are therefore of an paramount importance to ESP teachers. “Materials writing is one of the

most characteristic features of ESP in practice” (Hutchinson & Waters 1987: 106)

Figure 14 below represents a four- elements model of material design proposed by

Hutchinson and Waters( 1987). This model aims at providing a “coherent framework for the

integration of the various aspects of learning, while at the same time, allowing enough room for

creativity and variety to flourish” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 108)

Figure14: A Material Design Model (Hutchinson and Waters,1987: 109)

Widdowson signals the issue of authenticity in material design. He states that: “It has

been traditionally supposed that the language presented to learners should be simplified in some

way for easy access and acquisition. Nowadays, there are recommendations that the language

presented should be authentic.” (Widdowson 1990:67). Robinson (1991: 54) also states that :

“A key concept ...felt to be particularly relevant for ESP, is that of authenticity.”

8.4. Teaching

In this stage of the process, the teacher will execute the syllabus by presenting the

content in a form of materials to a given class. Teaching an ESP course can be challenging

especially for general English teachers who have been recently teaching ESP, or even for
 32

experienced ESP teachers who teach a difficult subject specialism. Strevens (1988: 41)

describes the ESP teacher as “...a teacher of General English who has, unexpectedly, found

him/herself required to teach students with special needs.” ESP teachers can then, in certain

situations, consult experts in the subject specialism. Hutchinson & Waters (1987: 163) state that

“ESP teachers do not need to learn specialist knowledge. They require three things only: a

positive attitude towards the ESP content; knowledge of fundamental principles of the subject

area; an awareness of how much they probably already know.”

Because of the different roles of ESP teachers, Swales (1985) opts for using the term

“ESP practitioner”. The ESP practitioner is “instructor, facilitator, role-advisor, monitor,

cocommunicator, classroom managerand consultant”.(Benyelles,2009:42).

8.5. Assessment /Evaluation

The last stage in the ESP teaching process is assessment and course evaluation. Evaluation

and assessment are ongoing processes. Every stage involved should be assessed and evaluated

so as to determine its effectiveness and to enable teachers to construct their feedback. Teachers

then have to be flexible to review their decisions at any stage they see appropriate because the

assessment and evaluation are the real indicators of the appropriateness of the methodology

adopted and the utility of the selected choices.

Tasks:

- What are the different stages that compose the process of ESP course design?

- What makes an ESP course design complicated?

- How can ESP teachers be good course designers?

- Which elements should be subject to evaluation in an ESP course?

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9. The Role of ESP Teacher

Objectives: This lesson aims at making the students aware of the multiplicity and the

complexity of the ESP teacher’s roles compared to a general English language teacher. The

lesson also attempts to shed light on the necessity of having a training for ESP teachers so as to

enable them assume the different responsibilities.

Dudley-Evans and St.John (1998) prefer the term” ESP practitioner” rather than a

“teacher” because of the multiplicity of tasks to be performed by the ESP teacher who has to

assume different responsibilities. The ESP practitioner, as signaled by Dudley-Evan and St

John (1998), has five roles: teacher; collaborator; course designer and material provider;

researcher and evaluator. The table 05 below illustrates those roles.

Table 05: The ESP Practitioner’s Role

Teacher S/He uses a specific methodology. The role of ESP teacher is to

teach the language not the learners’ specialty. Eclectic
methodology is adopted. TEFL methodologies can be also used.

Course designer and The ESP teacher has the role to design the course as well
material provider designing the suitable syllabus to meet the learners’ needs. S/he
has to design the materials or to adapt already existing ones so
as to cope with the specific group s/he is teaching.

Collaborator Collaboration between the ESP teacher and the subject

specialist is of great importance especially when the domain is
highly specialized or when the ESP teacher is a novice. Some
ESP courses are taught by both an expert and an ESP teacher.
Researcher Since the ESP learning situations are dynamic and varied. The
ESP teacher has to conduct research to find the suitable
materials and approaches appropriate for the target situation.
S/he has to conduct research also in the subject specialism of
the leaners.
Evaluator Evaluation is an ongoing process. It aims at measuring the
effectiveness of each step in the course design. Evaluation
provides teachers with information that enable them to take
decisions about revision and appropriateness of the procedure
followed.

It is worth mentioning that being an ESP teacher does not mean that the teaching/

learning theories of general English language are neglected. The knowledge of the target
 34

language and EFL teaching methods, instructional practices, learning strategies, language

theories of second and foreign language acquisition, educational psychology and pedagogy,

teaching approaches and socio-cultural aspects are also essential. In addition, the ESP teacher

has to have knowledge of the basic concepts, values and culture and tenets of the ESP

discipline.

9.1. Training of the ESP Teacher

Most ESP teachers are basically general English language teachers. They have to deal

with the subject specialism of the learners. They also become in charge of many responsibilities

and roles. This is why, the issue of training ESP teachers is of a paramount importance. There

should be both focused and ongoing types of training. Training should be the first interest for

an ESP teacher’s professional development. Training can be organized by institutions or can be

achieved by individual effort by ESP teachers. The professional training can be in-service

training which occurs simultaneously while s/he is teaching or as a first phase before

embarking with the ESP teaching profession.

Tasks:

- Which of the ESP teacher’s roles you find difficult?

- What makes the ESP teacher different from a general English language teacher?

- Why is training essential for an ESP practitioner?

- How can the ESP teacher gain a training in the subject specialism?