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ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES PLANT BIOLOGY

AND BIODIVERISTY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM UNIT FLORISTIC COMPOSITION,
DIVERSITY AND STRUCTURE OF WOODY PLANT SPECIES IN ME...

Thesis · July 2011

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 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

PLANT BIOLOGY AND BIODIVERISTY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM UNIT

FLORISTIC COMPOSITION, DIVERSITY AND STRUCTURE OF WOODY PLANT

SPECIES IN MENAGESHA SUBA STATE FOREST, CENTRAL ETHIOPIA

By

DINKISSA BECHE BENTI

JULY, 2011

ADDIS ABABA
 ADDIS ABABA UNIVERISTY

FACULTY OF LIFE SCIENCE

PLANT BIOLOGY AND BIODIVERISTY MANAGEMENT PROGRAM UNIT

Floristic Composition, Diversity and Structure of Woody Plant Species in Menagesha Suba

State Forest, Central Ethiopia

By Dinkissa Beche Benti

A Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Addis Ababa University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Biology ( Plant

Biology and Biodiversity Management)

Approved by Examining Board

Prof. Sebsebe Demissew (Advisor)

Prof. Ensermu Kelbessa (Examiner)

Dr. Zemede Asfaw (Examiner)

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Pages

TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................................i

List of Tables................................................................................................................................iv

List of Figures................................................................................................................................v

List of Appendixes........................................................................................................................vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................................vii

ACRONYMS...............................................................................................................................viii

ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................ix

1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1

1.1 Background of the Study..............................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the Problem.............................................................................................3

2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY.............................................................................4

2.1. General objective........................................................................................4

2.2. Specific objectives......................................................................................4

3. LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................5

3.1. Floristic diversity of Ethiopia.....................................................................................5

3.2.Vegetation types of Ethiopia.......................................................................................6

3.3.Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forests and Grassland Complex Vegetation type........7

3.4.Threats on Biodiversity in Ethiopia............................................................................8

3.5. Diversity Indices.........................................................................................................9

3.5.1. Shannon- Wiener index of Diversity..........................................10

i
 3.5.2. Measurement of Similarity and Dissimilarity.............................11

3.6. Plant Community type..............................................................................................12

4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS..................................................................................................13

5. MATERIALS AND METHODS..........................................................................................14

5.1. Materials...........................................................................................................................14

5.1.1. Description of the study area.................................................................................14

5.1.2. Geology...............................................................................................................15

5.1.3. Climate.................................................................................................................15

5.1.4. Ecology................................................................................................................16

5.1.5. Natural vegetation...............................................................................................17

5.2.Methods....................................................................................................................................18

5.2.1. Vegetation Data Collection...........................................................................18

5.2.2. Floristic data analyses....................................................................................19

5.2.3. Analyses of vegetation structure...................................................................20

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..........................................................................................22

6.1. Floristic Composition.......................................................................................................22

6.1.1. Species Diversity...................................................................................................24

6.1.2. Plant Community Analysis...................................................................................25

6.1.3. Species Richness, Diversity and Similarity indices of the communities..............31

6.1.4. Sorenson’s similarity for the communities...........................................................32

6.2.Floristic comparison of Menagesha Suba State Forest with other similar forests in

Ethiopia...........33

6.3. Population Structure of Menagesha Suba State Forest.....................................................35

ii
 6.3.1. Frequency...............................................................................................................35

6.3.2. Height distribution................................................................................................36

6.3.3. Vertical structure....................................................................................................40

6.3.4. DBH distribution...................................................................................................41

6.3.5. Basal area..............................................................................................................44

6.3.6. Important value Index (IVI)..................................................................................45

7. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................48

8. REFERENCES......................................................................................................................49

9. APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................55

iii
 List of Tables Pages

Table 1. Number of species, percentage and life form of Menagesha Suba State Forest............23

Table 2. List of endemic woody species in Menagesha Suba Forest............................................24

Table 3. Twin result text (TWINSPAN output)............................................................................26

Table 4. Synoptic cover abundance values for community types.................................................30

Table 5. Altitudinal ranges, number of quadrats, mean species richness, evenness and Shannon-

Wiener diversity of communities...................................................................................................31

Table 6. Sorenson’s similarity coefficient among the six communities........................................33

Table 7. The floristic comparison of Menagesha Suba State Forest with other similar forests in

Ethiopia.........................................................................................................................................34

Table 8. The seven most frequently occurring woody species in the forest................................36

Table 9. The count of individuals of selected in height classes (m) in Menagesha Suba State

Forest..............................................................................................................................................36

Table 10. DBH class distribution of woody species in Menagesha Suba Forest..........................42

Table 11. List of species with higher basal area...........................................................................44

Table 12. IVI Classes, sum of species belonging to each class and their percentage value........45

Table 13. The IVI of selected (five species from each class as representative) woody species in

Menagesha Suba Forest.................................................................................................................47

iv
 List of Figures Pages

1. Location of Menagesha Suba State Forest..........................................................................14

2. Clima diagram of Addis Ababa...........................................................................................16

3. Comparison of number of woody species recorded by different collectors........................23

4. General height distribution patterns (structure) of Menagesha Suba State Forest..............37

5. Top ten dominant woody species of Menagesha Suba Forest.............................................40

6. Pie chart representing three stories of Menagesha Suba Forest...........................................41

7. The general DBH distribution patterns (structure) of Menagesha Forest............................43

8. The DBH class distribution of selected trees of Menagesha Suba Forest............................43

9. The IVI proportion of most frequent and dominant trees and shrubs in the study area......46

v
 List of Appendices Pages

Appendix 1. List of species in Menagesha Suba State Forest..................................................55

Appendix 2. Family, genera and species distribution of woody plants in Menagesha Suba State

Forest..............................................................................................................................................58

Appendix 3. Diversity of woody species in study area.................................................................59

Appendix 4. Altitude, latitude, longitude, aspect, location of quadrats and transects.................60

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to my research advisor, Prof.

Sebsebe Demissew for his help in identifying the topic, his consistent and stimulating advice. I

am thankful to Prof. Ensermu Kelbessa and Dr. Teshome Soromessa, who gave me material

support and information on my study. I am also thankful to Mesfin Sahile, Yoseph Assefa and

Dereje Denu for their cooperation in drawing map, clima diagram and way of soft ware operation

respectively.

I am very thankful to the Oromia Forest and Wild life Agency for permission to work in the

forest and providing helpful information about the forest. I acknowledge my colleagues Negalign

Awoke, Lemma Etefa, Sitayehu Tamene and all other friends who provided constructive ideas

during the study.

I also thank to the Plant Biodiversity and Management Programme Unit of Addis Ababa

University, for financial support and Samara University for sponsoring my study. I am very

thankful for the technical assistance from the National Herbarium and Computer classes.

I am highly indebted to my great brother Ayana Amara and my wife Damme Goshu for their

constant encouragement and financial support which contributed to the successful completion of

the study.

vi
 ACRONYMS

BMNP------------Bale Mountains National Park

DBH.....................Diameter at Breast Height

NMA ……… National Meteorological Agency

EPA................Environmental Protection Authority

FAO..............Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

IBCR...................Institute of Biological Conservation and Research

IVI.................Important Value Index

SFCDD................State Forest Conservation and Development Department

SMNP................Semien Mountains National Park

UNDP.......................United Nations Development Programme

UNEP......................United Nations Environmental Programme

UNESCO..................United Nations Education, Science and Culture organization

vi
ABSTRACT: The study presents analysis of woody plant diversity and structure of Menagesha

Suba Forest, in Central Highlands of Ethiopia. Seventy five quadrats each 20 m X 20 m were

laid out along three line transects in Menagesha Suba State Forest to collect vegetation data. A

total of 112 woody plant species, representing 84 genera and 51 families were recorded. The

Family Fabaceae with 12 species had the highest number of species followed by Asteraceae,

with 8 species, and Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae and Oleaceae with 5 species each.

The forest had the Shannon- Wiener diversity index of 2.57 and evenness of 0.92. Six

community types were recognized from the hierarchical cluster analysis of polythetic divisive

TWIINSPAN output: Dovyalis verrucosa - Maytenus arbutifolia, Dovyalis verrucosa -

Sideroxylon oxyacanthum, Dovyalis abyssinica - Myrsine africana, Myrsine melanophloeos -

Landolphia buchananii, Myrsine africana - Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Juniperus

procera - Ficus sur. A floristic comparison of Menagesha Suba State Forest with other related

forests in Ethiopia revealed relatively high floristic similarity. The analysis of the diameter at

breast height distribution shows normal inverted J-shaped pattern. The five most dominant tree

species of Menagesha Suba State Forest occupied 41.77% of total important value index. By

recognizing the significance of Menagesha Suba State Forest, recommendation is made to

improve the protection and conservation status of the forest, through modern joint forest

management approaches and sustainable utilization.

Key Words: Biodiversity, Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forests, Menagesha Suba State Forest,

Woody Plant Diversity, Plant Community

ix
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

The term biodiversity reflects the number, variety and variability of living organisms. It

includes diversity within species (genetic diversity), between species (species diversity), and

between ecosystems (ecosystem diversity). Biodiversity also incorporates human cultural

diversity, which can be affected by the same drivers as biodiversity, and which has impacts on

the diversity of genes, other species and ecosystems (Whittaker, 1975; Niles, 2009). The

concept also covers how this diversity changes from one location to another and over time and

space. Indicators such as the number of species in a given area can help in monitoring certain

aspects of biodiversity.

Plant biodiversity is one of the major groups of biological diversity. Plant diversity can be

affected by different biotic and abiotic factors. The plant communities and their component

species are exposed to changes in the environmental, physical, biological, technological,

economic or social factors (Frankel et al., 1995). Globally, patterns of plant species diversity

are influenced by latitudinal, altitudinal and soil gradients (Whittaker, 1975). Locally in

mountainous ecosystems at high rate of change in altitude, slope and moisture gradients,

temperature, rainfall and drainage, the diversity of plants may also change within a short

distance (Lovett, 1990). The other factors that highly influence plant diversity are human

beings, as destructive factor (Ababu Anage, 2009). So, the fate of plant communities in a

given area can be determined by these and other different factors. In this case, diversity and

distribution patterns of species must be studied to clarify the plant diversity in certain area and

to determine major factors influencing the diversity.

1
Ethiopia has great biodiversity resources due to the diversity in physical features, climatic

types, topography, habitat, vegetation types and fauna (Friis et al., 2010). The Forest

resources once covered most of the landmass of the country, but these days clearing of land

for agricultural expansion and the cutting of trees for fuel with all other factors diminished the

closed Forest cover of Ethiopia to less than 3 per cent (EPA, 1998), which is almost restricted

in distribution to the inaccessible areas of southern and southwestern highlands of Ethiopia

(UNESCO, 2003; Ababu Anage, 2009).

The Forest resource of the country is under serious threat from deforestation, Forest fire, land

degradation, overexploitation, overgrazing, shifting cultivation, habitat loss and invasive

species (Friis, 1992; EPA, 1997). As a result of these threats, the trend in the conservation

status of biodiversity is declining by alarming rate.

The montane Forests are specifically highly disturbed by wind throws, natural and human-made

fires, landslides, grazing, tree felling and clearing for cultivation (Demel Teketay, 2005).

Menagesha Suba State Forest, which is one of the few remaining Forests in central Ethiopia, has

received long years of attention and protection, which goes back to the 1600s (Sebsebe

Demissew, 1980; 1988; Demel Teketay, 2004; Abate Zewdie, 2007). Some report indicated that

Menagesha Suba State Forest is highly subjected to exploitation by local community around the

Forest (Sebsebe Demissew, 1988; Abate Zewdie, 2007; Abebe Haile et al., 2009; Mulugeta

Lemenih, 2009), this includes non-timber Forest products (NTFPs) for home consumption and

for markets (Abebe Haile et al., 2009; Mulugeta Lemenih, 2009). The present trend of

management needs improvement depending on scientific data or information for the remaining

Forest resources and to minimize uncontrolled exploitation and restrict the conversion of Forest

2
into agricultural land and substitution by the exotic species. Otherwise, the small ruminants of

natural Forest left will be gone in the very near future.

1.2. Statement of the problem

Menagesha Suba State Forest is one of the few accessible remaining patches of Dry Evergreen

Afromontane Forest in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Emperor Zera Yacob (1434-1468),

designated the Wochacha Forest as one of the ‘Crown Forestlands’ of the country. He arranged

for the area to be planted with seedlings of the giant Juniperus trees and some other species (von

Breintenbach, 1962).

Sebsebe Demissew (1980; 1988) and comparative floristic study by Abate Zewdie (2007) made a

study of Menagesha Suba State Forest. Since in both cases only the general floristic composition

were studied, detailed study of specifically woody species diversity is very essential. The base

line data of woody species should be useful for the management and sustainable utilization of the

Forest resources of the area. Therefore, species documentation, classification and description of

the Forest have to be a continuous exercise.

3
 2. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

2.1. General objective

➢ To assess the floristic composition, species diversity and structure of the woody plant

species of the vegetation of Menagesha Suba State Forest.

2.2. Specific objectives

➢ To analyze the woody plant species composition of the Forest including the woody

climbers.

➢ To classify the Forest vegetation in to plant community types.

➢ To make floristic comparison of the Forest with other similar Forests in the country

➢ To analyze the structure of the Forest

4
 3. LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1. Floristic diversity of Ethiopia

Ethiopia has a large natural and cultural diversity with a wide range of climate, which results

from its topography and latitudinal position. Ethiopia has diverse vegetation types in which

diverse flora and fauna exist.

The great plains of Ethiopia occur on top of massive highland plateaus like slopes of the Semien

Mountains National Park (SMNP), Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) and other mountain

ranges, where as the lowlands are dividing the highlands and the whole country into two unequal

halves by the Great Rift Valley. Many of these mountain ranges reach over 4000 m a.s.l. and are

home to numerous endemic species of flora and fauna (Friis, 1992; EPA, 1998; Demel Teketay,

2004; Friis et al., 2010).

The differences in altitude and latitude have resulted in a wide variation in climate i.e., rainfall,

humidity, temperature and exposure to wind, etc. These differences along with edaphic

variations form the basis for the wide biodiversity of the country. This geographical and

ecological diversity of Ethiopia, with extraordinary range of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,

contributed to the high rate of endemism and diversity (Demel Teketay et al., 2004; IBCR,

2009).

The vegetation of the country is very heterogeneous. It varies from semi-desert to Afro-alpine

vegetation type (Friis et al., 2010). There are more than 6000 higher plant species in Ethiopia of

which about 10 percent are endemic (Vivero et al., 2005). The Forest and woody vegetation

resources of Ethiopia were estimated to cover greater than 11.7 percent of the land, of this the

woodlands cover about 4.5 percent of the total land of Ethiopia (EPA, 1998).

5
The woody plant species in the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea was estimated to be 1100; out of

these about 300 are tree species (Demel Teketay et al., 2000). The vegetation of Ethiopia has a

rich endemic element (Tewolde Berhan Gebre Egziabher, 1991). For instance, of the total woody

plant species 428 are estimated to be endemic and near endemics. From this, 107 are trees and

321 are shrubs (Vivero et al., 2005).

Most of Ethiopia’s population are living in rural areas and depend on natural resources like land,

water, Forests and trees for economic development, food security and other basic necessities

(Alemneh Dejene, 2003). This implies that the majority of the economic activities and life of

most of Ethiopians are either directly or indirectly related to the Forest resources (Demel

Teketay, 2001; Kitessa Hundera, 2007). This implies that the services of Forests are unlimited.

3.2. Vegetation types of Ethiopia

Ethiopia endowed with wide range of vegetations. Different Authors studied and described the

vegetation types of the country at different time. The recent study indicated that there are twelve

major vegetation types in Ethiopia. These major vegetation types include; Desert and Semi-

desert scrubland Forest; Acacia - Commiphora woodland and bushland; Wooded grassland of

the Western Gambela region; Combretum - Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland; Dry

Evergreen Afromontane Forest and grassland complex; Moist Evergreen Afromontane Forest

and bushland; Transitional rain Forest; Ericaceous belt; Afro-alpine belt; Riverine vegetation;

Fresh - water lakes; and Salt Lakes vegetation (Friis et al., 2010).

6
 3.3. Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forests and Grassland Complex Vegetation type

The Ethiopian highlands contribute large coverage of land area with Afromontane vegetation, of

which Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forests (DAF) form the largest part. Dry Evergreen

Afromontane Forest and Grassland complex vegetation type is complex system of succession

with grassland rich in legume shrub and small to large trees to closed Forest with a canopy of

several strata. It occurs in an altitudinal range of 1800-3000 m, with average annual temperature

and rainfall of 14-25°C and 700-1100 (rarely up to 1700 mm), respectively (Friis, 1992; Friis et

al., 2010).

About 460 species, subspecies and varieties of woody plants occur in this vegetation type, from

these 128 (27.83%) are reported only from this vegetation type. This indicates that this

vegetation type is rich with species composition (Friis et al., 2010).

According to Friis et al., (2010), there are four subtypes recognized. Undifferentiated

Afromontane Forest; Dry Single–Dominant Afro-montane Forest of the Ethiopian highlands;

Afromontane woodland, wooded grassland and grassland and Transition between Afromontane

vegetation and Acacia- Commiphora Bushland on the Eastern Escarpments.

Some of the common Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forests studied from highlands and mountain

chains of Ethiopia include: Anabe and Denkoro Forest in Wello (Mesfin Tadesse, 1993),Chilimo

Forest (38° 10' E and 9° 05' N), 2,400 ha and Wof-Washa Forest (39° 45' E and 9° 35' N), 3,600

ha (Tamrat Bekele, 1993); Menagesha Suba State Forest (38° 35' E and 9° 00' N), 2,720 ha

(Sebsebe Demissew, 1988).

7
 3.4. Threats on plant biodiversity in Ethiopia

The rich biodiversity of the country is under serious threat from deforestation, land degradation,

overexploitation, overgrazing, habitat loss and invasive species (De Vletter, 1991; EPA, 1998;

Demel Teketay, 2001).

In most cases, the major destructive factor of plant diversity is deforestation caused by

agricultural expansion and fuel wood scavenging (Ababu Anage, 2009). In current situations,

Ethiopia is in the track of high investment rate, agro-industry expansion and population

migration to a fragile ecosystem like Forests and related resources. However, almost all of these

huge activities were done without prior environmental impact assessment. As a result, many

virgin and irreplaceable Forests are cleared for different activities like livestock ranches, coffee

plantation and tea plantation (Kumilachew Yeshitela, 2001; Yonas Yemishaw, 2001; Getachew

Tesfaye and Demel Teketay, 2005).

The other threats to the plant biodiversity of the country are unsustainable utilization of natural

resources, Forest fires, land degradation, habitat loss and fragmentation, extensive replacement

of farmer's/local varieties/breeds by improved ones, invasive species, wetland destruction and

climate change. But all these are related to the root causes of poverty, which are lack of

alternative viable livelihoods, increasing population pressure and inadequate awareness of the

threats (De Vletter, 1991; EPA, 1998). These different threats are in rapid progress to decline the

trend in the conservation status of Ethiopia's plant diversity.

The challenges to conserve and sustainable use of Ethiopia’s biodiversity are very complicated

and interlinked (Ababu Anage, 2009). Some reports indicated that there are still high rate of

8
deforestation in Ethiopia beyond any expectations (De Vletter, 1991; EPA, 1997; EPA, 1998;

Demel Teketay, 2001; Yonas Yemishaw, 2001; FAO, 2007). So, the plant biodiversity of

Ethiopia need better attention to conserve and protect from these losses.

3.5. Diversity Indices

Biological diversity can be quantified in different ways. A diversity index is a mathematical

measure of species diversity in a community. The two main factors taken into account when

measuring diversity are richness and evenness. A diversity index, must be sensitive to both

factors, thus must also be sensitive to the different number of species in two or more

communities (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974; Frosini, 2006).

Species richness is a measure of the number of different species in a given site and can be

expressed in a mathematical index to compare diversity between sites. A richness index may

simply coincide with the number of species present in a community, but may also be a

function of the number of all the individuals in the community. The species richness of each

community is simply the number of species present with at least one individual in a given area

(Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974; Frosini, 2006). The index is essential in assessing

taxonomic and ecological values of a habitat (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974).

The second factor, evenness, measures a relative abundance of different species making up

the richness of the area (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). According to Frosini

(2006), an evenness index is a function of the frequencies or proportions pertaining to the

species; such an index increases when the proportions tend to be equal or perfect homogeneity

and decreases when one species tend to dominate all the others. The interpretation of evenness

is strictly dependent on the richness.

9
Species diversity is the product of species richness and evenness. Species diversity index

provides information about species endemism, rarity and commonness (Frosini, 2006).

Diversity indices also provide more information about community composition than simply

species richness and relative abundances of different species (Kent and Coker, 1992; Frosini,

2006). The ability to quantify diversity in this way is an important tool for biologists trying to

understand community structure. And also measuring diversity has been of historical

significance due to the obvious declines in habitat diversity (Frosini, 2006).

Among many species, diversity indices the most widely used were Shannon-Wiener index and

Sorenson’s index of Similarity (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974).

3.5.1. Shannon- Wiener index of Diversity

It is the most applicable index of diversity (Grieg-Smith, 1983). The Shannon-Wiener diversity

index is one that measure what we will use to draw information from samples in the field. It

combines two quantifiable measures; the species richness and species equitability. The Shannon

Diversity Index (H’) is calculated using the following formula.

S Pi(lnPi)
H’ = -Σi=1

Where S= total number of species; Pi= is the proportion of each species (individuals) or the

abundance of the ith species expressed as proportion of total cover; and ln= log base n

High values of Shannon- Wiener diversity index is a representative of more diverse communities

(Grieg-Smith, 1983; Kent and Coker, 1992; Frosini, 2006).

1
Shannon’s Equitability (EH) or Evenness is given by

EH = H’/Hmax = H/lnS (Kent and Coker, 1992)

The value of EH is between 0 and 1 with 1 being complete evenness. If the species are evenly

distributed then the H’ value would be high. So the H’ value allows us to know not only the

number of species but how the abundance of the species is distributed among all the species in

the community (Frosini, 2006).

3.5.2. Measurement of Similarity and Dissimilarity

Similarity indices measure the degree to which the species composition of quadrats or samples is

a like; whereas dissimilarity coefficient assesses which two quadrats or samples differ in

composition. Sorenson is the most common binary similarity coefficients because it relies on

presence or absence data. The coefficient of Sorenson differs from the other measurements since

it gives more weight to species that are present in both quadrats/samples and therefore less

weight to species that are present in only one quadrat.

Sorenson’s Coefficient is expressed as

Ss = 2a/ (2a+b+c) (Kent and Coker, 1992)

Where a=number of species with common to both quadrats; b= number of species unique to

quadrat 1; and c = number of species unique to quadrat 2

Mostly the coefficient is multiplied by 100 to give percentage similarity index.

Dissimilarity is then computed as Ds = b or 1-Ss (Kent and Coker, 1992).

2a+b+c

1
 3.6. Plant Community type

According to Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) and Kent and Coker (1992), vegetation

cover of a given area has a definite structure and composition. Therefore, in order to have

good mental picture of the vegetation of an area and to understand distribution of species of

plant, floristic composition and vegetation structure study are essential. Vegetation

characteristics are either derived from plant morphological characters, usually structure or

from plant species recognized in area, as floristic composition. Both vegetation structure and

floristic composition are usually measured or estimated on the basis of plant community

(Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). The description of plant communities involves the

analysis of species diversity, evenness and similarity (Kent and Coker, 1992).

The Two-Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) is recently widely applied technique for

polythetic divisive method in vegetation classification to communities (Goodwall, 1980; Digby

and Kempton, 1985; Kent and Coker, 1992). This method divides quadrats on the basis of all the

species information. It’s used to carry out joint classification of quadrat and species

simultaneously.

The TWINSPAN method differs fundamentally from the agglomerative techniques in its divisive

strategy, and is usually more informative. Generally, advantages of polythetic divisive

(TWINSPAN) method were, it uses the original vegetation data, rather than secondary matrix; it

clusters species and quadrats; it produces and orders data matrix, and it is economical in the use

of computer time and store (Goodwall, 1980; Digby and Kempton, 1985; Kent and Coker, 1992).

1
 4. RESEARCH QUESTIONS

I. What are the components of woody species of the Forest?

II. What are the major woody communities occurring in the Forest?

III. What is the pattern of distribution of woody species along environmental gradients?

IV. What is the conservation status of the woody plant species of Menagesha Suba State

Forest?

1
 5. MATERIALS AND METHODS

5.1. Materials

5.1.1. Description of the study area

Menagesha Suba State Forest is one of 58 National Forest Priority Areas (NFPAs) in Ethiopia to

ensure essential protection of the natural Forest and the plantation of both exotic and indigenous

plants (SFCDD, 1990). It is located in the central part of the country 30 km West of Addis

Ababa. It is found between 38031´ and 38035´ E and 90 89´ and 90 00´ N in Oromia National

Regional State (Figure 1). As a part of central plateau covering an altitudinal range of 2200-3385

m a.s.l. (Afework Bekele, 1994). The Forest borders Mount Wochacha to the south, Kolbo

Kebele to the north, Wellmera and Sademo town to the west and Gefersa town to the east.

Figure 1. Location of Menagesha Suba State Forest.

1
 5.1.2. Geology

The geological aspect of Menagesha Suba State Forest could be defined based on volcanic dome

of Mountian Wochacha. The topography of Menagesha Suba State Forest was the result of

siliceous volcanic cone. There are various rock types, including trachytes and basalt trap series.

The basalts are the main rock types from which the soil parent material of this area was derived

(Mohr, 1971). According to Tamrat Bekele (1993), the soil of the Forest at lower altitudes was

reddish brown, deep and less gravelly, whereas at higher altitudes light brown and shallow; the

substrate is locally rocky.

5.1.3. Climate

The rainfall and the temperature condition of the area was described based on the data collected

from 2004-2010 by the National Meteorological Agency (NMA) from Addis Ababa station.

According to the data from NMA, the result of the analysis showed that the mean annual

temperature of the study area is about 17.1OC. The range of mean monthly minimum and

maximum temperature of the study area is 8.2 and 25.6 OC which belongs to December and

March respectively. Then the hottest month is March with a maximum temperature of 25.6 OC,

followed by May (25.1OC) and the coldest month is December with a minimum temperature of

8.2OC. Mean annual rainfall were estimated to be 1314 mm with the rains mainly falling from

June to September, with peak in July-August, show unimodal type of rainy season (Figure 2).

1
Figure 2. Clima diagram of Addis Ababa (based on seven years data, 2004-2010), dry periods are

dotted and wet periods are blackened. Data Source: National Meteorological Agency (NMA).

5.1.4. Ecology

Menagesha Suba State Forest is one of the representatives of Dry Evergreen Afromontane

Forests. The major part of the Forest and woodlands are located on a drained soil of the

mountains and sides of the valleys while the grassland occupies the heavy clay soils of the valley

bottoms. This Forest is highly affected by human interference; as a result some part of the Forest

is changed to degraded lands. The marginal land of the Forest (including the demarcated part of

the Forest) consists of settlements, farmland and grazing areas. The Forest holds different

wildlife’s including endemic Minilik bushbuck (Abate Zewdie, 2007). It also contains

Abyssinian cat bird, banded barbet, golden backed wood pecker, black headed Forest Oriole and

wattled ibis and indigenous animals like Columbus monkey. The main ecological problem in the

Forest were encroachment by farmers for timber, non-timber products (NTFPs), fire-wood

1
collection, grazing and farming in the demarcated area of the Forest are commonly observed in

the Forest.

5.1.5. Natural vegetation

The vegetation shows the general patterns of Afromontane zonation (Friis, 1992; Tamrat Bekele,

1993). The dominant tree species in at lower elevation and river valleys include Podocarpus and

at middle altitude (around 2700 m a.s.l.) Juniperus trees. At the upper limit the vegetation

changes to heather zone and Helichrysum species dominating with the top part exposed rocks,

and secondary growth due to cultivation and grazing may be observed. At the top exposed rocks,

ruminant vegetation and secondary growth due to cultivation and grazing may be observed. Friis,

et al. (2010) classified the Forest as one of Undifferentiated Afromontane Forests, of Juniperus–

Podocarpus Forest dominating type with an element of broad-leaved species. The Natural Forest

of Menagesha Suba State Forest is dominated by Juniperus procera, Olea europea subsp

cuspidata, Podocarpus falcatus Allophylus abyssinicus, Croton macrstachyus, Maytenus sp.,

Osyris quadripartita, Euphorbia ampliphylla, etc.

The Forest has a long-term history of disturbance and conservation practices that date back to at

least five centuries (Afework Bekele, 1994), which may include the establishment of sawmill in

the Forest. The original Forest cover when protection was initiated was estimated to be about

7,360 ha, but now it is only about 2,720 ha so that 62.5 % of the original Forest has been

destroyed. In 1984 an area of 9,557 ha was designated as part of the State Forest and steps are

being taken to re afForest the already deforested area with both indigenous and introduced trees

(Sebsebe Demissew, 1988). In 2006 the area covered by the original Forest were diminished to

around 2,500 ha (Abate Zewdie, 2007), indicating the high rate of deforestation.

1
 5.2. Methods

5.2.1. Vegetation Data Collection

During November 9 25, 2010, reconnaissance survey was conducted to familiarize myself with

the study area, to get an insight of the vegetation pattern, topography and other environmental

conditions in order to locate sampling quadrats in the Forest. This is followed by actual sampling

and three parallel line transect, each about 400 m apart from each other were laid out. In each

transect, quadrats each with 20 m x 20 m were laid out with 80 m apart from each other. To

cover most of the representative of the Forest seventy-five quadrats were used.

In each quadrat a complete list of trees and shrubs including woody climbers (lianas) and their

number (count) and percentage cover was estimated. Specimens of all woody plant species were

collected, pressed and identified at the National Herbarium (ETH) using Flora of Ethiopia and

Eritrea (FEE). All woody plants outside of the quadrats were collected for floristic composition.

Trees, shrubs, seedling and sapling were collected. In this study, tree refers to single stemmed

woody plant or woody plant with single bole; shrubs as multiple stemmed woody plant; and

seedling as young woody species with height less than 2 m and DBH less than 2.5 cm, while

sapling refers to woody plant is with height greater than 2 m.

The cover values of the study Forest for all species was first estimated visually, recorded and

later converted to the Braun-Banquet 1-9 modified scale (Kent and Coker, 1992) as follows: 1 =

one or few individuals, 2 = occasional and less than 5% cover, 3 = abundant and with very low

cover or less abundant but with higher cover, in any case less than 5% cover, 4 = very abundant

and less than 5% cover, 5 = cover values between 5-12.5% irrespective of number of individuals,

1
6 = cover values between 12.5-25%, 7 = cover values between 25-50%, 8 = cover values

between 50-75%, 9 = cover values between 75-100%, of the total quadrat area.

5.2.2. Floristic data analyses

All trees, shrubs and liana inside and outside the quadrats in the Forest were counted to analyze

the floristic composition of the Forest. In addition, the number of species collected in the

previous studies were added and compared with present study for this study area.

In addition to floristic composition the following were analyzed for the Forest:

i. Vegetation classification: - this was made using cover abundance values as class

labels. The vegetation classification of the study area was done by Two-Way

Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), (Hill, 1979). It is a divisive polythetic

method of vegetation classification. It classifies both samples and species.

The following option where choosen in TWINSPAN program:

- Number of cut levels, 0, 2, 5, 10, 20;

- Minimum group size for division, 2;

- Maximum group size for division, 5;

- Maximum division levels, 6.

ii. Plant community: - Following classification above, the plant community types were

determined and named as ‘type’ by dominant characteristic species; mainly trees

and shrubs with high cover abundance values were used. The community types distin

guished were further refined in a synoptic Table with a species having at least 2.5

cover-abundance value in one of the communities.

1
 iii. Plant diversity- the analysis was done by one of the most widely used approaches in

measuring the diversity of species, Shannon and Wiener index of species diversity.

iv. Floristic comparison: - the floristic comparison of Menagesha Suba State Forest

with other related Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forests in Ethiopia was made using

the Sorensen’s similarity index.

5.2.3. Analyses of vegetation structure

For analyses of vegetation structure of the study area, all individuals of trees and shrubs with a

diameter at breast height (DBH) greater than 2.5 cm, and height greater than 2 m were measured

for DBH using Meter tape. Individuals with DBH less than 2 cm and height less than 2 m were

counted.

The following analyses were done to describe the structure of the Menagesha Suba State Forest:

i. Density: - Tree density was computed by converting the count from the total

quadrats into hectare basis.

ii. Frequency:-frequency is the number of times a particular species is recorded in the

sample area.

iii. DBH (Diameter at Breast Height):-It is obtained by dividing the circumference of

each tree recorded in the field by π or by equivalent value (3.14).

iv. Basal Area: - Basal area calculations were made on the diameter measurements the

stem with DBH’s of two centimeter and above. It is expressed in square meter/

hectare. Basal area = (DBH/2) 2 X 3.14.

2
v. For all individuals of tree having > 2.5 cm DBH, Relative density, Relative

frequency, Relative Dominance and Importance Value Indices (IVI) were calculated

for each tree species using the following formula.

a. Relative density = number of individuals of species A/total number of

individuals of all species * 100

b. Relative frequency = number of quadrats occurrence/ total number of

quadrats * 100.

c. Relative Basal area = total basal area of all individuals of a species/total

basal area of all species * 100.

d. Importance Value Index (IVI) = Relative density + Relative frequency +

Relative Basal area.

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 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1. Floristic Composition

A total of 112 species of woody plants representing 84 genera and 51 families were recorded

from the trees, shrubs, and lianas (Appendix 1). Of these only 93 species were encountered

during this study, including 21 species that are recorded out of the quadrat for floristic

composition. From the total number of plants recorded, 107 species were angiosperms (102 of

the species are dicots and five monocots) and five gymnosperms. The Forest has higher number

of as compared to other similar forest like Denkoro Forest with 64 species located in Wello

(Abate Ayalew, 2003), Menagesha Amba Mariam Forest with 70 species in Central Shewa

(Abiyuo Tilahun, 2009) and less number of species than Gedo Forest with 130 species in West

Shewa (Birhanu Kebede, 2010) and Anabe Forest with 120 species located in Southern Wello

(Mesfin Tadesse, 1993). The Families with the highest number of species (from highest to

lowest) were Fabaceae with 12 (10.62%) species; Asteraceae with eight (7.08%) species,

Rosaceae with five (4.42%) species; Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae and Oleaceae each with five

(4.42%) species; Anacardiaceae, Celasteraceae, Rubiaceae and Myrsinaceae each with four

(3.56%) species; Apocynaceae, Cupressaceae and Malvaceae each with three species;

Acanthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Ericaceae, Hypericaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae and

Verbenaceae each with two species; and all the rest 30 (59.7%) Families with only one genus

and one species (Appendix 2). There were about 52 (46.4%) shrubs, 49 (43.8%) and 12 (10.7%)

liana in the Forest. Number, percentage and lifeforms of the species are indicated in Table one

below.

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Table 1. Number of species, percentage and lifeforms of Menagesha Suba State Forest.

Ser.No Life forms Number Percentage (%)

1 Trees 49 43.8
2 Shrubs 52 46.4
3 Lianas 12 10.7

The comparison between different collectors at different time shows a difference in number of

woody plant species. Six species were reported only from Sebsebe Demissew (1980; 1988);

13 species from Abate Zewdie (2007); and 57 species are collected only during the present

study, that is these species are not recognized before this study (Appendix 1). The comparison

between different collectors at different time show that there is an increase in number of species

collected over the years as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Comparison of number of woody species recorded by different collectors.

Number of Woody species Comparision between different Authors

47 49 Only from present study

50 57 Only from other Authors Common
6 6 13 19
46 44 43 36
Sebsebe
DemissewSebsebe (1980)Demissew
Abate
(1988) Zewdie (2007) Present
study

Endemic species of Menagesha Suba State Forest includes nine endemic woody species. This

includes trees and shrub both four (44%), and one (11%) liana (Table 2). According to Friis et al.

(2001), the general trends of endemism shows a decrease above altitude of 2000 m in Ethiopia,

this may be true for Menagesha Suba State Forest.

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Table 2. List of endemic species in Menagesha Suba Forest.

No. Botanical name Family Habit

1 Erythrina brucei Fabaceae T
2 Jasminum stans Oleaceae L
3 Lippia odoennisis var. odoennisis Lamiaceae S
4 Maytenus addat Celasteraceae T
5 Millettia ferruginea Fabaceae T
6 Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa Anacardiaceae T
7 Satureja punctata Lamiaceae S
8 Rytigynia neglecta var. vatkeana Rubiaceae S
9 Vernonia leopoldi Asteraceae S

6.1.1 Species Diversity

The Forest had the mean species richness of 17 species per 400 m 2. The Shannon –Wiener

diversity index shows (Appendix 3) that quadrats number 48 and 69 are the richest with regard to

the number of species (25) per quadrat, while the lowest number of species (7) was recorded for

quadrat 42. The Forest had the Shannon diversity index of 2.57 and evenness of 0.92. Relatively

high levels of species evenness was recorded for quadrat 11 (0.99) while the lowest value were

recorded for quadrats 42 (0.85) and five (0.864). The highest diversity index was recorded for

quadrat 59 (H’=3.005) followed by quadrat number 47 (H’=2.963) and 27(H’= 2.927) on the

other hand, the lowest diversity index (H’=1.654) was recorded for quadrat 42. The lowest

number of species were recorded in this was associated with high disturbances, open canopy and

many small roads crossing the quadrat. Whereas the highest species richness and diversity

indices observed for the quadrats which are almost homogenous and less disturbances in the

area. This agrees with work of Abate Zewdie, (2007).

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 6.1.2. Plant Community Analysis

Six clusters could be recognized from the TWIINSPAN output. The community types were

further refined in a twin result text, which shows the community types in detail. Twin result text

values for each woody species and the six major clusters identified in the TWINSPAN output are

shown in Table 3. Each community should be named with two or more dominant species within

group (Whittaker, 1975). Based on this each cluster distinguished in this study was described as

community types and named after two dominant species. The dominant species were those with

highest cover- abundance value for a given community (Table 4).

Each community was different in numbers of quadrats it contains, 31, 12, 11, 10, 7,and 4; the

number of species, i.e., 56, 52, 51, 35, 33, and 41; evenness value (E), i.e., 0.92, 0.91, 0.93, 0.93,

0.93, and 0.91; and the diversity indices (H’) values they have, i.e., H’= 2.42, 2.60, 2.71, 2.56,

2.79 and 2.71 (Table 5) from community 1-6 respectively.

2
Table 3. Twin result text (TWINSPAN output).

2
A description of the six community types is given as follows:

1. Maytenus arbutifolia - Dovyalis verrucosa community type

There are 31 (41.3%) quadrats and 56 (60.2%) species included in this community. This

community type is found at the lowest altitudinal gradient i.e., between 2396-2631 m (Table 5).

The community is rich with all woody habits.

In addition to the characteristics species, the other dominant large tree species includes

Podocarpus falcatus, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Juniperus procera and Allophylus

abyssinicus. Shrubs were Carissa spinarum, Dovyalis abyssinica, Calpurnia aurea and

Clausena anisata. The community is also rich in lianas; these are Jasminum abyssinicum,

Jasminum stans, and Landolphia buchananii. The community also contains some exotic species

plantations like Acacia mearnsi and Cupressus lusitanica.

2. Sideroxylon oxyacanthum - Dovyalis verrucosa community type

Twelve (16%) quadrats and 52(56%) species were included under this community. It was found

at altitudinal range of 2404- 2666 m (Table 5).

In addition to the characteristics species, the dominant tree species in this community are Olea

europaea subsp. cuspidata, Pittosporum viridiflorum and Juniperus procera. Common shrubs

found in this community are Crotalaria lachnophora, Dovyalis abyssinica and Carissa

spinarum. Lianas are Jasminum abyssinicum, Jasminum grandiflorum subsp. floribundum ,

Jasminum stans and Urera hypselodendron.

2
 3. Dovyalis abyssinica - Myrsine africana community type

There are 11 (15%) quadrats and 51 (55%) species included in this community. The community

type three was found at altitude between 2572-2763 m (Table 5).

Dominant tree species include Bersama abyssinica, Brucea antidysenterica, Allophylus

abyssinicus and Pittosporum viridiflorum. Most common shrub species are Halleria lucida,

Helichrysum argyranthum, etc. Few liana species including Rubus steudneri and Periploca

linearifolia.

4. Myrsine melanophloeos- Landolphia buchananii community type

There are ten (13%) quadrats and the community contains less number of species as compared to

above communities i.e. only 35 (38%) species included in this community. It is located at

altitude of 2628-2810 m (Table 5).

In addition to type characteristic species, common large tree of the upper canopy were mostly

covered by Juniperus procera, Bersama abyssinica and Ekebergia capensis. The middle canopy

was commonly dominated by shrubs like Myrsine africana, Dovyalis abyssinica and D.

verrucosa. It also comprises the common lianas like Urera hypselodendron, Jasminum

abyssinicum and Rosa abyssinica.

5. Myrsine africana- Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata community type

There are only seven (9%) quadrats and 33 (35.5%) species classified under this community

type. The altitudinal range of the community was 2860-2896 m (Table 5).

In addition to the dominant species, the other commonly occuring species of larger tree include

Ilex mitis, Juniperus procera, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Maytenus adda and M. undata.

2
The shrubs were Osyris quadripartita, Rhamnus prinoides and R. staddo. The lianas includes

Rosa abyssinica and Landolphia buchananii. There are also few exotic species like Cupressus

lusitanica and Pinus radiata.

6. Juniperus procera - Ficus sur community type.

This community contains the lowest number of quadrats four (5%) and considerable rich in

the number of species, since it consists of 41 (44.1%) species. It occurs at the highest elevation

when compared to other communities in the Forest that is between 2842-2951 m (Table 5).

These quadrats are located on the valley and almost at the less accessible areas in the forest. So,

relatively less disturbance and human interference, this make against the general finding of the

trend of decrease in species richness above 2000 m a.s.l. in Ethiopian mountains.

In addition to characteristics species, other common tree species were Myrsine melanophloeos,

Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Olinia rochetiana. Common shrubs include Lippia

odennisis, Maesa lanceolata and Dovyalis abyssinica. Whereas the lianas include Rosa

abyssinica, Rubus steudneri and Landolphia buchananii.

2
Table 4. Synoptic cover-abundance value for community types (value in bold refers to

characteristic species C1-community 1, C2-community 2, C3-commnity 3, C4- community 4,

C5-community 5, and C6-community 6).

Communities
Species C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6
Maytenus arbutifolia 5.29 2.58 2.55 2.20 1.57 0.75
Podocarpus falcatus 2.32 0.58 0.45 0.00 0.00 0.25
Carissa spinarum 2.74 2.25 0.91 0.00 0.00 0.00
Dovyalis verrucosa 5.19 4.33 3.45 2.40 1.29 0.50
Sideroxylon oxyacanthum 0.52 4.42 1.09 0.00 0.00 0.25
Jasminum abyssinicum 3.10 4.00 2.45 3.80 2.00 2.00
Dovyalis abyssinica 3.39 3.58 4.09 4.90 1.43 2.75
Myrsine africana 1.94 1.00 3.91 1.20 7.00 0.00
Brucea antidysenterica 0.48 0.42 2.55 0.20 0.00 0.00
Bersama abyssinica 1.19 2.08 2.55 3.80 0.14 0.25
Allophylus abyssinicus 1.10 0.67 2.91 3.40 0.00 0.00
Pittosporum viridiflorum 1.55 2.50 2.64 3.60 3.43 1.25
Landolphia buchananii 0.03 0.50 2.00 5.20 3.43 2.25
Myrsine melanophloeos 0.23 0.00 1.27 6.80 1.29 4.25
Ekebergia capensis 0.29 0.08 0.82 2.50 0.00 0.00
Urera hypselodendron 0.10 0.92 0.27 2.10 0.00 0.25
Erica arborea 0.00 0.25 0.09 0.00 4.57 0.00
Ilex mitis 0.45 0.00 0.09 0.20 3.57 2.00
Osyris quadripartita 0.10 0.00 0.09 0.00 2.43 0.50
Maytenus addat 0.61 0.42 1.09 0.30 2.29 1.75
Maytenus undata 0.81 1.33 0.27 0.50 2.00 1.00
Rosa abyssinica 0.06 0.33 0.09 0.00 2.86 3.00
Juniperus procera 5.19 2.42 1.55 4.60 5.00 5.75
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 5.19 3.50 2.36 3.30 5.43 3.75
Ficus sur 0.26 0.92 0.82 0.00 0.00 5.50
Rubus steudneri 0.00 0.00 0.27 1.80 0.00 3.00

3
 6.1.3. Species Richness, Diversity and Similarity indices of the communities.

The overall Shannon–Wiener diversity and evenness of the Forest were found to be H’=2.57 and

E= 0.92 respectively (Appendix 3). However, the H’ values of the six communities were

different (Table 5). The Diversity (H’) and Evenness (E) values of the entire Forest were less

than H’ and E values of some communities like community 3 and 5 (Table 5) which implies that

each communities may show variation with total mean species richness, cover abundance values

and diversity indices.

Table 5. Altitudinal ranges, number of quadrats, mean species richness, evenness and Shannon-

Wiener diversity of communities.

Community Altitudinal Quadrats included in No. of Mean Evenness Diversity

types ranges (m) each communities species Species (E) ( H’)
Richness
(S)
Type 1 2396-2631 40, 7, 46, 52, 56, 38,41 56 14.26 0.92 2.42
, 44, 1, 2, 3, 13, 39, 43,
45, 8, 9, 10,15, 42, 55,
65, 66,4,5, 6, 11,12, 1
4, 17, 67 (31quadrats)
Type 2 2404- 2666 63, 69, 49, 64, 68, 50, 52 17.83 0.91 2.60
51, 53, 54, 47, 48, 16
(12 quadrats)
Type 3 2572-2763 57, 58, 70, 59, 60, 62, 51 19.27 0.93 2.71
71, 72, 73, 74, 75
(11 quadrats)
Type 4 2628-2810 18, 19, 22, 20, 21, 61, 35 15.80 0.93 2.56
23, 24, 25, 26
(10 quadrats)
Type 5 2860-2896 29, 30, 32, 33, 31, 34, 33 20.14 0.93 2.79
35 (7 quadrats)
Type 6 2842-2951 36, 37, 27, 28 41 19.75 0.91 2.71
(4 quadrats)

As shown in table 5 above, the H’ values of community type 5 were higher followed by

community type 6 and 3. Whereas the left have lower H’ values communities, with the least

3
observed at community type 1 (H’=2.42). This may be due to proximity to the residence and

exposure to disturbance, like grazing, browsing and others (personal observation). Community

five also consists the highest mean species richness followed by community six and three, the

least at community one. The mean evenness of the communities was more or less similar pattern.

The highest species richness, evenness and diversity indices in community five may be due less

to disturbances, because it’s relatively less number of roads crossing, far from top and bottom

(found almost above center of the total study area). Overall, the possible reason for variability of

each values between each community type could be difference in number of species, cover

abundance values, degree of disturbance, the slope of the quadrats in the community and other

related factors. Similar findings were reported by Abiyou Tilahun, (2009).

6.1.4. Sorenson’s similarity for the communities

The distribution of plant species among the communities indicates different similarity patterns

(Table 6). The overall similarity coefficient ranges from 56.5-85% among all the communities.

The highest similarity was observed between community three and two (85%), this may be due

to existence of most quadrats adjacent to each other that shows similar adaptation mechanisms

and requirements for species occurring in those communities. The lowest similarity were

observed between community two and five (56.5%), and community five and three (59.5%), this

may as result of different factors like anthropogenic (exploitation or disturbances), physical

factors like soil, slope, etc. and related to the altitudinal variation on which most of the

classifications were based.

3
Table 6. Sorenson’s Similarity coefficient (%) among the six communities.

Communities Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 5 Type 6

Type 1 1
Type 2 80 1
Type 3 75 85 1
Type 4 64 64 72 1
Type 5 61 56.5 59.5 65 1
Type 6 68 62 72 71 70 1

6.2. Floristic comparison of Menagesha Suba State Forest with other similar Forests

in Ethiopia

Menagesha Suba State Forest was compared with other similar dry Afromontane Forests found

in different localities in Ethiopia. These include Gedo Forest in Shewa, which is located

between latitudes 90 02` and 9001` North and longitudes 370 25` and 37016` East, with an

altitudinal range of 1300-3060 m a.s.l. (Birhanu Kebede, 2010). The Menagesha Amba Mariam

Forest in Shewa is located 9001’-09003’N and 38’35’ -38036’ E, with altitudinal range of

between 2574-2948 m a.s.l. (Abiyou Tilahun, 2009). The Sanka Meda Forest in Arsi is located

between 80 22' 09’’ – 80 24’54”N latitude and 390 57’02”- 390 58’ 52”E longitude. Its altitude

ranges are approximately 1200 to 3574 m a.s.l. (Shambel Bantiwalu, 2010). Adaba Dodola

Forest in Bale and part of the Bale Mountains at altitudes between 2500-3500 m a.s.l. The Forest

lies between latitudes 6°50’ N and 7°10 N, and longitudes 39°05’ E and 39°16’ E (Kittessa

Hundera et al,. 2007). The Bale Mountains National Park and surrounding Forest is located

between latitudes 060 54.6’–070 43.5’N and longitudes 039033’19.5’’–039059.235’E. The

altitudinal range of this area lies between 2441-3600 m a.s.l.. (Haile Yineger, 2005).

3
Denkoro Forest in Wello, at altitudinal ranges of 1500 to 3500 m.a.s.l.. The Forest is located

between 100 35’ – 110 15’N and 380 30’ – 390 07’E, (Abate Ayalew, 2003). The Anabe Forest in

Wello is located at altitudinal range of 2100-2200 m a.s.l.. The Forest lies between 10.5-11.5 oN

latitude and 39.5-41oE longitude (Mesfin Taddesse, 1993).

Table 7. The floristic Comparison of Menagesha Suba State Forest with other similar Forest in

Ethiopia (where a, b,and c, are species unique to the Forest under comparison (a), Menagesha

(b), and common to both (c), Sc is similarity coefficient.

No. Forest a b c Sc % Sources

1 Southern Wello (Anabe) 76 69 44 38 Mesfin Tadesse, 1993
2 Menagesha Amba Mariam (Egdu) 16 59 54 59 Abiyou Tilahun, 2009
3 Gedo 56 39 74 61 Birhanu Kebede, 2010
4 Bale Mountains National Park 43 74 39 40 Haile Yineger, 2005
and surrounding areas (Central
and Northern Areas of the Park)
5 Denkoro Forest 20 69 44 50 Abate Ayalew, 2003
6 Sanka Meda Forest 26 47 46 58 Shambal Bantiwalu, 2010
8 Dodola Forest 21 55 38 50 Kittessa Hundera et.al. 2007

Direct comparison of species diversity with some other Forests is not feasible due to differences

in size of the Forests, survey methods and objectives of the study, so that only certain

phytogeographic comparison will be practically possible. As indicated above in Table 7

Menagesha Suba State Forest have higher similarity( ≥50% similarity coefficient) with four

Forests (Gedo 61%, Menagesha Amba Mariam (Egdu), 59%, and Sanka Meda Forest, 58%,

Denkoro Forest and Dodola Forest each with 50%), less similarity with Bale Mountains National

Park and surrounding areas, 40% and Southern Wello, 38%.

3
High similarity with Gedo Forest, Menagesha Amba Mariam (Egdu) and Sanka Meda Forests

was probably due to similarity in altitudinal and latitudinal, similarity in management of the

Forests and also other environmental factors. Especially, for Gedo and Menagesha Amba

Mariam Forests similarity with the present study may be due to proximity to the Forest and its

conservation status, in addition to other factors. On the other hand dissimilarity with Bale

Mountains National Park and Southern Wello were due to the difference in topographic

variation, and distance between the Forests will be barrier for transfer of species between the

Forests. And also the significant dissimilarity may be due to the differences in the purpose of

study rather than only the specific species composition.

6.3. Population Structure of Menagesha Forest

To analyze the population structure of the Forest few dominant species were selected. The

analysis result indicates that there are different patterns of population dynamics.

6.3.1. Frequency

The tree and shrubs were classified into five frequency classes on the basis of their frequency

values. The three species that frequently occur are Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp.

cuspidata and Dovyalis abyssinica (that occur in 73, 69 and 68 quadrats out of 75 quadrats

respectively) (Table 8). The species with more than 50% distribution were Jasminum

abyssinicum, Bersama abyssinica and Myrsine africana. The species with the least occurrence

include Clutia abyssinica, Discopodium penninervum and Rhamnus prinoides.

3
Table 8. The seven most frequently occurring woody species in the Forest.

Species Frequency Percentage Frequency Relative Frequency Priority

Juniperus procera 73 97 5.71 1

Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 69 92 5.41 1
Dovyalis abyssinica 68 91 5.35 1
Maytenus arbutifolia 63 84 4.94 2
Jasminum abyssinicum 60 80 4.71 2
Pittosporum viridiflorum 54 76 4.47 3
Dovyalis verrucosa 46 61 3.59 4

6.3.2. Height distribution

About 25 woody species having 2,875 individuals were selected to describe the structure of

Menagesha Suba State Forest plant communies. Eight height classes, class 1) 2.0-5.0 m,

2) 5.01-10.0 m, 3) 10.01-15.0 m, 4) 15.01-20.0 m, 5) 20.01-25.0 m, 6) 25.01-30.0 m, 7) 30.01-

35.0 m, 8) >35 m were conventionally established (Table 9).

Table 9. The count of individuals selected in height classes (m) in Menagesha Suba State Forest.

Height classes Class intervals Density %

1 2.0-5.0 m 902 31.37
2 5.01-10.0 m 1069 37.18
3 10.01-15.0 m 389 13.53
4 15.01-20.0 m 255 8.87
5 20.01-25.0 m 137 4.76
6 25.01-30.0 m 62 2.16
7 30.01-35.0 m 30 1.04
8 >35 m 31 1.10

As shown in table 9, the number of individuals in each successive height class were decreasing

beginning from the first lower height class to the highest height class. The majority of

3
individuals contributing to the first height class came from Dovyalis verrucosa, Juniperus

procera and Maytenus arbutifolia. The second and the third height class was contributed mostly

by Pittosporum viridiflorum and Scolopia theifolia and Sideroxylon oxyacanthum respectively.

Above the fourth classes, Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata and Podocarpus

falcatus are mainly with many individuals.

Thus, the height distribution patterns of Menagesha Suba State Forest was characterized by

fewer individuals at mature stage, than middle and young aged population, suggesting that the

Forest was dominated by low stature individuals. This agrees with the work of Abate Ayalew,

(2003), Abate Zewdie, (2007), Birhanu Kebede, (2010). Thus the general scheme of height class

distribution confirms with reversed J shaped pattern (Figure 4), showing almost stable size

distribution common in natural Forests. The pattern of height class distribution with respect to

number of individuals shows different patterns (Fig.5a-j), indicating different population

dynamics. Generally, three patterns of population structure were analyzed.

Height Classes

1500

1000
No. of

500

0
12345678
Classes

Figure 4. General height distribution patterns (structure) of Menagesha Suba State Forest

The first pattern indicates (Fig.5a, c, and h) a normal distribution of species with reversed J-

shape. Maximum values occurred in the first class and then reduced gradually up to the fourth

3
class. This pattern represents good reproduction status and regeneration potential. It includes

Juniperus procera and Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, and Dovyalis verrucosa are taken as

representative of this pattern. This agrees with the work of Birhanu Kebede, (2010).

The second with bell-shaped distribution pattern (Fig.5d, g, i, f, and j). That was formed by

species with highest density in the second-class, medium value in the first, third and fourth

classes, small values in classes five, six and seven and no value in the rest classes. This pattern

indicates better reproduction but a bad recruitment potential in the Forest. This was observed in

height class of Scolopia theifolia, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Sideroxylon oxyacanthum and

Allophylus abyssinicus.

The third pattern (Fig. 5 b and e) was with few or many individuals in lower height classes but

have no individuals in third, fourth, five or sixth classes, and with medium number of individuals

in the last two height classes. This kind of distribution is observed when there is selective cutting

in the middle classes. Thus, there is no reproduction and only few large and old individuals will

be left after a certain time. This pattern is frequent in few woody species that are under

uncontrolled exploitations. Species with such pattern could become endangered in the future,

because individuals are being harvested before reaching reproductive ages, and this could result

in the future decline of the species population because these reflect good reproduction but, bad

recruitment. The height class of Maytenus addat shows this type of pattern.

3
 (a) Juniperus procera (b) Podocarpus falcatus

200 40
150 30
100 20
No of

50 10

No of
0 0

12345678 12345678
Hieght Classes Hieght Classes

(c) Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata

(d) Maytenus arbutifolia
100
80 300
60 250
40
20 200
No of

0 150

No of
100
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
Hieght Classes 12345678
Height Classes

100(f) Sideroxylon oxyacanthum 80

80 (e) Maytenus addat
60
60
40
20 40
No of

0
20
No of

12345678
Height Classes
0
12345678
Height Classes

(h) Dovyalis verrucosa (g) Scolopia theifolia

180
160 150
140
120
100 100
80
No of

60
No of

50
40
20
0 0
12345678
12345678
Height Classes
Height Classes

3
 (i) Pittosporum viridiflorum
(j) Allophyllus abyssinicus
120
50 100
40 80
30 60
20 40

No of
No of

10 20
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12345 6 78 Height Classes

Height Classes

Figure 5. Distribution patterns of height of woody species of Menagesha Suba State Forest.

6.3.3. Vertical structure

Population structure refers to the distribution patterns of individuals of each species within

arbitrarily defined height classes. According to height classification scheme (Lamprecht, 1989)

there were three vertical hierarchies of trees in the Forest community, these were; 1) the upper

storey-tree with height >2/3 of the top upper height, 2) middle storey-tree with height between

1/3 and 2/3 of top upper height; and lower story tree height < 1/3 of top height).

The tallest trees observed was Juniperus procera and Podocarpus falcatus about 50 m and 60 m

tall, in quadrats 49 and 56 respectively. Only 61 individuals (2.12%) were recorded within the

last two highest height classes, consisting 2/3 of the total storey in the Forest, i.e., above 30.44

m. However, Allophylus abyssinicus, Ekebergia capensis, Ficus sur, Maytenus undata, Myrsine

melanophloeos, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Prunus africana,

Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa, Scolopia theifolia and Teclea nobilis with about 454 (15.79%)

individuals were constituted the middle storey (15.33-30.44 m tall which fall between 1/3 -2/3)

and lastly Bersama abyssinica, Brucea antidysenterica, Carissa spinarum, Clausena

anisata, Dovyalis abyssinica, Dovyalis verrucosa, Galiniera saxifraga, Ilex mitis, Maytenus

4
addat, Maytenus arbutifolia and Osyris quadripartita 2360 (82.1%) individuals constituted the

lower storey (below 15.33 m) i.e., less than 1/3 of the tallest tree. The total height of Menagesha

Suba State Forest is summarized into three layers (storey) as shown in Figure 6 (pie chart)

below. This agrees with the work of This agrees with the work of Abate Ayalew, (2003) and

Birhanu Kebede,(2010).

The storey of Menagesha Suba State Forest

Upper storey
2% Middle storey
16%

Lower storey
82 %

Figure 6. Pie chart representing three stories of Menagesha Suba Forest.

6.3.4. DBH distribution

Total number of trees in each DBH class decreased with and increasing tree diameter classes

(Fig. 7). A total of 2,316 individuals whose height >2 m and DBH >2.5 cm were recorded in

Menagesha Suba State Forest for DBH analysis. Seven DBH classes are established, class 1)

2.5-10 cm, 2) 10.01-20.0 cm, 3) 20.01-40.0 cm, 4) 40.01-60.0 cm, 5) 60.01-80.0 cm, 6) 80.01-

100.0 cm, 7) DBH> 100.01cm (Table 10). Few individuals of Juniperus procera, Maytenus

addat, Podocarpus falcatus, Ekebergia capensis, Ficus sur, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, and

Prunus africana were encountered in the higher DBH classes. The middle DBH classes were

also dominated by the above species and additionally few individuals of Pittosporum

4
viridiflorum, Maytenus arbutifolia, Scolopia theifolia, Allophylus abyssinicus, Maytenus

undata and Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa. High proportion of DBH density was contributed

by Maytenus arbutifolia, Scolopia theifolia, Juniperus procera, Podocarpus falcatus, Olea

europaea subsp. cuspidata and Pittosporum viridiflorum also at lower DBH classes. The density

of individuals in each DBH class abruptly decreased after the second DBH class on wards (Table

10).

Table 10. DBH class distribution of woody species in Menagesha Suba Forest.

DBH classes Class intervals Density %

1 2.5-10.0 cm 1589 68.61
2 10.01-20.0 cm 529 22.84
3 20.01-40.0 cm 110 4.75
4 40.01-60.0 cm 47 2.03
5 60.01-80.0 cm 33 1.42
6 80.01-100.0 cm 6 0.26
7 >100.01 cm 2 0.09

The majority of the populations, 1,589 (68.61%), were found in the first lower DBH class, while

the rest 529 (22.84%), 110 (4.75%), 47 (2.03%), 33 (1.42%), 6 (0.3%), and 2 (0.1%), were found

between DBH classes 2-7 respectively (Table 10). This was a normal DBH distribution pattern

when viewed from the whole set of plant community, confirming reversed J shape (Figure 7) but

there would be variation with respect to individuals species when it was analyzed separately

(Figure 8a-d).

4
 100.00 DBH Classes
50.00
No of

0.00
1234567
Classes

Figure 7. The general DBH distribution patterns (structure) of Menagesha Suba State Forest.

The evaluation of most dominant species releaved that there is normal DBH distribution patterns

in most species, the inverted J-shaped. It indicates a pattern where species frequency distribution

had the highest frequency in the lower DBH classes and gradually decreases towards the higher

diameter. E.g. Juniperus procera and Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata. This agrees with the

work of Abate Ayalew, (2003), Abate Zewdie, (2007), and Birhanu Kebede, (2010).

(a) Juniperus
200(c) Olea europaea procera
subsp. cuspidata 80 200 (b)
(d)Podocarpus falcatus
Maytenus addat
200
Number

60
100 40 100
Number of

100
of
Number of

20
Number of

0 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1234567
DBH Classes
DBH Classes
1234567 12 345
DBH Classes DBH Classes

Figure 8. The DBH class distribution of selected trees of Menagesha Suba Forest.

6 7

4
 6.3.5. Basal area

The total basal area of Menagesha Suba Forest was about 158.68 m2 ha-1. Juniperus procera has

the highest basal area (37.45 m2 ha-1) followed Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (20.9 m2 ha-1).

On the other hand the lowest (below 0.05 m2 ha-1) was recorded for most species like Carissa

spinarum, Dovyalis abyssinica, and D. verrucosa (Table 11). The basal area of dominant species

(species with higher IVI) was given in table 11. It is important to note here that species with the

highest basal area do not necessarily have the highest density, indicating size difference between

species (Tamirat Bekele, 1994; Dereje Denu, 2006). Thus, the species with the largest BA could

be considered the most important species in the Forest. With regard to BA, only the most

important species of the study Forest includes Juniperus procera, Maytenus arbutifolia,

Maytenus addat, Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Podocarpus falcatus, Scolopia theifolia and

Sideroxylon oxyacanthum.

Table 11. List of species with higher basal area (from highest to lowest) with respect to BA m 2
ha-1, %BA, and Relative Basal area.

Species BA/ha %BA Relative Basal area Priority

Juniperus procera 37.45 18.25 23.6 1
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 20.9 11.84 13.17 2
Podocarpus falcatus 12.36 4.96 7.79 3
Maytenus arbutifolia 12.15 9.31 7.96 3
Scolopia theifolia 11.85 9.26 7.5 3
Sideroxylon oxyacanthum 10.20 7.97 6.43 3
Pittosporum viridiflorum 9.71 7.54 6.12 4
Maytenus addat 7.36 3.4 4.68 4
Maytenus undata 4.75 3.71 3.0 5

4
 6.3.6. Important value Index (IVI)

Important Value index combines data from three parameters, which include Relative Frequency,

Relative Density and Relative Basal area (Kent and Coker, 1992). IVI is ecologically important

and a key structural parameter in vegetation study. It is the most realistic aspect in vegetation

study and used to compare the ecological significance of species (Lamprecht, 1989). Five IVI

classes were established for Menagesha Suba State Forest. Percentages of species in the IVI

classes were 3.62%, 26.67%, 28.01%, 18.59%, 6.21%, and 16.9% for classes 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1

respectively (Table 12 and Figure 9) with some representatives in the class (Table 13). The

highest IVI value (90.2%) was in classes 1, 3, 4, and 5 while the remaining (9.83%) in classes 2

and 6.

Table 12. IVI Classes, sum of species belonging to each class and their percentage value.

IVI classes and intervals No Species Sum of IVI Percentage (%)

6(<1) 16 11.40 3.62

5(1.1-5.0) 36 83.92 26.67

4(5.1-10.0) 12 88.13 28.01

3(10.1-15.0) 5 58.49 18.59

2(15.1-20.0) 1 19.54 6.21

1(>20) 2 53.12 16.9

The five most dominant tree species of Menagesha Suba Forest occupied 41.77% of total

important value index (Table 13). The dominant species were Juniperus procera, Olea europaea

subsp. cuspidata, Maytenus arbutifolia, M. addat, Podocarpus falcatus, Pittosporum

viridiflorum, Scolopia theifolia and Sideroxylon oxyacanthum. The result indicates that much of

4
IVI was attributed by few species. These species are those well adapted to the high pressure of

disturbance, natural and environmental factors, and the effect of local communities. Clutia

abyssinica, C. lanceolata and Euphorbia abyssinica are species among the lowest relative IVI

values and were found to be the least dominant species among the study area. Priority for

conservation of these species must be given based on their IVI values (i.e the first priority for

species with highest IVI value and the last priority of conservation for species with the least IVI

values) (Table 13). The result (Table 13) shows Juniperus procera, Olea europaea subsp.

cuspidata, and Maytenus arbutifolia are grouped in priority class one that require immediate

conservation and protection while species like Euphorbia abyssinica and Clutia abyssinica in

the last priority class and they need the last priority of conservation (Table 13). The rest species

are in the intermediate priority classes (3, 4, 5), indicating that they need intermediate

conservation programme.

IVI Proportion observed in class distribution

30
25
20
15
10
5
IVI

1 2 3 4 5 6
IVI Classes

Figure 9. The IVI proportion of most frequent and dominant trees and shrubs in the study area,

IVI class: 1=>20, 2=15.1-20.0, 3=10.1-15.0, 4=5.1-10.0, 5=1.1-5.0, 6=<1.

4
Table 13. The IVI of selected (five species from each class as representative) woody species in

Menagesha Suba Forest. The Priority group of species based on the IVI values priority 1=IVI

value>20, 2=15.1-20.0, 3=10.1-15.0, 4=5.1-10.0, 5=1.1-5.0, 6=<1.

Species Relative Relative Relative IVI %IVI Priority

Basal area Frequency Density

Clutia lanceolata 0.00 0.06 0.32 0.38 0.12 6

Euphorbia abyssinica 0.02 0.18 0.32 0.52 0.17 6
Clutia abyssinica 0.00 0.06 0.48 0.54 0.17 6
Galiniera saxifraga 0.38 0.65 0.46 1.48 0.47 5
Rhus glutinosa subsp. glutinosa 0.22 1.00 0.30 1.52 0.48 5
Ilex mitis 0.47 1.24 0.92 2.62 0.83 5
Nuxia congesta 1.1 1.47 1.15 3.69 1.18 5
Prunus africana 1.98 1.71 0.61 4.30 1.37 5
Ekebergia capensis 2.05 1.59 0.73 4.37 1.39 5
Landolphia buchananii 0.00 2.53 2.21 4.74 1.51 5
Bersama abyssinica 0.50 3.53 1.68 5.71 1.81 4
Maytenus undata 3.0 2.41 0.76 6.17 1.96 4
Olinia rochetiana 4.53 0.65 1.07 6.25 1.99 4
Rosa abyssinica 0.03 4.94 1.39 6.36 2.03 4
Ficus sur 2.18 0.41 4.29 6.89 2.18 4
Jasminum abyssinicum 0.03 4.71 2.29 7.02 2.24 4
Allophylus abyssinicus 3.62 2.59 0.93 7.15 2.27 4
Dovyalis abyssinica 0.01 5.35 1.92 7.28 2.32 4
Carissa spinarum 0.01 5.71 2.71 8.43 2.68 4
Myrsine melanophloeos 1.17 1.88 5.82 8.88 2.83 4
Myrsine africana 0.05 3.53 5.38 8.96 2.85 4
Dovyalis verrucosa 0.01 3.59 5.45 9.05 2.88 4
Podocarpus falcatus 7.79 2.18 0.95 10.91 3.47 3
Sideroxylon oxyacantbum 6.43 1.65 3.12 11.20 3.57 3
Maytenus addat 4.64 5.71 0.96 11.31 3.60 3
Pittosporum viridiflorum 6.12 4.47 1.37 11.96 3.81 3
Scolopia theifolia 7.47 2.06 3.59 13.12 4.18 3
Maytenus arbutifolia 12.15 4.94 3.24 20.33 6.05 2
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata 13.2 5.41 0.96 19.54 6.22 2
Juniperus procera 23.60 5.71 1.68 30.98 9.87 1

4
 7. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The Menagesha Suba State Forest is one of the oldest protected and conserved areas in Ethiopia.

In this Forest, 112 woody plant species were recorded or compiled from present and previous

studies (Appendix 1). From this, only 93 species were collected during the present study. There

are nine endemic species collected from the area. The Forest shows relatively high floristic

similarity with other related Forests in Ethiopia.

Analysis of species population structure pointed out the variability of population dynamics in the

Forest. It confirmed at least the existence of two major types of woody species, species able to

regenerate in the Forest and others with difficulties to reproduce and regenerate in the Forest, due

to different factors like selective cutting and disturbances.

The vegetation of the Menagesha Suba State Forest is disturbed through grazing and browsing by

domestic livestock and other human uses, these further affects the quality of regeneration

processes of the trees and shrubs. Recognizing these issues as possible future scenario underlies

the need for management intervention to increase quality of regeneration being recruited and to

accelerate the growth of the young plants already present.

The Forestry Department or the Agency should make the policy that increase the awareness of

the society and plan to use community based approach or participatory approach.

The demarcation of the forest is yet not complete, so it needs to be complete for further planning

and to adjust the buffer zone for the natural forest, plantation area and the interaction sites.

Overall, there is a need to use the modern joint forest management method that improves the

protection, conservation status of the forest and sustainable utilization of the resources.

4
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5
9. APPENDICES

Appedinix 1. List of species in Menagesha Suba State Forest:

No Scientific Name Family Habit Remar Col.

k No
1 Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. Fabaceae T ODB -
2 Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Fabaceae T DB DB001
3 Acacia melanoxylon R. Br. Fabaceae T ODB -
4 Agarista salicifolia (Comm. ex Lam.) Don Ericaceae T DB DB002
5 Albizia lophantha (Willd.) Benth. Fabaceae T DB DB003
6 Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlkofer Sapindaceae T DB DB004
7 Apodytes dimidiata E. Mey. ex Am. Icacinaceae T AB -
8 Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae S DB DB005
9 Barleria ventricosa Hochst. ex Nees Acanthaceae L SD -
10 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Melianthaceae T DB DB006
11 Blyttia fruticulosum (Decne.) D. V. Field Asclepiadaceae S DB DB007
12 Brucea antidysenterica J.F. Mill. Simaroubaceae T/S DB DB008
13 Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae T/S DB DB009
14 Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae L DB DB010
15 Cassipourea malosana (Baker) Alston Rhizophoracea T DB DB011
16 Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gilg & Schellenb.) Oleaceae S AB DB012
Stearn
17 Clausena anisata (Willd.) Benth. Rutaceae S DB DB013
18 Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach. Euphorbiaceae S DB DB014
19 Clutia lanceolata Forssk. Euphorbiaceae S DB DB015
20 Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae T ODB -
21 Crotalaria emarginella Vatke Fabaceae S DB DB016
22 Crotalaria lachnophora Hochst. ex A. Rich. Fabaceae S DB DB017
23 Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae T DB DB018
24 Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Cupressuceae T DB DB019
25 Cupressus phiyramidalis Mill. Cupressuceae T ODB -
26 Delonix elata (L.) Gamble Fabaceae T ODB -
27 Discopodium penninervium Hochst. Solanaceae S DB DB020
28 Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. Flacourtiaceae S DB DB021
29 Dovyalis caffra (Hook. f. & Harv.) Hook. f. Flacourtiaceae S ODB DB022
30 Dovyalis verrucosa (Hochst.) Warb. Flacourtiaceae S DB DB023
31 Dracaena steudneri Engler Dracaenaceae T ODB -
32 Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. Meliaceae T DB DB024
33 Embelia schimperi Vatke Myrsinaceae L DB DB025
34 Erica arborea L. Ericaceae T DB DB026
35 Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Fabaceae T(E) ODB -
36 Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Myrtaceae T ODB -
37 Euphorbia abyssinica Gmel. Euphorbiaceae T DB DB027
38 Euphorbia ampliphylla Pax Euphorbiaceae T AB -

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39 Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae T DB DB028
40 Flacourtia indica (Burm.f) Merr. Flacourtiaceae T AB -
41 Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst.) Bridson Rubiaceae T DB DB029
42 Gnidia glauca (Fresen.) Gilg Thymelaceae T/S SD -
43 Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F. Gmel. Rosaceae T ODB DB030
44 Halleria lucida L. Scrophulariaceae S DB DB031
45 Helichrysum argyranthum O. Hoffm. Asteraceae S DB DB032
46 Helichrysum foetidum (L.) Moench. Asteraceae S AB -
47 Helichrysum forsskahlii (J.F. Gmel.) Hilliard & Asteraceae S AB -
Burtt
48 Helichrysum meyeri-johannis Engl. Asteraceae S AB -
49 Heteromorpha arborescens (Spreng.) Cham. & Apiaceae S DB DB033
Schltdl. var. abyssinica (A. Rich.) H. Wolff
50 Hibiscus ludwigii Eckl. & Zeyh. Malvaceae S AB -
51 Hypericum quartinianum A. Rich. Hypericaceae S ODB -
52 Hypericum revolutum Vahl Hypericaceae S DB DB034
53 Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. Aquifoliaceae T DB DB035
54 Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. Oleaceae L DB DB036
55 Jasminum grandiflorum L. subsp. floribundum Oleaceae L DB DB037
(R.Br. ex Fresen.) P.S.Green
56 Jasminum stans Pax Oleaceae S (E) DB DB038
57 Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. Cuppressaceae T DB DB039
58 Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Anders. Acanthaceae S ODB DB040
59 Landolphia buchananii (Hall.f.) Stapf Apocynaceae L DB DB041
60 Lantana trifolia L. Verbenaceae S AB -
61 Lippia odoennisis Hochst. ex Walp. Var. odoensiis Verbenaceae S (E) DB DB042
62 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Myrsinaceae T/S DB DB043
63 Maytenus addat (Loes.) Sebsebe Celasteraceae T(E) DB DB044
64 Maytenus arbutifolia (A. Rich.) Wilczek Celasteraceae T DB DB045
65 Maytenus obscura (A.Rich.) Cuf. Celasteraceae T AB -
66 Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock Celasteraceae T DB DB046
67 Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Fabaceae T(E) ODB -
68 Myrica salicifolia A. Rich. Myricaceae T ODB DB047
69 Myrsine africana L. Myrsinaceae S DB DB048
70 Myrsine melanophloeos (L.) R. Br. Myrsinaceae T DB DB049
71 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae S ODB DB050
72 Nuxia congesta R. Br. ex Fresen. Loganiaceae T DB DB051
73 Olea europaea L. subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G. Oleaceae T DB DB052
Don.) Cif.
74 Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Oliniaceae T DB DB053
75 Osyris quadripartita Decn. Santalaceae S DB DB054
76 Otostegia tomentosa A.Rich subsp. ambigens Lamiaceae S SD DB055
(Chiov.) sebald
77 Pentas lanceolata (Forssk.) Defl. Rubiaceae S DB DB056
78 Pentas schimperiana (A. Rich.) Vatke subsp. Rubiaceae S DB DB057

5
 Schimperiana
79 Periploca linearifolia Quart. Dill & A. Rich. Asclepiadaceae L DB DB058
80 Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Palmae T ODB DB059
81 Phytolacca dodecandra L'Herit Phytolaccaceae L DB DB060
82 Pinus radiata D. Don. Pinaceae T DB DB061
83 Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims Pittosporaceae T DB DB062
84 Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb) Mirb. Podocarpaceae T DB DB063
85 Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkm. Rosaceae T DB DB064
86 Pterocephalus frutescens Hochst. ex A. Rich subsp. Dispacaceae S SD -
frutescens
87 Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan Fabaceae S DB -
88 Rhamnus prinoides L’ Herit Rhamnaceae S DB DB065
89 Rhamnus staddo A. Rich. Rhamnaceae S DB DB066
90 Rhus glutinosa A.Rich.subsp. glutinosa Anacardiaceae T(E) DB DB067
91 Rhus ruspolii Engl. Anacardiaceae T AB -
92 Rhus vulgaris Meikle Anacardiaceae S AB -
93 Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rosaceae L DB DB068
94 Rubus apetalus Poir. Rosaceae L ODB DB069
95 Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Rosaceae L DB DB070
96 Rumex nervosus Vahl Polyganaceae S DB DB071
97 Rytigynia neglecta (Hiern) Robyns var. vatkeana Rubiaceae S(E) DB DB072
(Hiern) Verdc
98 Satureja imbricata (Forssk.) Briq. Lamiaceae S SD -
99 Satureja punctata (Benth.) Briq. Lamiaceae S DB DB073
100 Schefflera abyssinica (Hochst). ex A.Rich.) Harms Araliaceae T SD -
101 Schinus molle L. Anacardiacea T ODB -
102 Scolopia theifolia Gilg Flacourtiaceae T DB DB074
103 Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) Irwin & Barneby Fabaceae S ODB DB075
104 Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A. Rich. Malvaceae S DB DB076
105 Sida tenuicarpa Vollesen Malvaceae S AB -
106 Sideroxylon oxyacanthum Baill. Sapotaceae S DB DB077
107 Teclea nobilis Del. Rutaceae T/S DB DB078
108 Urera hypselodendron (A. Rich.) Wedd. Urticaceae L DB DB079
109 Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteracea S ODB DB080
110 Vernonia bipontini Vatke Asteraceae S ODB DB081
111 Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. Bip. ex Walp. Asteraceae S DB DB082
112 Vernonia leopoldi (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) Vatke Asteraceae S(E) DB DB083

T= trees; S = shrubs; T/S = tree or shrub; L= Liana; E = Endemic species, where as OBD = out of

quadrat within this study; DB = collected and identified in the quadrat in this study; AB = collected by

Abate Zewdie (2006), SD= collected by Sebsebe Demissew, (1980) or/and Sebsebe Demissew, (1988).

5
Appendix 2. Family, Genera and Species distribution of woody plants in Menagesha Suba State

Forest.

No Family Name Number of Genera Number of species % total

1 Fabaceae 9 12 10.62
2 Asteraceae 2 8 7.08
3 Euphorbiaceae 3 5 4.42
4 Flacourtiaceae 3 5 4.42
5 Oleaceae 3 5 4.42
6 Rosaceae 4 5 4.42
7 Anacardiaceae 2 4 3.54
8 Celasteraceae 1 4 3.54
9 Myrsinaceae 3 4 3.54
10 Rubiaceae 3 4 3.54
11 Apocynaceae 3 3 2.65
12 Cuppressaceae 2 3 2.65
13 Malvaceae 2 3 2.65
14 Lamiaceae 2 3 2.65
15 Acanthaceae 2 2 1.77
16 Asclepiadaceae 2 2 1.77
17 Ericaceae 2 2 1.77
18 Hypericaceae 1 2 1.77
19 Rhamnaceae 1 2 1.77
20 Rutaceae 2 2 1.77
21 Verbenaceae 2 2 1.77
23 30 families each with 1 1 0.88
Total 51 Families 84 112 100

5
 Appendix 3. Diversity of woody species in study area

Quad- Richness Evenness Shannon Quadr Richness Evenness Shannon

rat (S) (E) (H) at (S) (E) (H)
1 15 0.912 2.470 40 12 0.929 2.309
2 15 0.905 2.450 41 10 0.889 2.048
3 19 0.948 2.792 42 7 0.850 1.654
4 17 0.958 2.715 43 11 0.904 2.167
5 12 0.864 2.147 44 14 0.904 2.385
6 16 0.960 2.663 45 13 0.937 2.403
7 13 0.914 2.343 46 16 0.903 2.505
8 20 0.902 2.704 47 24 0.932 2.963
9 15 0.906 2.453 48 25 0.908 2.924
10 16 0.929 2.576 49 20 0.923 2.764
11 15 0.990 2.680 50 16 0.906 2.512
12 15 0.944 2.557 51 17 0.888 2.515
13 9 0.948 2.083 52 12 0.940 2.336
14 14 0.965 2.546 53 14 0.904 2.385
15 12 0.905 2.248 54 16 0.941 2.608
16 15 0.906 2.453 55 14 0.933 2.463
17 12 0.910 2.261 56 13 0.936 2.400
18 17 0.927 2.626 57 16 0.927 2.569
19 12 0.946 2.350 58 17 0.930 2.635
20 18 0.916 2.647 59 24 0.946 3.005
21 16 0.934 2.589 60 18 0.915 2.644
22 14 0.950 2.508 61 16 0.900 2.496
23 14 0.948 2.502 62 23 0.903 2.832
24 13 0.957 2.455 63 12 0.904 2.248
25 17 0.929 2.632 64 19 0.910 2.680
26 21 0.929 2.829 65 16 0.866 2.401
27 23 0.934 2.927 66 19 0.927 2.730
28 19 0.918 2.704 67 20 0.923 2.765
29 21 0.935 2.848 68 11 0.925 2.218
30 19 0.949 2.794 69 25 0.906 2.915
31 20 0.952 2.852 70 18 0.928 2.683
32 19 0.914 2.692 71 18 0.951 2.750
33 19 0.923 2.719 72 20 0.932 2.791
34 20 0.917 2.747 73 16 0.893 2.477
35 23 0.907 2.844 74 22 0.929 2.873
36 17 0.882 2.499 75 20 0.923 2.764
37 20 0.921 2.760 Mean 17 0.922 2.57
38 16 0.909 2.520
39 14 0.907 2.393

5
 Appendix 4. Altitude, latitude, longitude, aspect, location of quadrats and of transects.

Transect Quadr Aspect Latitude (E) Longitude Altitude Transect Qu Aspect Latitude Longitud Altitude
ats (AS) (N) (m) adr (AS) (E) e (N) (m)
at
1 W 320 17.2’ 570 56.7’ 2450 38 W 310 58.9’ 57055.2’ 2467
2 W 320 19.9’ 570 57.4’ 2477 39 W 320 01.7’ 570 59.2’ 2469
3 N 320 22.3’ 570 59.9’ 2415 40 W 320 03’ 580 01.5’ 2396
4 N 320 25.8’ 580 00.6’ 2413 41 W 320 05.6’ 580 02.9’ 2404
5 W 320 29.35’ 570 80.25’ 2437 42 W 320 09.2’ 580 02.9’ 2414
6 NW 320 32.9’ 570 59.9’ 2461 43 W 320 12.8’ 580 03.3’ 2424
7 NW 320 36.4’ 580 00.6’ 2484 44 SE 320 19.1’ 580 04’ 2410
8 E 320 39’ 580 02.2’ 2504 45 SE 320 18.8’ 580 04.4’ 2422
9 E 320 45.3’ 580 02.1’ 2512 46 SE 320 25.4’ 580 01.7’ 2424
10 E 320 45.6’ 580 02.4’ 2548 47 SE 320 25.6’ 580 01.8’ 2434
11 SE 320 45.3’ 580 02.2’ 2546 48 SE 320 28.2’ 580 02.8’ 2404

W
O
T
12 SE 320 49.3’ 580 02.3’ 2570 49 SE 320 35.8’ 580 05.2’ 2469
13 S 320 51.3’ 580 01.4’ 2588 50 SE 320 39.4’ 580 05.5’ 2464
14 S 320 56.2’ 580 02.8’ 2598 51 SE 320 45’ 58006.1’ 2457
15 S 330 00.3’ 580 03.6’ 2612 52 E 320 43.6’ 580 07’ 2472
16 S 330 06.6’ 580 50.7’ 2624 53 E 320 49.5’ 580 08.8’ 2485
17 S 330 04.8’ 580 07.9’ 2631 54 SE 320 53.2’ 580 09.5’ 2528
18 S 330 12.6’ 580 09.1’ 2628 55 SE 320 54.9’ 580 11.6’ 2555
19 S 330 15’ 580 07.6’ 2660 56 S 320 59.4’ 580 11.7’ 2564
20 S 330 17.4’ 580 07.4’ 2674 57 S 330 02.2’ 580 14.4’ 2572
21 S 330 19.7’ 580 07.1’ 2655 58 W 330 06’ 580 16’ 2584
22 S 330 24.1’ 580 05.6’ 2723 59 W 330 08.6’ 580 17.1’ 2660
O
N
E

23 S 330 27.6’ 580 05.5’ 2699 60 W 330 18.6’ 580 17.5’ 2663
24 S 330 31.2’ 580 02.8’ 2701 61 W 330 16.5’ 580 17.4’ 2674
25 S 330 35.1’ 580 00.2’ 2770 62 W 330 19.8’ 580 17.5’ 2637
26 S 330 37’ 580 00.2’ 2810 63 W 330 21.1’ 580 18.4’ 2666
27 S 330 41’ 580 00.4’ 2842 64 W 320 53.7’ 570 53.5’ 2514
28 S 330 47’ 580 00.2’ 2863 65 W 320 54’ 570 52.2’ 2564
29 S 330 50.7’ 580 00’ 2860 66 W 32057.2’ 570 51.9’ 2574
30 S 330 54.5’ 570 59.4’ 2855 67 W 320 59.6’ 570 50.7’ 2596
31 S 330 58.1’ 570 59.8’ 2873 68 E 330 04’ 570 55.4’ 2581
32 S 340 01’ 570 57.8’ 2875 69 E 330 07.9’ 570 54.6’ 2553
THRE
E

33 S 340 04.6’ 570 59.7’ 2877 70 E 330 11.9’ 570 53.8’ 2672
34 S 340 06.3’ 580 01.9’ 2890 71 E 330 15.8’ 570 55.8’ 2650
35 S 340 10.9’ 580 01.9’ 2896 72 E 330 19.2’ 570 55.2’ 2667
36 S 340 11.7’ 580 04.3’ 2910 73 E 330 23.5’ 570 55.2’ 2763

37 S 340 18.5’ 580 00.1’ 2951 74 E 330 26.3’ 570 54.2’ 2712

75 E 330 28.1’ 570 54.6’ 2716

6
 Declaration

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work and all that sources of

materials used for the thesis have been fully acknowledged. I also confirm that this work

has not been submitted anywhere else for the same purpose.

Name Dinkissa Beche Benti

Signature

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as University advisor.

Prof. Sebsebe Demissew

Signature

Date

Place and date of submission

Addis Ababa University

July, 2011

61

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