By

Prof. C. Radhakrishna
Contents
General
Development of Electric Power Grid
Backouts and the Reliability Crisis
Environmental Crisis – The Shift to Low-Sulfour Oil
Electric Power System
Customers
Delivery System
Interconnections
Grid
Basic Electric Power Concepts
Synchronism
Power in alternating Current Circuits
Power Flow
Stability
Technology of the Electric transmission System
Components

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Contents……

HVAC
Overhead
Substations
Transmission System Aging
HVDC
Knowledge Required to Transmission System
Functioning of the Electric Bulk Power System
Coordination
Operation
Control Areas
Ancillary Services
Emergencies
Power Transfer Limits
Reduction of Power Transfer-Congestion Manaement

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General
• To diversify these risks companies began to
jointly own power plants and transmission lines so
that each company would have a smaller share,
and thus a smaller risk, in any one project.

Development of Electric Power Grid

• The development of huge synchronous areas,
in each of which all generation is connected
directly and indirectly by a network transmission
lines (the grid), presents some unique problems
because of the special nature of electric power
systems.

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Blackouts and the Reliability Crisis
• The industry recognized the need to govern
itself and formed NERC and EPRI. Formal regional
reliability criteria were developed

Environmental Crisis – The Shift to Low-Sulfur

Oil
• Starting shortly after the reliability crisis, and
overlapping it considerably, was the
environmental crisis. New environmental
legislation was passed. These laws made the
siting of new power plants very difficult.

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Electric Power System
 Customers, who require the electric energy
and the devices in which they use the electric
energy—appliances, lights, motors, computers,
industrial processes, and so on;
 Sources of the electric energy—electric power
plants/electric generation of various types and
sizes;
 Delivery system, by which the electric energy
is moved from the generators to the customers.
 Taken together, all of the parts that are
electrically connected or inter-tied operate in an
electric balance, the generators operate in
synchronism with one another.

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Customers

Customer groups (or classes) are:

 Residential;
 Commercial;
 Industrial;
 Governmental;
 Traction/railroad.

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Delivery Sysem
1. Transmission;
2. Sub-transmission;
3. Primary distribution;
4. Secondary distribution.

 The transmission systems in the various

parts of the country have different characteristics
because of differences in the locations of
generating units and stations in relation to the
load centers, differences in the sizes and types of
generating units, differences in geography and
environmental conditions, and differences in the
time that the transmission systems were built.

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Interconnections
As individual companies built their own
transmission, it became apparent that there
were many reasons to built transmission lines
or interties between adjacent systems.

GRID

 Arrangement of transmission lines tied

together at various substations provides a degree
of redundancy in the delivery paths for the electric
energy.
 “the grid”, the “bulk power system” and “the
interconnection” to describe the delivery system.

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Basic Electric Power Concepts
Electric power system is governed and described
by the laws of physics, which are unchanging,
whereas the commercial operations are
subject to man-made rules which are subject
to modification and change.
Synchronism

 Generators are connected to the same

electric grid, they are said to be in synchronism
because they operate at the same frequency and
the angular differences between the voltage
angles of each generator are stable and less than
90 degrees.

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Power in Alternating Current Circuits
Apparent power = Real or True power (associated with a
resistance) + Reactive power (associated with
an inductance or capacitance) .
Sources of reactive power which raise voltage:
 Generators;
 Capacitors;
 Lightly loaded transmission lines due to the capacitive charging
effect.

Sinks of reactive power which lower voltage:

 Inductors;
 Transformers;
 Most heavily loaded transmission lines due to the I2 *XL effect;
 Most customer load (due to the presence of induction motors and
the supply to other electric fields).

A synchronous generator can be made to be either a source of reactive

power or a sink by using the generator excitation system to vary the level
of its dc field voltage.

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Power Flow

Stability
 Steady-state instability
 Transient instability
 Dynamic instability
Technology of the Electric Transmission
System
 Transmission is the means by which large
amounts of power are moved from generating
stations, where this power is produced, to sub-
stations from which distribution facilities
transport the power to customers. Transmission
lines are also used to provide connections to
neighboring systems.
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Components
The transmission system consists of three-phase
transmission lines and their terminals—called
substations or switching stations. Transmission
lines can be either overhead, underground (cable)
or submarine. There are high-voltage alternating
current (HVAC) lines and high-voltage direct
current lines (HVDC).
HVAC
Overhead
• Conductors;
• Ground or shield wires;
• Insulators;
• Support Structures; and
• Land or right-of-way (R-O-W).
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Substations
Transmission System Aging
HVDC
Knowledge Required of Transmission System
1. How systems are planned and operated;
2. Effect of generation on transmission and vise versa;
3. Causes of circulating power, parallel path flow, and loop
flow;
4. Differences between individual circuit capacities and
transmission capacities;
5. Synchronous ac connection advantages and
disadvantages;
6. Reactive power and its role;
7. Causes and consequences of blackouts;
8. Need for new technology;
9. Disincentives to building new transmission;
10. Need for special training and education.
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Functioning of the Electric Bulk Power System
• Both the operation and the planning of the system.
Coordination
Operation

Control Areas
 The overriding objectives of those individuals
responsible for the performance of the electric system is to
ensure that at every moment of time there is sufficient
generation to reliably supply the customer requirements and
all associated delivery system losses. The process is
complicated by the fact that the customer load changes
continuously and, therefore, the generation must adjust
immediately, either up or down, to accommodate the load
change.
 Each control area is responsible for maintaining its own
load/generation balance including its scheduled interchange,
either purchases or sales.
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Ancillary Services
Emergencies
At present, two basic philosophies exist concerning potential
emergencies.
 Preventative Philosophy.
 Corrective Philosophy.
Eventually both the capacity and reliability of transmission
networks will have to be improved simultaneously through
development of a highly automated, “smart” power system. The
grid will need technological advances in four major areas:
1) Improved physical control to expedite grid operations by
switching power more quickly and preventing the
propagation of disturbances;
2) Monitoring systems that can improve reliability by surveying
network conditions over a wide area;
3) Analytical capability to interpret the data provided by the
wide area monitoring system for use in network control; and
4) A hierarchical control scheme that will integrate all the
above technologies and facilitate flexible network
operations on a continental scale. 10/17/2010 12:03 AM 16
Emergencies cont…
Electric systems are now adding these technologies to their
transmission systems, creating smart networks. The
possible future of these “smart” control schemes will have to
be carefully analyzed to recognize and evaluate such a
potential future.

Power Transfer Limits

The levels of power transfers that take place are within the
capability of the bulk power transmission system reflecting
that area’s operating criteria.

Reduction of Power Transfers—

Congestion Management

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Planning
The process integrated load forecasting, generation
planning.
In most cases the forecast projected a growth in peak
loads.
The planning objectives are:
 Generation—to have enough generation capacity to
meet the projected peak load plus a reserve margin;
 Transmission—to connect generators to the grid, to
have enough transmission capability to reliably deliver
generation and firm purchases to existing and new load
centers, to accommodate the sharing of reserves with
nearby areas, and to allow economically driven power
exchanges both intra-area and inter-area;
 To provide these services over an extended period
of time at minimum cost.
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Planning Standards
NERC’s Planning Standards define the reliability
aspect of the interconnected bulk electric systems in
two dimensions:
 Adequacy—the ability of the electric systems to
supply the aggregate electrical demand and energy
requirements of their customers at all times, taking
into account scheduled and reasonably expected
unscheduled outages of system elements;
 Security—the ability of the electric systems to
withstand sudden disturbances such as electric
short circuits or unanticipated loss of system
elements.

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Transmission Planning
NERC specifies transmission systems planning
standards that cover the types of contingencies that
must be examined for conditions for all facilities in
service and with facilities out-of-service.

NERC also covers in its Planning Standards:

 Reliability assessment;
 Facility connection requirements;
 Voltage support and reactive power;
 Transfer capability;
 Disturbance monitoring.

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System Studies

o Load-Flow Studies.

o Stability Studies.

o Short-Circuit Duty Studies.

o Reactive Power Compensation.

REFERENCES :
[ 1 ] Jack Casazza & Frank Delea : “Understanding Electric Power
Systems : An Overview of the Technology and the Marketplace” IEEE
Press, Wiley-Interscience, 2003.

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CONCLUSIONS

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THANK YOU
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