University Physics with Modern Physics

Fifteenth Edition, Global Edition, in SI Units

Chapter 2
Motion Along a
Straight Line

Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved

Learning Outcomes
In this chapter, you’ll learn…
• how the ideas of displacement and average velocity help us
describe straight-line motion.
• The meaning of instantaneous velocity; the difference between
velocity and speed.
• How to use average acceleration and instantaneous
acceleration to describe changes in velocity.
• How to solve problems in which an object is falling freely under
the influence of gravity alone.
• How to analyze straight-line motion when the acceleration is not
constant.
Introduction
• Kinematics is the study of motion.
• Velocity and acceleration are important physical quantities.
• A typical runner gains speed gradually during the course of a
sprinting race and then slows down after crossing the finish line.
Terminology
Displacement, Time and Average Velocity

• A particle moving along the 𝑥-axis has a coordinate 𝑥.

• The change in the particle’s coordinate is: Δ𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 .
Δ𝑥
• The average 𝑥-velocity of the particle is: 𝑣av−𝑥 = .
Δ𝑡
The average speed is not the magnitude of the average
velocity. Why?
Rules for the Sign of 𝑥-Velocity

If 𝒙-coordinate is: . . . velocity is:

Positive and increasing (getting Positive: particle is moving in

more positive) +direction

Positive and decreasing (getting Negative: particle is moving in

less positive) −direction

Negative and increasing Positive: particle is moving in

(getting less negative) +direction

Negative and decreasing Negative: particle is moving in

(getting more negative) −direction

Understand these so that they become “common sense”.

A Position-Time Graph

Δ𝑥
slope =
Δ𝑡

Take your time and understand every part

of this graph.
Instantaneous Velocity

• The instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a specific

instant of time or specific point along the path and is given
by 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = .
𝑑𝑡
Example 2.1

A cheetah is crouched 20.0 m to the east of a vehicle. At time

𝑡 = 0 the cheetah begins to run due east towards an antelope
that is 50.0 m to the east of the vehicle. During the first 2.00 s
of the chase the cheetah’s 𝑥-coordinate varies with time
according to the equation 𝑥 = 20.0 m + 5.00 m/s 2 𝑡 2 .
A cheetah is crouched 20.0 m to the east of a vehicle. At time
𝑡 = 0 the cheetah begins to run due east towards an antelope
that is 50.0 m to the east of the vehicle. During the first 2.00 s
of the chase the cheetah’s 𝑥-coordinate varies with time
according to the equation 𝑥 = 20.0 m + 5.00 m/s 2 𝑡 2 .

a) Find the cheetah’s displacement between 𝑡1 = 1.00 s and

𝑡2 = 2.00 s.

b) Find its average velocity during that interval.

 A cheetah is crouched 20.0 m to the east of a vehicle. At time
𝑡 = 0 the cheetah begins to run due east towards an antelope
that is 50.0 m to the east of the vehicle. During the first 2.00 s
of the chase the cheetah’s 𝑥-coordinate varies with time
according to the equation 𝑥 = 20.0 m + 5.00 m/s 2 𝑡 2 .

c) Find its instantaneous velocity at 𝑡1 = 1.00 s by taking

Δt = 0.1 s, then 0.01 s and then 0.001 s.

d) Derive an expression for the cheetah’s instantaneous

velocity as a function of time, and use it to find 𝑣𝑥 at 𝑡 =
1.0 s and 𝑡 = 2.0 s.

Note that sometimes questions have information that is not used!

Finding Velocity on an 𝑥 − 𝑡 Graph
 Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 = lim = .
Δ𝑡→0 Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑥
The slope at any point on the graph is .
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 − 𝑡 Graphs 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
Motion Diagrams
• Here is a motion diagram of the particle in the previous
𝑥 − 𝑡 graph.
Average Acceleration

• Acceleration describes the rate of change of velocity with

time.
Δ𝑣𝑥
• The average 𝑥-acceleration is 𝑎av−𝑥 = .
Δ𝑡

Do yourself: Video Tutor Solution: Example 2.2

Instantaneous Acceleration

𝑑𝑣𝑥
• The instantaneous acceleration is 𝑎𝑥 = .
𝑑𝑡
Rules for the Sign of Acceleration
If velocity is: . . . acceleration is:

Positive and increasing Positive: particle is moving in

(getting more positive) +direction and speeding up

Positive and decreasing Negative: particle is moving in

(getting less positive) +direction and slowing down

Negative and increasing Positive: particle is moving in

(getting less negative) −direction and slowing down

Negative and decreasing Negative: particle is moving in

(getting more negative) −direction and speeding up

Understand these so that they become “common sense”.

Example 2.3

Suppose the velocity of a car at any time 𝑡 is given by the

equation:
𝑣𝑥 = 60 m/s + (0.50 m/s 3 )𝑡 2 .

(a) Find the change in the velocity of the car in the time
interval 𝑡1 = 1.0 s to 𝑡2 = 3.0 s.
(b) Find the average acceleration in this time interval.
(c) Find the instantaneous acceleration at 𝑡1 = 1.0 s by
taking Δt to be first 0.1 s, then 0.01 s and then 0.001 s.
(d) Derive an expression for the instaneous acceleration as a
function of time and use it to find 𝑎𝑥 at 𝑡 = 1.0 s.
Finding Acceleration on a 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑡 Graph
Average acceleration equals the slope of a line connecting the
initial and final points.
Δ𝑣𝑥
𝑎av−𝑥 =
Δ𝑡

Δ𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥

Slope of tangent to curve =

instantaneous acceleration
at that point.
Δ𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1

𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
 𝑑𝑣𝑥
A 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑡 Graph 𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
= the slope
Motion Diagrams
Motion with Constant Acceleration
 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑎𝑥 =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1

We make our lives easier:

let 𝑡1 = 0 and 𝑡2 = 𝑡.

then 𝑣1𝑥 → 𝑣0𝑥 and 𝑣2𝑥 → 𝑣𝑥 .

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡

1st equation of motion and your 1st derivation!

 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥
𝑎𝑥 =
𝑡
A Position-Time Graph
2nd equation of motion
1
We start with: 𝑣av−𝑥 = (𝑣𝑜𝑥 + 𝑣𝑥 )
2
Be sure
that you
then substitute in: 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 . remember
the
notation.
𝑥 − 𝑥0
But we also know 𝑣av−𝑥 =
𝑡

1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
3rd equation of motion
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 .

We rearrange the first equation of motion:

𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥
𝑡=
𝑎𝑥
and substitute into the second equation of motion:
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2

2
𝑣𝑥2 − 𝑣0𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
Example 2.5
A motorist travelling at a constant 15 m/s (54 km/h) passes a
a school crossing where the speed limit is 10 m/s (36 km/h).
Just as the motorist passes the school crossing sign, a
police officer on a motorcycle stopped there starts in pursuit
with constant acceleration 3.0 m/s2.

(a) How much time elapses before the officer catches the
motorist?
(b) What is the officer’s speed at that point?
(c) How far have the two vehicles travelled?
Motorist: constant slope so
constant velocity.

Officer, increasing slope so

increasing velocity.
Freely Falling Objects
• Free fall is the motion of an
object under the influence of
only gravity.
• In the figure, a strobe light
flashes with equal time
intervals between flashes.

The velocity change is the

same in each time interval, so
the acceleration is constant.
A Freely Falling Coin
• If there is no air resistance, the downward acceleration of
any freely falling object is 9.8 m/s2.

Do yourself: Video Tutor Solution: Example 2.6

 Example 2.7

You throw a ball

vertically upward from
the roof of a tall
building. The ball
leaves your hand at a
point even with the roof
railing with an upward
speed of 15.0 m/s.
The ball is then in free
fall. (We ignore
air resistance.)
On its way back down,
it just misses the
railing.
Video Tutor Solution: Example 2.7
 N.B.

Upward speed of 15.0 m/s.

(a) Find the ball’s position and velocity 1.00 s and 4.00 s after
leaving your hand.
(b) Find the ball’s velocity when it is 5.00 m above the railing.
(c) Find the maximum height reached.
(d) Find the ball’s acceleration when it is at its maximum
height.
Up-And-Down Motion in Free Fall
• Position as a function of time for a ball thrown upward with
an initial speed of 15.0 m/s.

Why is the graph

this shape?
• Velocity as a function of
time for a ball thrown
upward with an initial
speed of 15.0 m/s.
• The vertical velocity, but
not the acceleration, is
zero at the highest point.

Why is the velocity a

straight line?
Velocity and Position by Integration
• What do we do when the acceleration is not constant?

𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡

Area under curve is the change in velocity over time t,

i.e., 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥 .
• Here the acceleration is not
constant. The change in
velocity is still the area under
the curve.

• We approximate the area by

breaking it into lots of
rectangles.
• Mathematically we write this
as what is known as a
Riemann sum:
𝑡2

area = ෍ 𝑎𝑥 (𝑡)∆𝑡
𝑡1

• As we take the limit Δ𝑡 → 0,

this becomes what is
known as an integral:
𝑡2

area = න 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
So 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 becomes:
𝑡2
𝑣𝑥 − 𝑣0𝑥 = න 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑡1

Or more simply:
𝑡

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + න 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡 .
0

Constant acceleration
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
Similarly, if both velocity and acceleration are not constant
we obtain:
𝑡

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + න 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡 .
0

because the change in position is the area under a velocity-

time graph.
Constant velocity
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑡
The 2 rules you need to know about integration
1) Basically integrals work in the opposite way to
differentiation, e.g.,
𝑥 4
න 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
4
and a constant
𝑑 𝑥4
+ 𝑐 = 𝑥 3.
𝑑𝑥 4

2) If the integral has what we call limits, then

those are substituted into the final answer
(and there is no constant):

4 4
3
𝑥44 4 1 4 3
න 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = อ = − = 63 .
4 4 4 4
1 1
Example 2.9

Sindi is driving along a straight road. At 𝑡 = 0, when she is

moving at 10 m/s in the positive 𝑥-direction, she passes a
signpost at 𝑥 = 50 m. Her acceleration as a function of time is

𝑎𝑥 = 2.0 m/s2 − 0.10 m/s3 𝑡 .

(a) Find her velocity and position as a function of time.

(b) When is her velocity greatest?

(c) What is her maximum velocity?

(d) Where is the car when it reaches its maximum velocity?