Mobile communications

Chapter Two:
The Cellular Concept-System Design

2.1 Cellular system operation

According to the diagram above, it can be understood simply by:

• Mobile device is connected to BTS (Antenna).

• BTS is connected to the Switching system called BSC.
• BSC is connected to the main switching system called MSC.
• MSC contains its own VLR (VLR: is a temporary database which stores the
information of the visitors under its coverage area. VLR stands for Visitor Location
register. When you roam in a different place VLR stores your user information.).
• MSC's are connected to GMSC which is connected to HLR. (HLR stands for Home
location register), it is the main database where the documents or information of
user is stored. all the documents that you give during purchase of a SIM card is
stored in this HLR.
• VLR Takes your information from HLR when you roam in other state or region.
• HLR also provides authentication by AUC. AUC is connected with HLR. If you
initiate a call HLR and AUC will see if you are a genuine Mobile user with valid
IMEI number and Plan and then the call is set up from source to the destination
device.

Other functions performed by the system include the following:

• Handoff (Handover): If a mobile unit moves out of range of one cell and into the
range of another during a connection, the traffic channel has to change to one
assigned to the BS in the new cell. The system makes this change without either
interrupting the call or alerting the user.

• Call blocking: During the mobile-initiated call stage, if all the traffic channels
assigned to the nearest BS are busy, then the mobile unit makes a preconfigured
number of repeated attempts. After a certain number of failed tries, a busy tone is
returned to the user.

• Call drop: During a connection, because of interference or weak signal spots in

certain areas, if the BS cannot maintain the minimum required signal strength for
a certain period of time, the traffic channel to the user is dropped and the MTSO
(Mobile Telephone Switching Office) is informed.

• Calls to/from fixed and remote mobile subscriber: The MTSO connects to the
public switched telephone network (PSTN). Thus, the MTSO can set up a
connection between a mobile user in its area and a fixed subscriber via the
telephone network.

2.2 RF Planning
RF Planning is the process of assigning frequencies, transmitter locations and
parameters of a wireless communications system to provide sufficient coverage and
capacity for the services required. The RF plan of a cellular communication system
has two objectives: coverage and capacity.

a. Coverage relates to the geographical footprint within the system that has sufficient
RF signal strength to provide for a call/data session.
b. Capacity relates to the capability of the system to sustain a given number of
subscribers. Capacity and coverage are interrelated.

To improve coverage, capacity has to be sacrificed, while to improve capacity,

coverage will have to be sacrificed. It is necessary to restructure radiotelephone
system to achieve high capacity with limited spectrum.

1- Increase the capacity of the system: by using lower-power systems with shorter
radius and to use numerous transmitters/receivers (Base stations). Thereby
providing additional radio capacity with no additional increase in radio spectrum.

2- Distributing the available channels throughout geographic region: by

systematically spacing base stations and their channel groups. The available
channels can be reused as long as the interference between co-channel stations is
kept below acceptable level.

2.3 Cell types

• Macro cell – their coverage is large (aprox. 6 miles in diameter); used in remote
areas, high-power transmitters and receivers are used

• Micro cell – their coverage is small (half a mile in diameter) and are used in urban
zones; low-powered transmitters and receivers are used to avoid interference with
cells in another clusters

• Pico cell –is a small cellular system typically covering a small area, such as in-
building (offices, shopping malls, train stations) . In cellular networks, picocells
are typically used to extend coverage to indoor areas where outdoor signals do not
reach well.

• Selective cells. located at the entrances of tunnels where a coverage of 360 degrees
is not needed this case, a selective cell with a coverage of 120 degrees is used.

Decreasing the cell size gives:

• Increased user capacity
• Increased number of handovers per call
• Increased complexity in locating the subscriber
• Lower power consumption in mobile terminal: so it gives longer talk time, safer
operation

2.4 Cellular Network Coverage

The essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters, on
the order of 100 W or less. Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area
can be divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna.

A- Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station

(consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit).

B- Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk.

However, cells sufficiently distant from each other can use the same frequency band.
While it might seem natural to choose a circle to represent the coverage area of a base
station, adjacent circles cannot be overlaid upon a map without leaving gaps or
creating overlapping regions.

The hexagon has:

• No gaps or overlapping
• The largest area compared with square and triangle.
• Fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region,
• Closely approximates a circular radiation pattern which would occur for an
omnidirectional base station antenna and free space propagation.
• A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas.
• When using hexagons to model coverage areas, base station transmitters are
depicted as either:

- In the center of the cell (center-excited cells): omnidirectional antennas are

used in center-excited cells.

- On three of the six cell vertices (edge-excited cells): sectored directional

antennas are used in corner-excited cells.
The radius of a hexagon is defined to be the radius of the circle that circumscribes it
(equivalently, the distance from the center to each vertex; also equal to the length of
a side of a hexagon).

For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center and each adjacent cell center
is
𝑑 = √3𝑅

Therefore the area of the hexagon is

3√3 2
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑅
2

• In practice, a precise hexagonal pattern is not used. Variations from the ideal are
due to:

- Topographical limitations.
- Local signal propagation conditions.
- Practical limitation on siting antennas.
2.5 Frequency Reuse

1-To allow communication within the cell using a given frequency

2-To limit the power at that frequency that escapes the cell into adjacent ones.

The objective is to use the same frequency in other nearby cells, thus allowing the
frequency to be used for multiple simultaneous conversations.

Generally, 10 to 50 frequencies are assigned to each cell, depending on the traffic

expected.

The essential issue is to determine how many cells must intervene between two
cells using the same frequency so that the two cells do not interfere with each other.
Various patterns of frequency reuse are possible.

Frequency reuse (frequency planning): is the design process of selecting and

allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base stations within a system.

If the pattern consists of N cells and each cell is assigned the same number of
frequencies, each cell can have K/N frequencies, where K is the total number of
frequencies allotted to the system.

- For Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), K = 395, and N = 7 is the smallest
pattern that can provide sufficient isolation between two uses of the same
frequency.

This implies that there can be at most 57 frequencies per cell on average.
• In characterizing frequency reuse, the following parameters are commonly used:

D = minimum distance between centers of cells that use the same frequency band
(called co-channels)

R = radius of a cell

d = distance between centers of adjacent cells 𝑑 = √3𝑅

N = number of cells in a pattern (Cluster size)

(Each cell in the pattern uses a unique set of frequency bands), termed the reuse factor

In a hexagonal cell pattern: in order to tessellate (to connect without gaps between
adjacent cells), only the following values of N are possible:

N = I2 + J2 + (I × J) I, J = 0, 1, 2, 3, …

Hence, possible values of N are 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, and so on.

Choice of N (assuming constant cell size)

Small N:

•More cluster are required to cover the service area

•More capacity

•Higher probability of co-channel interference

Large N:

•Less cluster are required to cover the service area

•Less capacity

•Less probability of co-channel interference

The following relationship holds:
𝐷
= 𝑞 = √3𝑁
𝑅

Where q is the reuse ratio.

This can also be expressed as

𝐷
= √𝑁
𝑑

Consider a cellular system which has a total of K duplex channels available for use.
If each cell is allocated a group of C channels (C < K), and if the K channels are
divided among N cells into channel groups which each have the same number of
channels, the total number of available radio channels can be expressed as

K= CN
Where
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ (𝑜𝑟𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
K=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

The N cells which collectively use the complete set of available frequencies is called
a cluster. If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of
duplex channels, can be used as a measure of capacity and is given

Capacity = MCN = MK

The capacity of a cellular system is directly proportional to the number of times a

cluster is replicated in a fixed service area. The cluster size (N) is typically equal to
4, 7, or 12. If N is reduced while the cell size is kept constant, more clusters are
required to cover a given area and hence more capacity is achieved.

- A large cluster size indicates that the ratio between the cell radius and the distance
between co-channel cells is large.

- A small cluster size indicates that co-channel cells are located much closer together.

From a design viewpoint, the smallest possible value of N is desirable in order to

maximize capacity over a given coverage area.
To find the nearest co-channel neighbors of a particular cell, one must do the
following:

i. Move i cells along any chain of hexagons and then

ii. Turn 60 degrees counter-clockwise and move j cells. This is illustrated in Figure
below for i = 3 and j = 2 (example, N = 19).
Example 1
Assume a system of 32 cells with a cell radius of 1.6 km, a total of 32 cells, a total
frequency bandwidth that supports 336 traffic channels, and a reuse factor of N = 7.

(a) If there are 32 total cells, what geographic area is covered, how many
channels are there per cell, and what is the total number of concurrent calls
that can be handled?

(b) Repeat for a cell radius of 0.8 km and 128 cells.

Solution:
(a) The area of a hexagon of radius R is

3√3 3√3
Areaa = 𝑅2 = = (1.6)2 = 6.65 km2
2 2

The total area covered is 6.65 × 32 = 213 km2 .

For N = 7, the number of channels per cell is K/N = 336/7 = 48,
Total number of concurrent calls that can be handled is
Capacity = 48 × 32 = 1536 channels

(b) The area of a hexagon of radius R is

3√3 3√3
Areab = 𝑅2 = = (0.8)2 = 1.66 km2
2 2
The area covered is 1.66 × 128 = 213 km2 .
The number of channels per cell is K/N = 336/7 = 48,
Total number of concurrent calls is
Capacity = 48 × 128 = 6144 calls

Example 2
Consider a cellular system in which total available voice channels to handle the
traffic are 960. The area of each cell is 6 km2 and the total coverage area of the
system is 2000 km2. Calculate:
(a) The system capacity if the cluster size N is 4

(b) The system capacity if the cluster size is 7. • How many times would a
cluster of size 4 have to be replicated to cover the entire cellular area? Does
decreasing N increase the system capacity? Explain.

Solution
Total available channels =960 , Cell area = 6 km2

Total coverage area = 2000 km2

(a) N = 4
Area of a cluster = 4 × 6 = 24 km2

Number of clusters for covering total area = 2000/24 = 83.33 ~ 83

Number of channels per cell = 960/4 = 240

System capacity = 83 × 960 = 79, 680 channels

(b) N = 7
Area of cluster = 7 × 6 = 42 km2

Number of clusters for covering total area = 2000/42 = 47.62 ~ 48

Number of channels per cell = 960/7 = 137.15 ~ 137

System capacity = 48 × 960 = 46,080 channels

It is evident when we decrease the value of N from 7 to 4, we increase the

system capacity from 46,080 to 79,680 channels. Thus, decreasing N
increases the system capacity.
2.6 Channel Assignment Strategies
For efficient utilization of the radio spectrum, a frequency reuse scheme that is
consistent with the objectives of increasing capacity and minimizing interference is
required. A variety of channel assignment strategies have been developed to achieve
these objectives. Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either fixed or
dynamic. The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts the performance of the
system, particularly as to how calls are managed when a mobile user is handed off
from one cell to another.

a) Fixed channel assignment strategy: each cell is allocated a predetermined set of

voice channels.
- Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channels in
that particular cell.

- If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is blocked and the subscriber
does not receive service.

- Borrowing strategy: a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring

cell if all of its own channels are already occupied. The mobile switching center
(MSC) supervises such borrowing procedures and ensures that the borrowing
of a channel does not disrupt or interfere with any of the calls in progress in the
donor cell.

b) Dynamic channel assignment strategy: voice channels are not allocated to

different cells permanently. Instead,

- Each time a call request is made, the serving base station requests a channel from
the MSC.

- The switch then allocates a channel to the requested cell following an algorithm that
takes into account the likelihood of

o Future blocking within the cell,

o The frequency of use of the candidate channel,

o The reuse distance of the channel,

o Other cost functions.

- Accordingly, the MSC only allocates a given frequency if that frequency is not
presently in use in the cell or any other cell which falls within the minimum
restricted distance of frequency reuse to avoid co-channel interference.

Advantage:

- Dynamic channel assignment reduces the likelihood of blocking, which increases

the trunking capacity of the system, since all the available channels in a market are
accessible to all of the cells.

- Increases the channel utilization and decreases probability of a blocked call.

Disadvantage:

- Require the MSC to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, traffic distribution,
and radio signal strength indications (RSSI) of all channels on a continuous basis.
This increases the storage and computational load on the system.

2.7 Co-channel Interference

The S/I ratio at the desired mobile receiver is given as:

𝑆 𝑆
= 𝑁𝐼
𝐼 ∑𝑘=1 𝐼𝑘
where:
Ik = the interference due to the kth interferer

NI = the number of interfering cells in the first tier.

In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there are

always six co-channel interfering cells in the first tier (i.e., NI = 6).

▪ Most of the co-channel interference results from the first tier.

 ▪ Interference from second and higher tiers amounts to less
than 1% of the total interference (ignored).
▪ Co-channel interference can be experienced both at the cell
site and the mobile stations in the center cell.
▪ In a small cell system, interference will be the dominating
factor and thermal noise can be neglected. Thus, the S/I ratio
can be given as:

𝑆 1
=
𝐼 𝐷𝑘
∑6𝑘=1( )−γ
𝑅
where: 2 ≤ γ ≤ 5 : the propagation path loss, and γ depends upon the
terrain environment.

Dk: the distance between mobile and kth interfering cell

R: the cell radius

If we assume Dk is the same for the six interfering cells for

simplification, or D = Dk, then Equation above becomes:
𝑆 1 𝑞𝛾
= =
𝐼 6(𝑞)−𝛾 6

Therefore
𝑆 1/𝛾
q = [6( 𝐼 )]

Since q = √3𝑁 , therefore

2
1 𝑆 𝛾
N = [6( )]
3 𝐼
Example 3
Consider the advanced mobile phone system (AMPS) in which an
S/I ratio of 18 dB is required for the accepted voice quality.
Assume γ = 4.

(a) What should be the reuse factor for the system?

(b) What will be the reuse factor of the Global System of Mobile
(GSM) system in which an S/I of 12 dB is required?

Solution
(a)
𝟐
𝟏 𝑺 𝜸
N = [𝟔( )]
𝟑 𝑰

𝟐
𝟏𝟖 𝟒
𝟏
NAMPs = [𝟔(𝟏𝟎 )] = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟖𝟔 ≃ 𝟕
𝟏𝟎
𝟑
(b)

𝟐
𝟏𝟐 𝟒
𝟏
NGSM = [𝟔(𝟏𝟎 )] = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓𝟏 ≃ 𝟒
𝟏𝟎
𝟑

Example 4
Consider a cellular system with 395 total allocated voice channel frequencies.
Calculate the mean S/I ratio for cell reuse factor equal to 4, 7, and 12. Assume
omnidirectional antennas with six interferers in the first tier and a slope for path loss
of 40 dB/decade (γ = 4). Discuss the results.

Solution
For a reuse factor N = 4, the number of voice channels per cell site = K/N = 395/4 =
99.
 𝟐
𝟏 𝑺 𝜸
N = [𝟔( )]
𝟑 𝑰

𝟐
𝟏 𝑺 𝟒
4 = [𝟔( )]
𝟑 𝑰

𝑆
= 24(13.8 𝑑𝐵)
𝐼

The results for N = 7 and N = 12 are given in Table below.

It is evident from the results that, by increasing the reuse factor from N = 4 to N = 12,
the mean S/I ratio is improved from 13.8 to 23.3 dB.