What are 21st Century Skills?

Multiple skills are attributed and listed as 21 st Century Skills and, given the lack of clarity on what 21 st
Century Skills are, the literature is also not conclusive on the difference between 21 st Century Skills and
other related skills (e.g. soft skills). Indeed, analysts generally use the term ‘21 st Century Skills’ as a
broadly encompassing concept referring to multiple skills or subcategories of skills.

Despite the diversity in terminologies, the analysis of a number of key synthesis studies (Voogt & Roblin,
2010, 2012; Scott, 2015; Chalkiadaki, 2018) demonstrates a relatively clear set of skills, competencies
and attributes that are referenced in some form by the majority of literature commentating on 21 st Century
Skills. These can be consolidated into five key areas associated with primarily professional attributes:

1. Communication skills, including language and presentation of ideas.

2. Collaborative skills, including management of group activities and social interaction.
3. Individual learning approaches, including critical thinking, metacognition and new skills
acquisition.
4. Individual autonomy, including flexibility, adaptability and entrepreneurship.
5. ICT and digital literacy, including use of technology as tools for learning, communication and
collaboration.

Further to this, a number of core knowledge areas are also featured, including:

 Literacy,
 Numeracy, and
 STEM-associated fields of knowledge.

Finally, additional personal attributes seen by the majority of commentators as necessary to a fulfilling
life in the 21st century include:

 Physical well-being and personal health;

 Social and emotional skills;
 Social citizenship; and
 Cultural and creative expression.

In looking at the levels of demand for 21st Century Skills, evidence suggests that the need for 21 st Century
Skills at the global level is dictated by a combination of factors including: the change in societies
resulting from the rapid spread of technology; increasing globalization and internationalization; and the
shift from industrial social economies to information and knowledge-based social economies (Voogt &
Roblin, 2010). Accordingly, evidence of demand at regional rather than the global level suggests a
significant diversity in demand based on differences in developmental context. The need for 21 st Century
Skills seems to be clear in contexts of rapid development, such as East Asian countries (Rolleston, 2018;
Kattan, 2017), where labor markets are increasingly demanding a workforce with non-routine cognitive
skills and interpersonal skills (Kattan, 2017; Suatra et al., 2017).

While it is acknowledged that there are extensive projected demands at the global level, discussions
should also recognize the level of diversity of demand across regions (e.g. East Asia vs. sub-Saharan
Africa), as well as the ways in which contextual and economic circumstances of underdevelopment can
inform practical skills needs and priorities at national and sub-national levels.
Findings suggest that evidence related to the definition of demand and delivery of 21 st Century Skills in
development contexts is generally regarded as limited. For example, in their review of the evidence for
impact of transferable skills training for youth in LMICs, Brown et al. (2015) found only eight studies
with sufficient information on impact, and only four completed systematic reviews, two of which focused
on programs for youth employment. Brown et al. (2015) also note that more than half of the available
evidence is drawn from studies of pilot or experimental projects rather than programs, and there are no
impact evaluation studies looking at the effectiveness of policies. In terms of the literature analyzing
approaches to the design and delivery of 21 st Century Skills in a global educational context, it is notable
that the majority of recent leading thought has been generated by Care, Kim, Vista and Anderson, all
published by Brookings and operating in loose affiliation with the ATC21S analytical framework.

Approaches to the categorization of 21st Century Skills

The systematic review conducted by Chalkiadaki (2018) groups the broad range of 21st Century Skills
into four main categories, as follows:

 Personal skills
(i) Self-development and autonomy (self-management, self-organization, self-regulation, self-
direction, self-reflection, independent thought, autonomous acting, ability to form and conduct
life plans and projects and to defend/assert rights, emotional intelligence);
(ii) Creativity (curiosity, imagination, playfulness, creative production, co-creativity, innovation);
(iii) Problem-solving and critical thinking (in authentic learning environments, analytical thinking,
analysis and evaluation of evidence, ability to provide solutions in given challenges, higher-order
thinking, sound reasoning, informed decision-making, innovation); and
(iv) ‘Presence in the globalized environment’ (adaptability, agility, managing complexity, risk-
taking).

 Social skills
(i) Communication and collaboration (skilled oral and written communication in the mother tongue
and foreign languages, team-working especially in heterogeneous environments, open-
mindedness, conflict management);
(ii) Cultural awareness and global awareness (ability to appreciate the value of the varied cultures and
to intentionally construct cross-cultural relationships and networks); and
(iii) Leadership (self-motivation, initiative taking, entrepreneurship, leading by influence).

 Information and knowledge

(i) Learning (self-reflection, self-assessment, self-improvement, metacognition, elearning, self-
directed learning, independent learning, knowledge construction, social and collaborative
learning, intellectual risks); and
(ii) Information management (information literacy, data access and analysis, managing multiple
streams of simultaneous information, applying knowledge to new situations, creating new
knowledge, content knowledge).

 Digital literacy
(i) Based on Chalkiadaki’s analysis, digital literacy in the 21 st century context indicates individual
confidence in the use of media and ICT and proficiency in the use of digital tools, plus interactive
digital skills, critical use of digital tools (analysis, critique, evaluation, creation), and the ability
to attend to ethical responsibilities required in participatory culture in technology.

In general terms, Chalkiadaki’s model draws on the cross-cutting approach to categorization developed
by APEC, which defined four ‘overarching 21 st century competencies’ that should be integrated into
existing educational systems: lifelong learning, problem-solving, self-management, and teamwork
(APEC, 2008, cited in Scott, 2015), and the Assessment and Teaching of 21 st Century Skills project
(ATC21S), which categorized international 21 st Century Skills into four broad categories designed to be
of value to both practitioners and policymakers: ways of thinking, ways of working, tools for working and
skills for living in the world (Griffin, McGaw & Care, 2012, cited in Scott, 2015). The ATC21S approach
to categorization is also designed to be of value to both practitioners and policymakers. Finally, research
carried out by OECD/CERI on ‘New Millennium Learners’ (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009, cited in Scott,
2015) describes three dimensions for learning in the 21st century: information, communication, and
ethics & social impact.

‘Critical skills’
A number of commentators frame 21st Century Skills within the context of ‘critical skills’, a range of
personal and professional attributes, competencies 4and technical skills that are presented as central to the
21st century. Lippman et al. (2014) identify five ‘critical skills’ which are most likely to increase success
in the workplace, which include both specific skills and desirable behaviors. Below is reported the
definition of those skills and their relationship within four workforce outcomes – employment,
performance, income/wages, and entrepreneurial success.

 Social skills: The ability to behave in context-appropriate ways, respecting others and being able
to resolve conflict. Social skills are reported as a strong indicator of success internationally in
both formal and informal work sectors, and able to predict all four workforce outcomes.

 Communication skills: Oral, written, nonverbal and listening skills. Communication skills are
recognized as a gateway to developing other soft skills.

 Higher-order thinking skills: Problem-solving, critical thinking and decision-making. At a basic

level, this includes an ability to identify an issue and take in information from multiple sources to
evaluate options in order to reach a reasonable conclusion. These skills are not well researched in
relation to their impact on successful employment.

 Self-control: An intrapersonal skill that enables successful decision-making, conflict resolution

and coherent communication. Self-control is related to all four workforce outcomes, especially in
literature specific to youth aged 15–29.

 Positive self-concept: Self-confidence, self-efficacy, self-awareness and beliefs, self-esteem, and

a sense of well-being and pride. It is reported as an intrapersonal skill that is related to success
across all four workforce outcomes.

Wagner (2010, cited in Scott, 2015) and the Change Leadership Group at Harvard University identified a
complementary set of competencies and skills. Informed by several hundred interviews with business,
non-profit and education leaders, Wagner stresses that students need seven survival skills to be prepared
for 21st century life, work and citizenship:

 Critical thinking and problem-solving;

 Collaboration and leadership;
 Agility and adaptability;
 Initiative and entrepreneurialism;
 Effective oral and written communication;
 Accessing and analyzing information; and
 Curiosity and imagination.
The US-based Apollo Education Group, a leading provider of higher education programs for working
adults, cited 10 skills needed by students to survive as 21st century workers (Barry, 2012, cited in Scott,
2015):

 critical thinking,
 communication,
 leadership,
 collaboration,
 adaptability,
 productivity and accountability,
 innovation,
 global citizenship,
 entrepreneurialism, and
 the ability to access, analyze and synthesize information.

The ‘4Cs’: Critical thinking, Communication, Collaboration and Creativity

The ‘Framework for 21st Century Learning’ proposed by the US-based Partnership for 21 st Century
Learning (P21) highlights the ‘4Cs’ (Critical thinking, Communication, Collaboration and Creativity), a
range of attributes which it proposes should be developed within the context of teaching core subject
areas. The ‘4Cs’ model is based on the assertion that 21st century challenges will demand a broad set of
skills emphasizing the individual’s capabilities in core subject skills, social and cross-cultural skills,
proficiency in languages, and an understanding of the economic and political forces that affect societies.
Drawing on Scott’s analysis, each of the ‘4Cs’ skills are described below:

 Communication: Communication includes the ability to express thoughts clearly and

persuasively both orally and in writing, articulate opinions, communicate coherent instructions
and motivate others through speech. Communication skills are also embedded in information,
media and ICT competencies. It is stated that communication skills are highly valued in the
workplace and public life, and are also shaped by current and emerging technologies, taking into
account the large proportion of messages that are mediated by one or more digital devices. In this
context, effective communication skills can help to avoid misunderstandings and
miscommunications.

 Collaboration: It is stated that, in the future workplace, workers can expect to engage in highly
networked collaborations, separated from colleagues by distance and situated far from the
physical location of information resources. People will need to be comfortable with collaborating
at a distance, and simulating those interactions in education will have clear benefits on the skills
of the workforce. In this context, clear and effective communication skills and the use of
technologies and social media are keys to effective collaboration.

 Critical thinking: Critical thinking involves accessing, analyzing and synthesizing information,
and is considered fundamental to 21 st century learning (Ananiadou & Claro 2009, Gardner 2008,
P21 2013, Redecker et al. 2011, Trilling & Fadel 2009, Tucker & Codding 1998, all cited in
Scott, 2015). Critical thinking draws on other skills such as communication, information literacy
and the ability to examine, analyze, interpret and evaluate evidence. It is presented as relevant
within the field of formal education, and also within business and responsible social citizenship
(NEA, 2010, cited in Scott, 2015). However, while critical thinking can be taught, practiced and
mastered (P21 2007a, Redecker et al. 2011, both cited in Scott, 2015), recent studies suggest that
many secondary and university students lack the necessary competencies to navigate and select
 relevant sources from the overabundance of available information (Windham 2008, cited in Scott,
2015).

 Creativity: Creativity is defined in terms of the capacity to generate new ideas and solutions,
‘break new ground’, invoke fresh ways of thinking, pose unfamiliar questions, and arrive at
unexpected answers (Gardner 2008, Sternberg 2007, both cited in Scott, 2015). In a context of
global competition and task automation, individual capacity for innovativeness and creativity are
increasingly seen as requirements for professional and personal success. In support of P21’s
‘4Cs’ model for the categorization of 21 st Century Skills, Voogt and Roblin (2010, 2012)
examined five 21st Century Skills frameworks – Partnership for 21 st Century Learning (P21);
EnGauge; Assessment and Teaching of 21 st Century Skills (ATC21S); National Educational
Technology Standards (NETS/ISTE); and National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).
They note that ‘collaboration’ and ‘communication’ are mentioned in all the analyzed
frameworks, while ‘creativity’ and ‘critical thinking’ are included in the majority of the
frameworks. In addition, all the frameworks analyzed by Voogt and Roblin (2010, 2012) also
mentioned the importance of a number of skills that cut across these four categories – ICT
literacy, social and/or cultural skills, and citizenship.

Variations on the ‘4Cs’ model

In addition to the P21 ‘4Cs’ model, Scott (2015) analyses a number of similar approaches to the
conceptualization and categorization of 21 st Century Skills. These include models that focus on a limited
number of personal and professional attributes that commentators argue might be developed within the
context of teaching core subject areas. For example, Sternberg and Subotnik (2006, cited in Scott, 2015)
present the case for a curriculum focused on fostering learners’ capabilities through ‘The other 3 Rs’,
which cover: Reasoning (‘analytical, critical thinking and problem-solving skills’); Resilience (‘life
skills such as flexibility, adaptability and self-reliance’); and Responsibility (‘wisdom or the application
of intelligence, creativity and knowledge for a common good’).

Similarly, Wagner et al. (2006, cited in Scott, 2015) advocate for a curriculum founded on 3Rs skills
which differ from those proposed by Sternberg and Subotnik (2006, cited in Scott, 2015). Wagner’s
model includes Rigor, Relevance, and Respect. ‘Rigor’ refers to the academic abilities and capacities
students acquire as a result of their learning; ‘Relevance’ refers to their understanding of how their
learning connects to current real-world challenges and future work; and ‘Respect’ refers to the promotion
of respectful relationships among teachers and students that foster academic and social competence.
Finally, Prensky (2012, cited in Scott, 2015) advocates a student-centric curriculum founded on the ‘3Ps’,
which consist of ‘Passion (including character), Problem-solving (including communication) and
Producing what is required with creativity and skill.’

‘Soft skills’
Moving away from a categorization of skills in terms of attributes that are presented as of value in
primarily a work-based context, Gates et al. (2016) explore and identify a range of largely personal
attributes that are assumed to create broader positive outcomes across important areas of youth’s lives,
including in terms of workforce success, violence prevention, and sexual and reproductive health. Their
definition of ‘soft skills’ is: [S]oft skills refer to a broad set of skills, behaviors, and personal qualities that
enable people to effectively navigate their environment, relate well with others, perform well, and achieve
their goals. These skills are applicable across sectors and complement the acquisition of other skills such
as technical and academic skills. The report provides a detailed description of those skills:
  Positive attitude: An emotional aspect in which a youth is happy and enthusiastic; a social aspect
of encouraging others; and a cognitive aspect of valuing work or school with a positive outlook
(Lippman et al., 2015, cited in Gates et al., 2016).

 Responsibility: The ability to understand one’s own role and reliably accomplish tasks associated
with this role, and the belief that one’s own choices and actions can influence the events in life
and lead to positive outcomes.

 Goal orientation: The motivation and ability to make viable plans and take action toward desired
goals (Lippman et al., 2014a, cited in Gates et al., 2016).

 Empathy: The affective and cognitive ability to feel and understand what someone else is
feeling.

 Communication: The ability to effectively express and understand knowledge and ideas.
Communication includes listening, as well as skills in verbal, nonverbal, and written
communication. It includes the ability to negotiate, persuade, transmit and interpret knowledge
(Lippman et al., 2015, cited in Gates et al., 2016).

 Social skills: A cluster of skills necessary to get along well with others, including: respecting and
expressing appreciation for others, demonstrating context-appropriate behavior and the ability to
behave according to social norms, using a range of skills or processes aimed at resolving conflict.

Youth Power (2019) states that the term ‘soft skills’ refers to a broad set of skills, behaviors, and personal
qualities that enable people to effectively navigate their environment, relate well with others, perform
well, and achieve their goals. Other terminologies used for ‘soft skills’ include ‘life skills’, ‘socio-
emotional skills’, and ‘transferable skills’ (Scott, 2015). Given the broad nature of soft skills, USAID
launched a portal aimed at collecting different terminologies used for ‘soft skills’. As well as the lack of
clarity in defining ‘soft skills’, there is also a lack of clarity regarding which soft skills are most likely to
deliver the greatest benefits. However, Gates et al. (2016) cite studies that have found evidence and
practice supporting the theory that a common set of skills can lead to positive outcomes in multiple
domains of youth’s lives. These domains include sexual and reproductive health, violence prevention, and
workforce success (Youth Power, 2019).

‘Life skills’
The use of ‘life skills’ as a formal framework for defining key skills, competencies and capabilities has
emerged almost exclusively from within the sphere of international development, and is currently
reflected in the objectives and indicators across a number of areas featured within the Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs). In this context, it operates as a model of definition for ‘21st Century Skills’
that is of particular note for those parties operating within that sphere. Resulting from studies into public
health in international development settings, and based predominantly on the observed net effects of
malnutrition on individuals and communication, the phenomenon of failure to thrive is associated with a
range of mental health and personal developmental issues (Schwartz, 2000, cited in Kennedy et al., 2014)
including, for example, cognitive impairment, emotion and behavior regulation difficulties, and
neuropsychological abnormalities (MOSPI, Government of India 2012, Pearson 2013, Read & Bentall
2012, all cited in Kennedy et al., 2014). These cognitive deficits are seen to impact on areas such as
attention, memory and information processing, relationship difficulties (e.g. being unable to assert
oneself, and poor parenting skills in adulthood), emotion regulation difficulties (e.g. being highly
sensitive/insensitive to stress, lack of self-soothing and calming abilities, and experiencing extreme and
inappropriate emotion and perceiving this as uncontrollable), and behavioral problems (e.g. self-harm,
aggression, social withdrawal, avoidance of challenging opportunities, and absconding). In addition,
because of impoverished environments, different social norms and the deficits already described, young
people can develop attitudes and beliefs that prevent them from participating in an achievement-oriented
world (Kennedy et al., 2014). In response to this phenomenon, the World Health Organization (WHO
1997, cited in Kennedy et al., 2014) produced guidance on life skills education for children and
adolescents in schools, in which ‘life skills’ are described as promoting psychosocial competence. On the
basis of an analysis of the life skills research field, WHO (World Health Organization) suggests 10 core
life skills:

 Decision-making,
 Problem-solving,
 Creative thinking,
 Critical thinking,
 Effective communication,
 Interpersonal relationship skills,
 Self-awareness,
 Empathy,
 Coping with emotions, and
 Coping with stress.

Refining this list further, Kennedy et al. (2014) undertook a study considering those practical skills
needed by disadvantaged children and young people throughout the developing world hoping to achieve
in work environments such as retail work, service industries, small entrepreneurial businesses, and non-
governmental organizations (NGOs). Five observable behavioral skills emerging from the WHO life
skills list were assessed as appropriate and feasible in this context, namely:

 Interacting with others,

 Overcoming problems and finding solutions,
 Taking initiative,
 Managing conflict, and
 Understanding and following instructions.

In general terms, the selection of attributes outlined above are closely associated with the more
personality-driven range of attributes presented under ‘soft skills’. While Kennedy et al. (2014) have
refined these to reflect a specific set of personal competencies required to succeed within the professional
sphere anticipated in a development context, this process has also largely bypassed the globalized, highly
connected and knowledge-driven contexts that are associated with other frameworks for the
conceptualization of 21st Century Skills. However, Brown et al. (2015) group a range of transferable skill
sets featured under 21st Century Skills according to the UNICEF’s three ‘life skills’ categories: (1)
personal skills (e.g. self-regulation, confidence, adaptability, resilience, etc.); (2) interpersonal skills (e.g.
communication, negotiation, leadership, etc.); and (3) cognitive skills (e.g. decision-making, critical
thinking, problem-solving, etc.).

Jaberian, Vista and Care (2018) draw attention to evidence of more specific intersections between ‘life
skills’ and ‘21st Century Skills’. In reviewing the UN’s priority for empowering learners to assume active
roles and make informed decisions in ‘building a more sustainable future through peaceful, tolerant,
inclusive, and secure societies’, they draw attention to SDG Target 4.7, which states:

By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote
sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable
 development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a
culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural
diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.

Jaberian et al. (2018) claim that responses to this question have focused on Education for Sustainable
Development (ESD) and Global Citizenship Education (GCED), both of which fall under the broad
umbrella of ‘21st Century Skills’. Within this, they argue that SDG Target 4.7 calls for the mainstreaming
of key 21st Century Skills concepts – namely, ESD and GCED – in policy planning, curricular content,
teaching practices and assessment.

ICT and 21st Century Skills

In reviewing several 21st Century Skills frameworks, Voogt and Roblin (2010) point out that all examined
frameworks highlight the intersection between ICT and 21 st Century Skills. Firstly, they offer a
comparison between the various elements that ICT and information literacy encompass through these
frameworks, including as means of communication and collaboration, and as providing the capacity to
access information efficiently and effectively. Secondly, they highlight that the use of ICTs to this end
requires the ability to evaluate information critically and competently, and to use information accurately
and creatively (Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning, 1998, cited in Voogt & Roblin,
2010). Finally, they suggest that ICT holds the promise of supporting the acquisition and assessment of
21st Century Skills, thereby recognizing the importance of ICT as a tool for the development of 21 st
Century Skills in the individual.

Van Laar et al.’s (2017) systematic literature review on the relation between 21 st Century Skills and
digital skills and/or literacy identifies a number of areas of crossover. While the results of their review
show that the attributes associated with 21 st Century Skills are generally broader than those associated
with digital skills, digital skills and/or literacy cover a number of attributes also strongly associated with
21st Century Skills. These include information management; collaboration; communication and sharing;
creation of content and knowledge; ethics and responsibility; evaluation and problem-solving; and
technical operations (Ferrari, 2012, cited in Van Laar et al., 2017). However, they also conclude that
while digital skills are necessarily underpinned with ICT knowledge, this is not necessarily the case with
21st Century Skills.

Although 21st Century Skills and digital skills are both seen by commentators as crucial attributes, and
while there is some significant conceptual crossover between the two, Van Laar et al. (2017) conclude
that the combination is not yet sufficiently defined. In this light, they introduce the concept of ‘21 st
century digital skills’, defined as: (1) the mastery of ICT applications to solve cognitive tasks at work; (2)
skills that are not technology-driven, as they do not refer to the use of any particular software program;
(3) skills that support higher-order thinking processes; and (4) skills related to cognitive processes
favoring employees’ continuous learning. Detailed conceptual definitions of ‘21 st century digital skills’
including operational components are also provided. They present such skills as critical for both people
and organizations for keeping up with developments and innovating products and processes.

Lewin and McNicol (2015) also examine the relation between ICT and 21 st Century Skills and conclude
that ICT is at the core of the majority of 21 st Century Skills frameworks. While some frameworks
emphasize ICT-related competences as separate domains (P21 and ATC21S), others call attention to more
integrative approaches where the development of ICT skills is embedded within other 21 st century
competences, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, communication and collaboration (Voogt &
Roblin, 2012).

When defining ICT-related competences in the context of 21st Century Skills, most frameworks reference
three types of literacies:
 Information literacy: The capacity to access information efficiently and effectively, to evaluate
information critically and competently, and to use information accurately and creatively (American
Association of School Librarians and Association for Educational Communications and Technology,
1998, cited in Lewin & McNicol, 2015).

 ICT literacy: ICT literacy focuses mainly on how to make an effective and efficient use of digital
technologies. The main difference between ICT literacy and technological literacy lies in their emphasis
with regard to the competences needed to function in a knowledge society. Technological literacy
emphasizes the interplay between technology and society, as well as the importance of understanding the
technological principles needed to solve complex problems and face the challenges of a knowledge
society.

 Technological literacy: ICT literacy in its traditional form refers to the technical skills related to the
use of technology (Anderson, 2008, cited in Lewin & McNicol, 2015). However, this term can also be
conceptualized in a much broader way as the use of digital technology, communication tools, information
literacy, and/or networks to access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information in order to
function in a knowledge society (Committee on Technological Literacy, 2002, cited in Lewin & McNicol,
2015).

Reference:
Joynes, C., Rossignoli, S., & Fenyiwa Amonoo-Kuofi, E. (2019). 21st Century Skills: Evidence of issues
in definition, demand and delivery for development contexts (K4D Helpdesk Report). Brighton, UK:
Institute of Development Studies.