Edward the Confessor and the Normans Then, in 1042, the line of succession returned to a descendant of Alfred the Great. This king, Edward, had gained the title “the Confessor" because he was a deeply religious Christian. He had spent many of his early years in Normandy, a region once settled by Scandinavians and now a part of France. Norman on his mother's side, Edward had developed a close friendship with his cousin William, Normandy’s ruler. Once Edward took the English throne, his association with the Normans further weakened Saxon power. His death in 1066 led directly to a Norman conquest of England and brought the end of the Anglo-Saxon period of literature, as we shall see in the next unit, ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE Scholars now believe that the literature of the British isles began with Celtic Druids, These priests assumed the function of storytell- ers, memorizing and reciting long, heroic poems about Celtic leaders and their deeds. In the same way, Anglo-Saxon literature began not with books, but with spoken verse and incantations. Their purpose was to pass along tribal history and values to an audience that could not read. To be sure, some Anglo-Saxons were familiar with the written word. In the third century in northern Europe, they had devised an alphabet of letters called runes. When they came to Britain, they brought this alphabet with them and used it until the Latin alphabet we have today superseded it. Yet they employed runes chiefly for inscriptions on important buildings, on statues, and the like. Few early Anglo-Saxons could read or write. Origins of Anglo-Saxon Poetry The reciting of poems often occurred on ceremonial occasions such as the celebration of a military victory. A warrior's comrades would gather in his hall or castle, and the performance would begin. The performers were usually professional minstrels, known as scops, and their assistants, called gleemen. The scops and glee- men recited for hours and, in some instances, even for days. Scholars now suppose that these recitations took place to the accompaniment of a harp. The poems followed a set formula of composition, which probably made them easier to memorize. A formal, rigid pattern of word stresses gave the lyrics a terse,effect. A mid-line pause, called a caesura, occurred in ;. Another part of the pattern was alliteration, the repetition . especially initial consonant sounds. yes of Anglo-Saxon Verse Only about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon verse still exist, Almost ‘of it is found in four works dating from about 4D 975 to 1050. The ‘early verse falls mainly into two categories. One is heroic poetry, fecounts the achievements of warriors involved in great The other is elegiac poetry, sorrowful laments that mourn deaths of loved ones and the loss of the past. Copied many years after their composition, the poems have sly undergone many changes. Later scops may have adapt- them, and so may have monastic scribes. Nevertheless, pagan ‘elements remain, particularly in the ever-present sense of an ominous fate, or wyrd. Consider, for example, these lines from one the elegiac poems, “The Wanderer’: He then, wise in soul, with weighty thought thinks deeply upon this dark- Beowulf Legend Of the heroic poetry, the most important work is Beowull, the story of a great pagan warrior renowned for his courage, strength, _ and dignity. Beowulf is an epic, a long heroic poem. Because it is the first such work to be composed in the English language, it is considered the national epic of England. Like most Anglo-Saxon poets, the author of Beowulf is unknown. Although versions of the poem were probably recited as early as the sixth century, the text that we have today was composed in the eighth century and not written down until the eleventh. Thus, the poem includes many references to Christian ideas and Latin Classics. Clearly evident in Beowulf, however, are the values of a warrior society, especially such values as dignity, bravery, and prowess in battie: And Beowulf was ready, firm with our Lord’s High favor and his own bold courage and Emphasis on such values did not disappear in Christian times. It appeared in later Anglo-Saxon poems such as The Battle of Maldon, which commemorates a great military defeat of the Danes. Poets of the Christian Era Among the few known poets of the Christian era, two are worthy of mention—Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon, who apparentlyHistorical Context The Literature of 449-1066 When you read literature, it is important to know its historical context. Doing so will help you to understand the writer's ideas and techniques In 449 the island of Britain was invaded by warlike Germanic peoples known as Angles and Saxons. These invaders brought with them their pagan beliets and traditions, which appear in Anglo- Saxon poetry and legends. They also brought with them a grim, fatalistic view of the world. These Germanic invaders were followed by Roman missionaries, who converted Britain to Christianity. During this time, different kinds of literature developed, including the oral poetry of the Anglo-Saxons and writen historical and religious prose. The literature of the time shows both pagan and. Christian influences, Very few people were able to read during this period. Theretore, an oral tradition flourished. The Anglo-Saxons were fond of poetry, which was developed and passed on by scops, or Eventually, some of this oral literature was written down by monks in monasteries, who are largely responsible for having preserved oral material Because most literature was oral, it was composed in such a way that it was easily memorized. Lines of poetry with regular rhythms were easier to remember than was prose. Poets used. alliteration for the same reason, In addition, Anglo-Saxon poets were fond of the kenning, a compound metaphorical name for something, such as “whale's home” for the sea. The Anglo-Saxon poetry that has been preserved illustrates these techniques. On the following pages is an Anglo-Saxon poem, "The Sea- farer.” The notes in the side column point out features of the poem that show the historical context or the literary techniques of the: periodThe Seafarer Beene ecw tradition, different versions translated by Burton Raffel of it exist This tale is true. and mine. It tells pease mecwercmes How the sea took me, swept me back = vee And forth in sorrow and fear and pain. Showed me suffering in a hundred ships. In a thousand ports, and in me. It tells Of smashing surf when I sweated in the cold Of an anxious watch, perched in the bow As it dashed under cliffs. My feet were cast In icy bands, bound with frost, With frozen chains, and hardship groaned Writer's Technique: Around my heart. Hunger tore Anglo-Saxon poet At my sea-weary soul. No man sheltered pein ee On the quiet fairness of earth can feel pulse Ae How wretched I was. drifting through winter the two parts: an On an ice-cold sea, whirled in sorrow, important word in the first Alone in a world blown clear of love, Hung with icicles. The hailstorms flew. The only sound was the roaring sea, The freezing waves. The song of the swan Might serve for pleasure, the cry of the sea-fowl, ‘The death-noise of birds instead of laughter, The mewing of gulls instead of mead. ‘Storms beat on the rocky cliffs and were echoed By icy-feathered terns and the eagle’s screams: No kinsman could offer comfort there, To a soul left drowning in desolation. And who could believe, knowing but The passion of cities, swelled proud with wine And no taste of misfortune, how often, how wearily, I put myself back on the paths of the sea. Night would blacken; it would snow from the north; Frost bound the earth and hail would fall, The coldest seeds. And how my heart 7 Would begin to beat. knowing once more = The salt waves tossing and the towering sea! The time for journeys would come and my soul Called me eagerly out, sent me over The horizon, seeking foreigners’ homes.But there isn’t a man on earth so 40 So born to greatness, so bold with his youth, Historical Context: The Anglo-Saxons saw Fate as Grown so brave, or so graced by God, grim and overpowering That he feels no fear as the sails unfurl, Wondering what Fate has willed and will do. No harps ring in his heart, no rewards, 45 No passion for women, no worldly pleasures, Nothing, only the ocean's heave: But longing wraps itself around him. Orchards blossom, the towns bloom, Fields grow lovely as the world springs fresh, 50 And all these admonish that willing mindto journeys, always set In thoughts traveling on a quickening tide. So summer's sentinel, the cuckoo, sings In his murmuring voice, and our hearts mourn As he urges. Who could understand. In ignorant ease, what we others suffer As the paths of exile stretch endlessly on? And yet my heart wanders away, My soul roams with the sea, the whales’ Home, wandering to the widest corners Of the world, returning ravenous with desire, Flying solitary, screaming. exciting me To the open ocean, breaking oaths On the curve of a wave. Thus the joys of God pees Context: Fes Are fervent with life, where life itself Sinister Gal Fades quickly into the earth. The wealth . Of the world neither reaches to Heaven nor remains. No man has ever faced the dawn Certain which of Fate's three threats Would fall: illness, or age, or an enemy's Sword, snatching the life from his soul. The praise the living pour on the dead Flowers from reputation: plant An earthly life of profit reaped Even from hatred and rancor, of bravery Flung in the devil's face, and death Can only bring you earthly praise And a song to celebrate a place With the angels, life eternally blessed In the hosts of Heaven. The days are gone When the kingdoms of earth flourished in glory; Now there are no rulers, no emperors, No givers of gold, as once there were, When wonderful things were worked among them And they lived in lordly magnificence. Those powers have vanished, those pleasures are dead. The weakest survives and the world continues, Kept spinning by toil. All glory is tarnished. The world’s honor ages and shrinks, Bent like the men who mold it. Their faces Blanch as time advances, their beards Wither and they mourn the memory of friends. The sons of princes, sown in the dust.100 105 110 115 The soul stripped of its flesh knows nothing Of sweetness or sour, feels no pain, Bends neither its hand nor its brain. A brother Opens his palms and pours down gold On his kinsman’s grave, strewing his coffin With treasures intended for Heaven, but nothing Golden shakes the wrath of God For a soul overflowing with sin, and nothing Hidden on earth rises to Heaven. We all fear God. He turns the earth, He set it swinging firmly in space, Gave life to the world and light to the sky. Death leaps at the fools who forget their God. He who lives humbly has angels from Heaven To carry him courage and strength and belief. A man must conquer pride, not kill it, Be firm with his fellows, chaste for himself, Treat all the world as the world deserves, With love or with hate but never with harm, Though an enemy seek to scorch him in hell, Or set the flames of a funeral pyre Under his lord. Fate is stronger And God mightier than any man's mind. Our thoughts should turn to where our home is, Consider the ways of coming there, Then strive for sure permission for us To rise to that eternal joy, That life born in the love of God And the hope of Heaven. Praise the Holy Grace of Him who honored us, Eternal, unchanging creator of earth. Amen.ABOUT THE SELECTION 1, What are three images the poet uses in the first stanza to convey his sense of isolation? 2. The poet names “Fate's three threats." What are they? 3 (a) What happens to “fools who forget their God"? (b) What happens to those who “live humbly"? Interpreting 4. How might you explain the mixed feelings about the sea that the poet seems to feel? 5. Pagans in Anglo-Saxon Engiand—that is, istians—felt themselves at the mercy of forces utterly beyond their control, while Christians put their trust in salvation and heaven. In what way do lines 39 through 43 ‘show the influence of both beliefs? 6 Explain lines 66 and 67: “The wealth / Of the world neither reaches to Heaven nor re- mains. 7. "The Seafarer" is a poem of contrasts. What contrast is implied in lines 80 through 102? 8. What does the poet mean by the word home in line 117? - Applying 9. Explain how a person can dislike something as much as the sailor dislikes life at sea and yet keep going back to it ANALYZING LITERATURE Understanding Anglo-Saxon Poetry A lyric poem is one that expresses intense Personal emotions. “The Seafarer” mixes pagan with Christian beliefs and expresses sorrow for something lost or past. At times the poet's feel- ings seem to border on despair 1, What deep personal feelings does the poet ‘express in the first part of “The Seafarer’ that ‘show this to be a lyric poem? 2. “The Seafarer” has two distinct parts, the Second of which begins at line 64. What are ‘some of the strong emotions expressed in the Second part of the poem? CRITICAL THINKING AND READING Comparing and Contrasting Attitudes To compare two ideas or attitudes is to point Out similarities. To contrast them is to point out differences. Most people have mixed feelings on certain subjects, Explain what accounts for the poet's state of mind at the beginning of the poem and at the end. UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE Appreciating Old English Old English is the English language as it existed from about 500 to about 1150. Our language has changed so much since then that Anglo-Saxon poems like “The Seafarer" must be translated, just as if they came from a foreign language, if modern readers are to appreciate them. Here are lines 42 and 43 trom “The Sea- farer” in Old English peet he a his sastore sorge naebbe. to hwon hine Dryhten gedon wille. A ew Old English words still appear in dictiona- ries but are seldom used any more. Find the meanings of the following words. 1, chur 4. yare 2. thane 5. yclept 3. tor THINKING AND WRITING Writing About Anglo-Saxon Beliefs “The Seatarer” is not an easy poem to under- stand. One critic has said that almost any theory can be made to explain its meaning, What is your theory? What main idea do you think the poet intends to convey? In your prewriting, list the various thoughts and feelings the poet express- es in the poem, Use these notes as the basis for a thesis statement in which you summarize what you think the main idea of the poem is. In writing a first draft, support your thesis statement with evidence from the poem. When you revise, be sure you have made clear the reasons for your conclusion.————a Writing from Beowulf Anglo-Saxon Epic Poetry. An epic is a long narrative poem, sometimes developed orally, that celebrates the deeds of a legen- dary or heroic figure. A few epics predate the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf Well-known epics from earlier times include the Greek Iliad and Odyssey by Homer and the Roman Aeneid by Virgil. Typically, an epic, featuring a hero who is larger than life, concerns eternal human problems such as the struggle between good and evil. An epic is presented in a senous way, often through the use of elevated language. The hero of an epic represents widespread national, cultural, or religious values. Beowulf is one of the oldest European epics. Its hero, Beowulf, embodies the highest ideals of his time and place: loyalty, valor, unselfishness, and a sense of justice. He represents good, while Grendel represents evil. Throughout Beowulf there is a prevailing yet somewhal uneasy biend of Christian ethics and pagan morality, Against a backdrop of gloom that reflects the Anglo-Saxons’ stoic acceptance of fate, the story applauds the highest virtues of human nature—courage. generosity. faithfulness. Despite its blood and horror, Beowulf is a deeply idealistic narrative. Anglo-Saxon epic poetry, of which Beowulf is the great exam- ple, has certain distinctive features. One is the two-part line. Each line is separated by a pause, known as a caesura, and there are generally two strong beats per part. Another feature is the kenning, a colorful, indirect way of maming something: The sea is a whalepath: a battle is spear play; the sun is the candle of the skies. Beowulf belongs to the present as well as the past. Perhaps the Most popular contemporary works it inspired are a series of epics about the fantasy world of Middle Earth. Beginning in 1937 with The Hobbit, Oxtord don J. R. R. Tolkein wove imaginative tales about good and evil. The enthusiastic response to his trilogy The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955—The Fellowship of the Ring, The Two Towers, The Return of the King) prompted him to continue the saga in The Silmarillion (1977), an account of the origins of Middle Earth: Tolkien, however, was onginally far more famous for completely changing the way we read Beowulf. In his 1936 article “Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics,” he saw Beowulf as poetry rather than history, and modern Beowulf scholarship began. At the time Beowulf was composed, the ideals of the Anglo-Saxons included loyalty, valor, unselfishness, and a sense of justice. Those are still highly regarded ideals, but they are not the only ones. List four other ideals that are important to Americans today10 iom Beowulf translated by Burton Raffel The selection opens during an evening of celebration at Herot, the banquet hall of the Danish king Hrothgar (hroth’ gar). Outside in the darkness, however, lurks the monster Grendel. a murderous creature who poses a great danger to the people inside the banquet hall. The Wrath of Grendel A powerful monster, living down In the darkness, growled in pain, impatient As day after day the music rang Loud in that hall.' the harp’s rejoicing 1. hall: Herot. Call and the poet's clear songs, sung Of the ancient beginnings of us all, recalling The Almighty making the earth, shaping These beautiful plains marked off by oceans, Then proudly setting the sun and moon To glow across the land and light it; The corners of the earth were made lovely with trees And leaves, made quick with life, with each Of the nations who now move on its face. And then As now warriors sang of their pleasure: So Hrothgar’s men lived happy in his hall Till the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend, Grendel, who haunted the moors, the wild Marshes, and made his home in a hell Not hell but earth. He was spawned in that slime, Conceived by a pair of those monsters born Of Cain,? murderous creatures banished 2. Cain: The oldest son of By God, punished forever for the crime Adam and Eve. who Of Abel's death. The Almighty drove coemcered ie einer Those demons out, and their exile was bitter. Shut away from men; they split Into a thousand forms of evil—spirits And fiends, goblins, monsters, giants, A brood forever opposing the Lord’s Will, and again and again defeated. Then, when darkness had dropped, Grendel Went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors Would do in that hall when their drinking was done.7S He found them sprawled in sleep, suspecting Nothing, their dreams undisturbed. The monster's Thoughts were as quick as his greed or his claws: He slipped through the door and there in the silence Snatched up thirty men, smashed them Unknowing in their beds and ran out with their bodies, The blood dripping behind him, back To his lair, delighted with his night's slaughter. At daybreak, with the sun's first light, they saw How well he had worked, and in that gray morning Broke their long feast with tears and laments For the dead. Hrothgar, their lord, sat joyless In Herot, a mighty prince mourning The fate of his lost friends and companions, Knowing by its tracks that some demon had torn His followers apart. He wept. fearing The beginning might not be the end. And that night Grendel came again, so set On murder that no crime could ever be enough, No savage assault quench his lust For evil. Then each warrior tried To escape him, searched for rest in different Beds, as far from Herot as they could find, Seeing how Grendel hunted when they slept. Distance was safety; the only survivors Were those who fled him. Hate had triumphed. So Grendel ruled, fought with the righteous, One against many, and won; so Herot Stood empty, and stayed deserted for years, Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, king Of the Danes, sorrow heaped at his door By hell-forged hands. His misery leaped The seas, was told and sung in all Men's ears: how Grendel's hatred began, How the monster relished his savage war On the Danes, keeping the bloody feud Alive, seeking no peace, offering No truce, accepting no settlement, no price In gold or land, and paying the living For one crime only with another. No one Waited for reparation from his plundering claws: That shadow of death hunted in the darkness, Stalked Hrothgar's warriors, old And young, lying in waiting, hidden In mist, invisibly following them from the edge Of the marsh, always there, unseen. So mankind's enemy continued his crimes,Killing as often as he could, coming Alone. bloodthirsty and horrible. “Though he lived In Herot, when the night hid him, he never Dared to touch king Hrothgar’s glorious Throne, protected by God—God, Whose love Grendel could not know. But Hrothgar’s Heart was bent. The best and most noble Of his council debated remedies, sat In secret sessions, talking of terror And wondering what the bravest of warriors could do. And sometimes they sacrificed to the old stone gods, Made heathen vows, hoping for Hell's Support, the Devil's guidance in driving Their affliction off. That was their way, And the heathen's only hope, Hell Always in their hearts, knowing neither God Nor His passing as He walks through our world, the Lord Of Heaven and earth; their ears could not hear His praise nor know His glory. Let them Beware. those who are thrust into danger, Clutched at by trouble, yet can carry no solace In their hearts, cannot hope to be better! Hail To those who will rise to God, drop off Their dead bodies and seek our Father's peace! The Coming of Beowulf So the living sorrow of Healfdane’s son’ 3. Healfdane's (hi alf Simmered, bitter and fresh, and no wisdom den’naz) sem: Hrothgar. Or strength could break it: that agony hung On king and people alike, harsh And unending, violent and cruel, and evil. In his far-off home Beowulf, Higlac’s* 4. Higlac's (hig laks) Follower and the strongest of the Geats—greater Higlac was the king of the And stronger than anyone anywhere in this world— Peoend area ogee Heard how Grendel filled nights with horror uncle. And quickly commanded a boat fitted out, Proclaiming that he'd go to that famous king, Would sail across the sea to Hrothgar, Now when help was needed. None Of the wise ones regretted his going, much As he was loved by the Geats: the omens were good, And they urged the adventure on. So Beowulf ‘Chose the mightiest men he could find, The bravest and best of the Geats, fourteen In all, and led them down to their boat; He knew the sea, would point the prow Straight to that distant Danish shore.160 70 Then they sailed, set their ship Out on the waves, under the cliffs. Ready for what came they wound through the currents, The seas beating at the sand, and were borne In the lap of their shining ship, lined With gleaming armor, going safely In that oak-hard boat to where their hearts took them. The wind hurried them over the waves, The ship foamed through the sea like a bird Until, in the time they had known it would take, Standing in the round-curled prow they could see Sparkling hills, high and green, Jutting up over the shore, and rejoicing In those rock-steep cliffs they quietly ended Their voyage. Jumping to the ground, the Geats Pushed their boat to the sand and tied it In place, mail shirts and armor As they swiftly moored their ship. And then They gave thanks to God for their easy crossing. High on a wall a Danish watcher Patrolling along the cliffs saw The travelers crossing to the shore, their shields Raised and shining; he came riding down, Hrothgar’s lieutenant, spurring his horse, Needing to know why they'd landed, these men In armor. Shaking his heavy spear In their faces he spoke: “Whose soldiers are you, You who've been carried in your deep-keeled ship Across the sea-road to this country of mine? Listen! I've stood on these cliffs longer Than you know, keeping our coast free Of pirates, raiders sneaking ashore From their ships, seeking our lives and our gold. None have ever come more openly— And yet you've offered no password, no sign From my prince, no permission from my people for your landing Here. Nor have I ever seen, Out of all the men on earth, one greater Than has come with you; no commoner carries Such weapons, unless his appearance, and his beauty, Are both lies. You! Tell me your name, And your father's; no spies go further onto Danish Soil than you've come already. Strangers, From wherever it was you sailed, tell it, And tell it quickly, the quicker the better, I say, for us all. Speak, say Exactly who you are, and from where, and why.”175 200 210 215 Their leader answered him, Beowulf unlocking Words from deep in his breast: “We are Geats, Men who follow Higlac. My father Was a famous soldier, known far and wide As a leader of men. His name was Edgetho. His life lasted many winters; Wise men all over the earth surely Remember him still. And we have come seeking Your prince, Healfdane’s son, protector Of this people, only in friendship: instruct us, Watchman, help us with your words! Our errand Is a great one, our business with the glorious king Of the Danes no secret; there's nothing dark Or hidden in our coming. You know (if we've heard The truth, and been told honestly) that your country Is cursed with some strange, vicious creature That hunts only at night and that no one Has seen. It's said, watchman, that he has slaughtered Your people, brought terror to the darkness. Perhaps Hrothgar can hunt, here in my heart, For some way to drive this devil out— If anything will ever end the evils Afflicting your wise and famous lord. Here he can cool his burning sorrow. Or else he may see his suffering go on Forever, for as long as Herot towers High on your hills.’ The mounted officer Answered him bluntly, the brave watchman: ‘A soldier should know the difference between words And deeds, and keep that knowledge clear In his brain. I believe your words, I trust in Your friendship. Go forward, weapons and armor And all, on into Denmark. I'll guide you Myself—and my men will guard your ship, Keep it safe here on our shores, Your fresh-tarred boat, watch it well, Until that curving prow carries Across the sea to Geatland a chosen Warrior who bravely does battle with the creature Haunting our people, who survives that horror Unhurt, and goes home bearing our love.” Then they moved on. Their boat lay moored, Tied tight to its anchor. Glittering at the top Of their golden helmets wild boar heads gleamed, Shining decorations, swinging as they marched, Erect like guards, like sentinels, as though ready410 Had been granted new glory: Grendel escaped, But wounded as he was could flee to his den, His miserable hole at the bottom of the marsh, Only to die, to wait for the end Of all his days. And after that bloody Combat the Danes laughed with delight, He who had come to them from across the sea, Bold and strong-minded, had driven affliction Off, purged Herot clean. He was happy, Now, with that night's fierce work; the Danes Had been served as he'd boasted he'd serve them; Beowulf, A prince of the Geats, had killed Grendel, Ended the grief, the sorrow, the suffering Forced on Hrothgar's helpless people By a bloodthirsty fiend. No Dane doubted The victory, for the proof, hanging high From the rafters where Beowulf had hung it. was the monster's Arm, claw and shoulder and all.From every side, trying to open A path for his evil soul, but their points Could not hurt him, the sharpest and hardest iron Could not scratch at his skin, for that sin-stained demon Had bewitched all men’s weapons, laid spells That blunted every mortal man’s blade. And yet his time had come, his days Were over, his death near; down To hell he would go, swept groaning and helpless To the waiting hands of still worse fiends. Now he discovered—once the afflictor Of men, tormentor of their days—what it meant To feud with Almighty God: Grendel Saw that his strength was deserting him. his claws Bound fast, Higlac’s brave follower tearing at His hands. The monster's hatred rose higher. But his power had gone. He twisted in pain, And the bleeding sinews deep in his shoulder Snapped, muscle and bone split And broke. The battle was over, Beowulf370 Hrothgar's wise men had fashioned Herot To stand forever; only fire, They had planned, could shatter what such skill had put Together, swallow in hot flames such splendor Of ivory and fron and wood. Suddenly The sounds changed, the Danes started In new terror, cowering in their beds as the terrible Sereams of the Almighty’s enemy sang In the darkness, the horrible shrieks of And defeat, the tears torn out of Grendel's Taut throat, hell's captive caught in the arms Of him who of all the men on earth Was the strongest. That mighty protector of men Meant to hold the monster till its life Leaped out, knowing the fiend was no use To anyone in Denmark. All of Beowulf's Band had jumped from their beds, ancestral Swords raised and ready, determined To protect their prince if they could. Their courage Was great but all wasted: they could hack at GrendelAnd his heart laughed, he relished the sight, Intended to tear the life from those bodies By morning; the monster's mind was hot With the thought of food and the feasting his belly Would soon know. But fate, that night, intended Grendel to gnaw the broken bones Of his last human supper. Human Eyes were watching his evil steps, Waiting to see his swift hard claws. Grendel snatched at the first Geat He came to, ripped him apart, cut His body to bits with powerful jaws. Drank the blood from his veins and bolted Him down, hands and feet; death And Grendel's great teeth came together, life shut, Then he stepped to another Still body, clutched at Beowulf with his claws, Grasped at a strong-hearted wakeful sleeper —And was instantly seized himself, claws Bent back as Beowulf leaned up on one arm. That shepherd of evil, guardian of crime. Knew at once that nowhere on earth Had he met a man whose hands were harder; His mind was flooded with fear—but nothing Could take his talons and himself from that tight Hard grip. Grendel's one thought was to run From Beowulf, flee back to his marsh and hide there: This was a different Herot than the hall he had emptied. But Higlac’s follower remembered his final Boast and, standing erect, stopped The monster's flight, fastened those claws In his fists till they cracked, clutched Grendel Closer. The infamous killer fought For his freedom, wanting no flesh but retreat, Desiring nothing but escape: his claws Had been caught, he was trapped. That trip to Herot Was a miserable journey for the writhing monster! The high hall rang, its roof boards swayed, And Danes shook with terror. Down The aisles the battle swept, angry And wild. Herot trembled, wonderfully Built to withstand the blows, the struggling Great bodies beating at its beautiful walls; Shaped and fastened with iron, inside And out, artfully worked, the building Stood firm. Its benches rattled, fell To the floor, gold-covered boards grating As Grendel and Beowulf battled across them.Is so great that he needs no weapons and fears none. Nor will I. My lord Higlac Might think less of me if | let my sword Go where my feet were afraid to, if | hid 6. linden: A very sturdy Behind some broad linden® shield: my hands type of wood. Alone shall fight for me. struggle for life the monster. God must decide Who will be given to death's cold grip. Grendel's plan, | think, will be What it has been before, to invade this hall And gorge his belly with our bodies. If he can, If he can. And I think, if my time will have come, There'll be nothing to mourn over, no corpse to prepare For its grave: Grendel will carry our bloody Flesh to the moors, crunch on our bones And smear torn scraps of our skin on the walls Of his den. No, I expect no Danes Will fret about sewing our shrouds, if he wins. And if death does take me. send the hammered Mail of my armor to Higlac, return The inheritance | had from Hrethel, and he 7. Wayland: Prom From Wayland.’ Fate will unwind as it must!" Germanic folklore, an invisible blacksmith. The Battle with Grendel That night Beowulf and his men take the places of Hrothgar and the Danes inside Herot. While his men sleep, Beowulf lies awake, eager to meet with Grendel. Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty Hills and bogs, bearing God's hatred, Grendel came, hoping to kill Anyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot. He moved quickly through the cloudy night, Up from his swampland, sliding silently Toward that gold-shining hall. He had visited Hrothgar’s Home before, knew the way— But never, before nor after that night, Found Herot defended so firmly, his reception So harsh. He journeyed, forever joyless, Straight to the door, then snapped it open, Tore its iron fasteners with a touch And rushed angrily over the threshold. He strode quickly across the inlaid Floor, snarling and fierce: his eyes Gleamed in the darkness, burned with a gruesome Light. Then he stopped, seeing the hall Crowded with sleeping warriors, stuffed With rows of young soldiers resting together.To fight. They marched, Beowulf and his men And their guide, until they could see the gables Of Herot, covered with hammered gold And glowing in the sun—that most famous of all dwellings, Towering majestic, its glittering roofs Visible far across the land. Their guide reined in his horse, pointing To that hall, built by Hrothgar for the best And bravest of his men; the path was plain, They could see their way . . . Beowulf and his men arrive at Herot and are about to be escorted in to see King Hrothgar. Beowulf arose, with his men Around him, ordering a few to remain With their weapons, leading the others quickly under Herot's steep roof into Hrothgar's Presence. Standing on that prince's own hearth, Helmeted, the silvery metal of his mail shirt Gleaming with a smith’s high art, he greeted The Danes’ great lord: “Hail, Hrothgar! Higlac is my cousin® and my king; the days 5S. cousin: Here, used as a Of my youth have been filled with glory. Now Grendel's general term for relative. Name has echoed in our land: sailors Have brought us stories of Herot, the best Of all mead-halls, deserted and useless when the moon Hangs in skies the sun had lit, Light and itfe fleeing together. My people have said, the wisest, most knowing And best of them, that my duty was to go to the Danes’ Great king. They have seen my strength for themselves, Have watched me rise from the darkness of war, Dripping with my enemies’ blood. I drove Five great giants into chains, chased All of that race from the earth. Iswam In the blackness of night, hunting monsters Out of the ocean, and killing them one By one; death was my errand and the fate They had earned. Now Grendel and | are called Together, and I've come. Grant me, then, Lord and protector of this noble place, A single request! | have come so far, Oh shelterer of warriors and your people's loved friend, That this one favor you should not refuse me— That I, alone and with the help of my men, May purge all evil from this hall. I have heard, Too, that the monster's scorn of menTHE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 1066-1485 A Knyght ther was, and that a worthy man That fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie Geoffrey ChaucerThe famous description on the preceding page comes from an English literary masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer (13407-1400), The passage reflects many of the ideas and attitudes held by Europeans during the fourteenth century. In these years knights lived by the code of chivalry, which stressed truth, honor, and courtesy off the battlefield and valor on it. The Roman Catholic Church had become the only force uniting most of Western Europe. Religion pervaded daily life, and to be a devout Christian —a worthy man—was important not only to knights but to ail members of English society. During these years the English language changed from its Anglo-Saxon form to one called Middie English, far more familiar to modern readers, Looking at Chaucer's words above, we can readily recognize their modern English counterparts—"“knyght” iis knight, “ther” is there, “fro” is from, “riden” is ride, “chivalrie” is chivalry, and so on. The change trom Old English to Middle English took place gradually. Yet this change can be traced to one riveting event—the Norman invasion of 1066. THE NORMAN CONQUEST The Normans, or “north men,” were descendants of Vikings who had invaded the coast of France in the ninth century. Over the years, these people had adopted many French ways. They had become devout Christians. They had accustomed themselves to speaking a dialect of the French language. They had also organized themselves according to the French political and economic system ot the times—feudalism. William, Duke of Normandy, had family ties to Edward the Contessor, the English king. When Edward died in 1066, the Saxon witan—the council of eiders—chose Harold || as king. William of Normandy, meanwhile, claimed that Edward had promised him the throne. William thereupon led a few thousand Norman and French troops across the English Channel to assert his: claim by force. He met King Harold at the Battle of Hastings near a seaside village in southern Engiand. Harold was killed, and William emerged victorious. He then headed for Landon, brutally crushing all resist- ance. At Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, William “the Con- queror” took the throne of England as King William | Over the next five years, William consolidated his victory, He suppressed the Anglo-Saxon nobility and confiscated their lands. He saw to it that Normans controlled government at all levels. The Normans conducted their business in Norman French or Latin. They gradually remade England along feudal lines. The Rise of Feudalism Feudalism had taken root on the European continent at a time when no central government was strong enough to keep order.THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD 1066-1485 A Knyght ther was, and that a worthy man That fro the tyme that he first bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrie, Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie Geoffrey Chaucerthe circumstances, nobles had to rely on their own warriors p. The system they created was an exchange of property for nal service. The person who granted the property was the lord rd. The person who received it was the vassal. The vassal service to his lord in a ceremony called the act of age. At the same time, the vassal usually pledged his faithful- ss by taking the Christian vow of fealty. In theory, all the land belonged to the ruler. The king kept some his personal use, granted some to the church, and parceled rest among his powerful supporters. He gave these support- ‘nobie titles—usually baron—and the special privileges that with them. The parcels of land granted to the barons were as fiets. ‘As a vassal! of his overlord, each baron was obliged to pay aI fees or taxes. He was also expected to supply a specified # of knights, or professional soldiers, should the king require In return for their services, knights usually received smaller ‘of land, called manors. The peasants who worked these ‘manors were the lowest class in the feudal system, the serfs, ‘Manors became the basic community of the feudal system, Most were self-sufficient, using their own craftsmen to provide nearly all needs. Jn the eleventh century, Europe had no nation-states with firm it boundaries, William and the Norman kings who followed William li, Henry |, and Stephen of Blois—heid feudal do- i in both England and France. Since they had two realms, Norman kings had far wider responsibilities than Saxon kings had _ faced. The situation also meant that English barons dissatisfied with ‘their overlord could cross the English Channel and stir up trouble on A Shifting Language Like a great many of history's conquerors, the Normans thought themselves vastly superior to the peopie they had conquered, The invaders treated the Saxons and Danes as not quite human and ‘Snified at their language as unworthy of respect. The Normans ‘Substituted their dialect of French in the !aw courts as well as in the ‘Conduct of business in general. To this day, French words such as. bail and sergeant remain embedded in the language of English law. Traces of Norman discrimination against the Saxons have lingered for centuries. In his nineteenth-century novel /vanhoe, Sir Waiter Scott noted one aspect of Norman superiority. In the field, he wrote, a domestic animal is often referred to by its Saxon name —swine, sheep, or ox. When the same animal appears on a dinner table, however, it takes a French name—pork, mutton, or beef. In ‘other words, the raising of farm animals was considered a Saxon ‘activity, whereas the more elegant pursuit, dining, betitted the Normans.Reign of the Plantagenets Although Norman influence continued for centuries, Norman tule ended in 1154 when Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, came to the throne as Henry | Henry founded the royal house of Plantagenet. otherwise known as the Angevin (from Anjou) line of English monarchs, A strongly committed ruler, Henry established a record as one of England's ablest kings. He had an avid interest in government and a keen understanding of the law. Henry II and the Church pol defied the king and appealed to the Pope in Rome. The Pope sided with Becket, provoking Henry to rage. Some of Henry's knights misunderstood the royal wrath, In 4170, four of them went to Canterbury and murdered Becket in his cathedral. Henry quickly condemned the crime and tried to atone for it by making a holy journey, or pilgrimage, to Becket’s tomb. Thereafter a pilgrimage to Becket's shrine at Canterbury became a common English means of showing religious devotion, The charac- ters in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, for example, make just such a pilgrimage. Origins of Constitutional Government The next king, Richard |, spent most of his reign staging military expeditions overseas. His activities proved costly, and his succes- sor, King John, inherited the debts. John tried to raise money by ordering new taxes on the barons and saved money by curtailing services such as the sending of judges to local districts to settie | quarrels. The barons resisted these measures, bringing England to the edge of civil war. To avert further trouble, King John at last agreed to certain of the barons’ conditions by putting his seal to the Magna Carta (Latin for “Great Charter”) In this document, the king promised not to tax land without first meeting with the barons. He also said he would choose as his officers only those “who know the law of the realm and mean to observe it well.” The Magna Carta produced no radical changes in government. Yet many historians believe that the document's re- Strictions on royal power marked the beginning of Constitutional government in England. Constitutional government continued to develop under subse- quent kings. During the reign of Henry Ill, the Great Council of barons who advised the king came to be called Parliament. Henry's. Edward |, became the first king to summon a Parliament elected by “free men” —a term that included some ordinary e as well as barons. By the end of the thirteenth century, in the British Isles lt was no accident that some members of Parliament now fepresented townspeople. In the thirteenth century, towns were “becoming increasingly important in English lite .The Crusades, a ‘Series of religious wars in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, had ‘Stimulated trade between Europe and the Middle East. As trade € ded, so did Europe's trading centers. The largest of these ‘centers in England was London, originally built by the Romans. Four _ times more populous than any other English community, London had already achieved status as a city in London and elsewhere, townspeople organized themselves "into guilds, or associations, of various sorts. The two most signifi- } Cant types were merchant guilds and craft guilds. Merchant guilds _ were formed in an effort to promote business within a town, often at the expense of other towns nearby. As these guilds became more _ Powerful, some of them virtually took over town governments. Craft ‘Quilds, like our modern labor unions, sought to protect the interests of workers such as weavers. carpenters, and tanners. They also tied to assure the quality of the work these craftspeople produced. _ Such organizations operated in a world in which advancement was tightly controlied. A young person typically entered a craft as an _ apprentice, or beginner, and worked his way up the ladder, ‘Sometimes reaching the highest rung as master craftsman. The growth of towns meant that wealth was no longer restricted 10 land ownership, which remained a privilege of the nobility.Unfortunately, it also meant that people lived much closer together, often under conditions that were far from sanitary. When infectious diseases came to England, they spread havoc in the towns. The worst epidemic, a great plague called the Black Death, swept the island in 1348 and 1349, killing a third of the population. THE LATER MIDDLE AGES By the time of the Black Death, England had already passed — into the period known as the Later Middle Ages. This period lasted from the beginning of the fourteenth century to the end of the fifteenth. During these years, the house of Lancaster replaced the Plantagenets on the throne, only to be replaced in turn by the house of York. The Lancastrian kings were Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry VI, all of whom later becarne central figures in the historical dramas of Shakespeare. During the Later Middle Ages, the feudal system went into a steep decline. As new towns appeared, feudal notions of land tenure seemed more and more outdated. After the Black Death Swept across England, a massive labor shortage increased the value of a peasant’s work. More and more land owners began paying their farmers in cash, giving these workers a greater sense of freedom. Along with freedom went frustration, as peasants began complaining about discriminatory laws and onerous taxation, Final- ly, in 1381, peasants in southern England staged a revolt, demand- ing, among other things, an end to serfdom. Although the revolt was eventually crushed, many of its causes continued, and so did the peasants’ discontentabout the time of the peasants’ revolt, other complaints were directed at the church. They came from an outspoken r, John Wycliffe (c. 1320-84), who thought that religion had far from its roots. Wycliffe opposed all forms of wealth the clergy. He showed only scorn for monks, calling them “red and fat cheeks and great bellies." He believed that all authority sprang from the Bible, not from the Church e directed the translation of the Bible into English in the making it more accessible to the people. He also helped to an order of “poor priests” known as Lollards. Eventually shop of Canterbury moved against the Lollards as here- e who attack Church doctrine and undermine Church . Yet the Loliards continued to spread Wycliffe’s teachings ‘number of years after the scholar's death ars of the Roses dust as the English Middle Ages had opened with a struggle for wer, they closed with a similar conflict. This one began in 1453, King Henry Vi suffered the first of many bouts of madness. vent appointed his cousin Richard of York as temporary head ‘government. When Henry recovered briefly, Richard was forced Office. and Henry returned to the throne. Richard would not without a fight, however. The resulting civil war became ‘as the first War of the Roses, for it pitted the house of York, “Whose symbol was a white rose, against the house of Lancaster “whose symbol was a red rose In 1461, a Yorkist victory put Richard's son, Edward, on the throne. As Edward IV, he ruled England until his death in 1483, when fis eldest son, still a boy, became Edward V. Soon afterward Edward V and his brother died mysteriously in the Tower of London while under the supposed protection of their uncle, Richard of Gloucester. Richard, accused by many people of these “Tower _ Murders,” then proclaimed himself King Richard Ii i Two years later, Henry Tudor, a distant cousin and supporter of _ the Lancastrian kings, led a rebellion against the unpopular King Richard and killed him. Tudor, crowned Henry VIl, later married Richard's niece. By doing so, he united the houses of York and Lancaster and ended the Wars of the Roses. By the time Henry had established a new royal line, the house of Tudor. the English Middle Ages had ended CHIVALRY AND ROMANCE Most societies have lived by a well-established set of ideals. and England of the Middle Ages was no exception. One set of “Standards by which people measured themselves during these _ years was the cade of knightly behavior known as chivalry. The idea E ‘of chivalry first arose on the European continent at the time of the i7 Sir Patrick Spens This version of “Sir Patrick Spens” is in modern English. The king sits in Dumferling town, Drinking the blood-red wine: “O where will I get a good sailor, To sail this ship of mine?” § Upand spoke an ancient knight, Sat at the king's right knee: “Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor, That sails upon the sea,”” The king has written a broad letter, 0 And signed it with his hand, And sent it to Sir Patrick Spens, Was walking on the sand. The first line that Sir Patrick read, A loud laugh laughed he; § The next line that Sir Patrick read, The tear blinded his eye. “O who is this has done this deed, This ill deed done to me, To send me out this time of the year, ° To sail upon the sea! “Make haste, make haste, my merry men all ‘Our good ship sails the morn: “O say not so, my master dear, For | fear a deadly storm. 5 “Late. late yesterday evening I saw the new moon, With the old moon in her arm, And I fear, I fear, my dear master, That we will come to harm.” O our Scots nobles were right loath 0 To wet their cork-heeled shoes, But long before the play were played, Their hats they swam above.Sir Patrick Spens This version of “Sir Patrick Spens” ts in the original Middle English. The king sits in Dumferling’ toune, Drinking the blude-reid wine: “O whar will I get guid sailor, To sail this schip of mine?” § Up and spak an eldern knicht, Sat at the kings richt kne: “Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor, That sails upon the se.”" The king has written a braid letter, 10 And signd it wi his hand, And sent it to Sir Patrick Spens, Was walking on the sand, The first line that Sir Patrick red, A loud lauch lauchéd he; 15 The next line that Sir Patrick red. The teir blinded his ee. “O wha is this has don this deid, This ill deid don to me, To send me out this time o' the yeir, 20 To sail upon the se! “Mak hast, mak hast, my mirry men all Our guid schip sails the morne:” “O say na sae, my master deir, For I feir a deadlie storme. 25 «“Late, late yestreen | saw the new moone, Wi the auld moone in hir arme, MEDIEVAL Bal And I feir, | feir, my deir master, 150 CENTOR That we will cum to harme.” a O our Scots nobles wer richt laith 30 To weet their cork-heild schoone, Bot lang owre a‘ the play wer playd, Thair hats they swam aboone. 1, Dumferling: A town in Scotland near Edinburgh.May Day festivities. These folk celebrations honoring the coming of spring took place each year on the first day of May. DRAMA OF THE MIDDLE AGES The theater of William Shakespeare had its roots in the dramas of the Middle Ages. During early Norman times, the Church often sponsored plays as part of religious services. In time, these plays Moved trom the church to the churchyard and then to the market- place. The earliest dramas were miracle plays, in England some- times also called mystery plays. They retold stories from the Bible or dealt with some aspect of the lives of saints. Over the years the theater gained in popularity among English townspeople. Several communities became famous for performing @ particular series of plays, or cycle, which presented a Biblical history of humankind. York, the religious capital of northern England, had one of the largest cycles. Chester and Wakelield also staged multi-play productions, Clergymen usually wrote the plays, and actors performed them on wagons or fixed scaffolds. Each of the town's craft guilds would take turns producing one play. During the turbulent years of the fifteenth century, a new kind of drama arose—the morality play. Morality plays depicted the life of an ordinary person, sometimes from birth to death. Along the way the hero meets characters who symbolize abstract qualities, such — as Vice or Virtue. The purpose of these allegorical dramas was to teach a moral lesson, The most famous surviving morality play is Everyman, which had its origin in the Netherlands and was not adapted for English audiences until about 1500. By that time, Middle English was giving way to modern English, the form of the language we speak today. Even so, Everyman is usually studied as part of Middle English literature, for it is one of the most powerful examples of the kinds of morality plays performed in the later Middle Ages. Subsequent generations of writers owe a great debt to the literature of the English Middle Ages. In Chaucer, the era produced the first major writer in English to be known and respected for his craft. With works such as Everyman, the period produced the foundations of the great English dramatic tradition. In addition, the romantic adventures of King Arthur and his knights became a source to which future writers would turn again and againthe tomb of Thomas Becket. The pilgrims represent many of life—a knight, a squire, a Clerk, a friar, a nun, a milter, a and so on. In Chaucer's deft hands, each storyteller as a vivid personality in his or her own right. Some of the have religious themes; others are humorous or satiric. All in all, provide a remarkable portrait of lite in the later Middle Ages. -s and Ballads Europeans of the Middle Ages had a fondness tor a harplike ment called the lyre. in palaces and castles, poets often ed lyres as they recited their verse. From this custom English c poetry developed. Lyric poems of this period fall into two main categories, secular d religious. The usual topics of the secular poetry are love or : many of them celebrate the renewal of spring or the joys of Sumer is icumen in; Lhude® sing cuccu! *Loudly lyrics might consist of a hymn praising God or a prayer of ation. One of the most famous religious lyrics in Middle celebrates the Virgin Mary: | syng of myden ( That is makeles;° *matchiess Kyng of alle kynges To here son che ches. “she chose y includes the Latin line Timor mortis conturbat me ("The fear “ Geath disturbs me") to teach the lesson that in the midst of life In what state that ever | be, Timor mortis conturbat me. As | me walked in on? morning “one | hard a birde both wepe and synge; This was the tenor of her talkynge: Timor mortis conturbat me Another popular poetic form was the ballad, a folk song that told @ story. Experts find most surviving ballads impossible to date. 7 Those trom the Scottish border probably arose long after the Middle _ Ages, and those from before 1485 have most likely changed a good _ deal over the centuries. ‘One surviving series of ballads concerns Robin Hoad, a legen- ‘Mary hero who may have existed around the turn of the thirteenth “century. Robin, an outlaw, lives in the woods with his band of "merrye” men, robbing from the rich and helping the poor, He and “his lady friend, Maid Marian, eventually became part of traditionalAnother important invention of the period, printing from movable type, also encouraged literacy In 1454 a German silversmith, Johann Gutenberg, devised a printing process with individual metal letters that could be used again and again. Printing spread rapidly from Germany to other parts of Europe, and further improvements were made. In 1476 a London merchant, William Caxton (e 1422-91) set up the first movable-type press iin England. This invention meant that English literature no longer needed to be hand copied by church scribes. Now it could be produced far more quickly and made available to a much wider circle of readers. POETRY OF THE ENGLISH MIDDLE AGES One of Caxton’s first projects was the printing of The Canterbury Tales. His enthusiasm for this verse showed the importance that he and others placed on poetry in general. Two key poets of the period, William Langland and Geotlrey Chaucer, lived during the later Middle Ages. Their writings reveal the changes that were taking place in the English language and in society as a whole. William Langland Scholars know very little about the poet they usually call William Langland. He appears to have come from western England and to have been a country boy. In his masterpiece, Piers Plowman, he tollowed a tradition of the Middle Ages by writing in the form of an allegory, a work in which most of the characters, settings, and events are arranged in a symbolical pattern. He also took a typically Angio-Saxon delight in alliteration, Like John Wycliffe, Langland was greatly concerned with the ways the wealthy oppress the poor. He left little doubt that his sympathies went out to those who had been treated harshly by the world. His most vivid writing concemed events he may have witnessed—tavern squabbles, for instance, or the misery of people suffering from the plague. Some scholars judge Piers Plowman one of the most deeply felt poems in all of English literature. Geoffrey Chaucer The towering figure of Middle English verse is Geoffrey Chau- cer. In many estimates he ranks second only to Shakespeare as England's greatest writer. Chaucer owed much of his early sophisti- cation to his training as an attendant to King Edward Ill. The paet also traveled widely and familiarized himself with important Italian poets, including Dante and Petrarch Chaucer's major works include a number of narrative poems, such as the verse romance Troilus and Criseyde (1372-86) and several shorter poems, Yet his finest achievement was The Canter- bury Tales, a series of verse stories told by different pilgrims on theirCrusades. Although the Crusades often involved brutality and bloodshed, they encouraged warriors to search for higher rules of conduct At first the code dealt mainly with loyalty and valor, both on and off the battlefield. By the thirteenth century, however, chivalry had grown considerably more complex. Every knight was supposed to pledge his service to a lady. He might also be expected to joust for his lady's favor or to rescue maidens in distress French poets known as troubadours popularized this tradition in songs of gallant knights. Originally these songs were written in Romance, or Roman-influenced, languages rather than Latin, and so they were called romances. At the French court, it became important for knights to treat ladies with a respect that bordered on reverence. Gradually the same ideal took root in the English court. The Legend of King Arthur One example illustrating the development of chivairy originated with the Celts. For centuries after their defeat by the Anglo-Saxons, the Celts had told stories of a great hero, King Arthur. Inasmuch as historians cannot say for certain whether Arthur actually lived or not, tales about him are considered legends, a blend of fiction and fact. When the Normans were battling the Anglo-Saxons, they became interested in the old Celtic legends. In about 1136, a Welsh-bom scholar, Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100-54), drew upon his knowl- edge of Celtic legends and his readings of Bede to produce a History of the Kings of Britain, This fanciful history, though written in Latin, quickly popularized the early Celtic king Because of the Normans’ French ties, the tales of Arthur spread not only in England but also in France. There they were influenced‘by other romances, often involving the French hero Charlemagne New versions of the Arthur legend, though usually set in the past, began to depict Arthur as more modern in his practices. His Knights of the Round Table became paragons of chivalry, as adept in courtly Jove as they were in fighting battles, The legend also inspired Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, a fourteenth-century narrative poem ‘by an anonymous author. In the poem an Arthurian knight, Sir Gawain, displays all the virtues of chivalry in his battles with the Green Knight, a supernatural figure. Arthurian romance reached its height with La Morte a’ Arthur (The Death of Arthur), a fifteenth-century prose work by Sir Thomas Malory (d. 1471). Translating from French sources, Malory created the most complete Middle English compilation of the various legends involving Arthur and his court. La Morte do’ Arthur was printed in twenty-one volumes. LEARNING AND LITERATURE Although the Normans and French eventually had great intlu- ‘ence on English letters, that development did not begin in 1066. To the contrary, the Norman invasion put a temporary halt to scholar- ship and literature in the British Isles. After the turbulence of _ conquest subsided, however, England experienced a "little renais- ‘sance,” a small rebirth of learning, in the twelfth century. Although monasteries continued their scholastic traditions, new centers of learning emerged. Scholars flocked to the religious community at ‘Oxtord to hear lectures by noted visitors; then colleges were built to house the scholars, and the first English university was born. A second university at Cambridge followed some years later. Probably the most famous scholar that Oxford produced in the Middle Ages was Roger Bacon (c. 1214-94), a scientist and mathematician now considered the father of English philosophy. A member of the Franciscan brotherhood, Bacon created his Opus Majus (Major Work), a Latin study of science, grammar, mathemat- ics, and philosophy, at the request of the Pope. Later, however, the Church condemned Bacon as a heretic. The scholar died in ‘obscurity, probably at Oxford, but his ideas were taken up a century later by another Franciscan, William Ockham (d. 1349). Like Bacon, Ockham attempted to use a scientific approach in exploring the universe; he, too, was accused of heresy. While Latin remained the language of Church and university Scholarship, Norman French was frequently used in government Both languages contributed to what came to be called Middle English. Latin literature gradually gave way to literature written in the vernacular, or the language of the people. The use of the vernacular increased after 1372, when John Wycliffe began directing the English translation of the Bible. Wycliffe’s work proved a major advance for literature, inasmuch as it encouraged more people to feam to read.O lang, lang may their ladies sit. Wi thair fans to their hand, Or eir they se Sir Patrick Spens Cum sailing to the land. O lang, lang may the ladies stand, Wi thair gold kems in their hair, Waiting for thar ain der lords, For they'll se thame na mair. Half owre, half owre to Aberdour,' It's fiftie fadom deip, And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Wi the Scots lords at his feit.. O long, long may their ladies sit, With their fans into their hand, 35 Or ever they see Sir Patrick Spens ‘Come sailing to the land. O long, long may the ladies stand, With their gold combs in their hair, Waiting for their own dear lords, 40 For they'll see them no more. Halfway over, halfway over to Aberdour, It's fifty fathoms deep And there lies good Sir Patrick Spens, With the Scots lords at his feet.Get Up and Bar the Door It fell about the Martinmas' time, And a gay time it was then, When our goodwife got puddings to ma She's botld them in the pan. 5 The wind sae cauld blew south and north. And blew into the floor: Quoth our goodman to our goodwife, ‘Gae out and bar the door.” “My hand is in my hussyfskap,” 10 Goodman, as ye may see: An it should nae be barrd this hundred year. It’s no be barrd for me." They made a paction* tween them twa. They made it firm and sure. 15 That the first word whaeer shoud speak, Shoud rise and bar the door. Then by there came two gentlemen, At twelve o'clock at night. And they could neither see house nor hall, 20 Nor coal nor candlelight “Now whether is this a rich man’s house, Or whether it is a poor? But neer a word wad ane 0’ them’ speak, For barring of the door. 25 And first they* ate the white puddings, And then they ate the black: Tho muckle’ thought the goodwife to hersel, Yet neer a word she spake. Then said the one unto the other, 20 “Here, man, take ye my knife: Do ye tak aff the auld man’s beard. And I'll kiss the goodwife. 108 The Medieval Period 1, Martinmas time: November 1 2. huseytakap: Household duties 3. “Ht show will not be barred in a hundred years if has to be barred by me. 4. paction: Agreement his wate @. they: The strangers 7. muekde: Much, “But there’s nae water in the house, ‘And what shall we do than?” “What ails ye at the pudding bro," That boils into” the pan?” © up then started our goodman, ‘An angry man was he: “Will ye kiss my wife before my een, ‘And scad' me wi pudding bree?""" Then up and started our goodwife, Gied three skips on the floor: “Goodman, you've spoken the foremost word: Get up and bar the door. What's the matter with pudding water? ‘9. inte: In 10. send: Seal Bree: Hiro!| Barbara Allan It was in and about the Martinmas time,’ When the green leaves were a-fallin’; That Sir John Graeme in the West Country Fell in love with Barbara Allan. _ He sent his man down through the town To the place where she was dwellin’: “O haste and come to my master dear, Gin? ye be Barbara Allan.” O slowly, slowly rase* she up, To the place where he was lyin’, And when she drew the curtain by: “Young man, | think you're dyin’.”’ “O it’s I'm sick, and very, very sick, And ‘tis a’ for Barbara Allan.’ | “O the better for me ye sal* never be, Though your heart's blood were a-spillin’. “O dinna ye mind,* young man,” said she, “When ye the cups were fillin’, That ye made the healths gae round and round, : And slighted Barbara Allan?” He turned his face unto the wall, And death with him was dealin’: “Adieu, adieu, my dear friends all. And be kind of Barbara Allan.” } And slowly. slowly rase she up, And slowly, slowly left him; And sighing said she could not stay, Since death of life had reft* him. She had not gane a mile but twa,” ; When she heard the dead-bell knellin’, And every jow* that the dead-bell ga‘ed” It eried, “Woe to Barbara Allan!" “O mother, mother, make my bed, O make it soft and narrow: § Since my love died for me today, Tl die for him tomorrow.” 1, Martinmas time: November 11 2. gin: tf 3. rase: Rose 4. sak: Shall, 5. dinna ye mind: Don't you remember. 6. reft: Deprived 7. not . . . twa: Gone but two miles. 8. jow: Stroke 9. ga’ed: Mace| Barbara Allan ‘ten the ren foes we at ‘at Gace ae a sy He neat hs man down hugh he owe “Fothe pace where shen ec “onmte at come to my mane dear ‘in ye te Babar lan etme hi face unto the wal ‘And eey jth heed bel an sic ey. pes