NDT 2010 Conference Topics

Session 2A (1) – Phased Array Applications

Chairman – Prof B Drinkwater
Conference
Programme Phased
14.00  array ultrasonic inspection of low pressure steam
turbine rotors, Curved Axial Entry Fir tree roots
Author - Mr. Charlesworth
Conference
Topics
The last stage blades of low pressure steam turbine rotors are among the most highly stressed
components in modern power generating plants.The ongoing drive for increased efficiency has
seen the proliferation in the number of designs incorporating larger last stage blades with curved
List axial entry fir tree roots (CAEFTR); the curvature of the root attachment allows more flexibility in
of Exhibitors
the aerodynamic design of the aerofoil with improved inter-blade spacing.
The tendency of CAEFTRs to suffer failure induced by stress corrosion cracking, high-cycle fatigue
cracking, or low-cycle high strain fatigue, is well documented, and can be shown to be most likely
Useful to occur in the first two serrations of the blade root. Finite element analysis and actual failures
Links confirm the regions under highest risk and have driven developments in ultrasonic phased array
techniques to achieve detection of defects in these regions whilst in-situ; in turn avoiding the huge
costs associated in decommissioning and dismantling rotors to perform alternative NDE surface
Future inspections. Due to the complexity of the root geometry there are many difficulties in applying
Events ultrasonic techniques due to limited scanning surfaces, inter-blade spacing, and disorientation of
the active ultrasound trajectory and the region under test.
In this presentation the author will show that the application of novel phased array
techniques and unique inspection design has led to increased sensitivity to smaller defects
About
Us and comprehensive coverage of CAEFTR rotor designs in-situ. It will also be shown how the
application of these techniques has negated the need to upgrade both equipment and resources
to the use of 2d arrays, thereby reducing inspection costs significantly whilst achieving higher
repeatability and sensitivity. Novel inspection design has led to the ability to reduce the number
of scans required, enabled single scan encoded data recording over the whole blade root,
increased sensitivity, improved detectability, and increased coverage,
whilst reducing inspection costs and time.
RWE Power International

Phased array ultrasonic inspection of low pressure steam turbine

rotors - Curved Axial Entry Fir tree roots

Chris Charlesworth
RWE Power International
Electron, Windmill Hill Business Park
Whitehill Way, Swindon
Wiltshire, SN5 6PB
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1793 892900
Fax: +44 (0)1793 892421
[email protected]

Abstract
The last stage blades of low pressure steam turbine rotors are among the most highly
stressed components in modern power generating plants. The ongoing drive for
increased efficiency has seen the proliferation in the number of designs incorporating
larger last stage blades with curved axial entry fir tree roots (CAEFTR); the curvature of
the root attachment allows more flexibility in the aerodynamic design of the aerofoil
with improved inter-blade spacing.
The tendency of CAEFTRs to suffer failure induced by stress corrosion cracking,
high-cycle fatigue cracking, or low-cycle high strain fatigue, is well documented, and
can be shown to be most likely to occur in the first two serrations of the blade root.
Finite element analysis and actual failures confirm the regions under highest risk and
have driven developments in ultrasonic phased array techniques to achieve detection of
defects in these regions whilst in-situ; in turn avoiding the huge costs associated in
decommissioning and dismantling rotors to perform alternative NDE surface
inspections. Due to the complexity of the root geometry there are many difficulties in
applying ultrasonic techniques due to limited scanning surfaces, inter-blade spacing, and
disorientation of the active ultrasound trajectory and the region under test.
In this presentation the author will show that the application of novel phased array
techniques and unique inspection design has led to increased sensitivity to smaller
defects and comprehensive coverage of CAEFTR rotor designs in-situ. It will also be
shown how the application of these techniques has negated the need to upgrade both
equipment and resources to the use of 2d arrays, thereby reducing inspection costs
significantly whilst achieving higher repeatability and sensitivity. Novel inspection
design has led to the ability to reduce the number of scans required, enabled single scan
encoded data recording over the whole blade root, increased sensitivity, improved
detectability, and increased coverage, whilst reducing inspection costs and time.

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RWE Power International
1 Introduction
LP rotors are constructed from the largest aerofoil blades, the last stage of which can
consist of up to 120 individual blades measuring around one metre in length and
weighing in excess of 15kg. When rotating under full load at 3000rpm the LP rotor’s
last stage blades (LSB) are subjected to several tonnes of centrifugal and torsional
forces. A common method of blade attachment to the rotor shaft utilises curved axial
entry fir tree roots (CAEFTR); engineered to overcome the mechanical forces while
providing the ideal shape for efficient aerofoil dynamics(1)(2). The tendency of
CAEFTRs to suffer failure induced by stress corrosion cracking, high-cycle fatigue
cracking, and low-cycle high strain fatigue is well documented (3). If these blades were to
fail and become detached from the rotor shaft during operation they would cause
catastrophic failure of the rotor, leading to a potential explosion as well as possible risk
to life and collateral damage.
A number of non-destructive evaluation (NDE) techniques are deployed for early
detection of CAEFTR cracking. As direct visual access to root cracking is not possible,
the most common technique requires decommissioning of the rotor and blade removal
in order to perform magnetic particle inspection (MPI). MPI is the most sensitive and
comprehensive method of inspection, but is prohibitively expensive due to the cost of
decommissioning and the loss in generation during extended outage periods. The most
established alternative to MPI utilises ultrasonic testing (UT), using combinations of
single element pulse echo and phased array techniques to allow for early detection of
root cracking(4)(5). The difficulties of comprehensively inspecting the blade roots of
steam turbines stems from geometric factors which lead to efficient rotor design, but
have a dramatic effect on the inspection capability in the affected regions. Limited
accessible land from which to introduce ultrasound, constantly varying relative
geometry, and lack of physical access all add to the difficulties in achieving consistent
and sensitive coverage.
In this paper the author will outline some of the techniques developed, which
overcome the difficulties of inspecting such complex components, illustrating the
solutions innovated to improve coverage on CAEFTR designs. It will be shown that, a
combination of advanced methodologies, simulation software, and novel inspection
design, has resulted in high levels of coverage across many rotor configurations.

2 Curved Axial Entry Fir Tree Roots (CAEFTR)

Figure 1 below illustrates the design configuration of typical CAEFTR, consisting
of fir tree root blocks to the blades which are inserted axially into mating fir tree steeple
grooves on the disk head. Depending on the manufacturer and design of rotor, keyways
are then utilised to lock the blades and prevent axial movement in service.

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Blades in Rotor

Blades in Rotor

Loose Blades

Rotor Disk Steeples

with blades removed

Figure 1 Curved Axial Entry Fir Tree Roots

2.1 Areas of vulnerability

RWE power international’s experience of failures of CAEFTRs spans over 7 years
in development and validation for third party customers and deployment of inspection
techniques both within and outside the company. Stress corrosion cracking has been the
most prevalent type of defect, induced where environmental conditions or poor water
chemistry have been primary concerns. There are however instances of fatigue cracking
which, due to their tendency to propagate rapidly, are more serious and present the
potential for blade detachment from the turbine. Finite element analysis (FEA) suggests
that the top serration is the most highly stressed area of the blade root, see Figure 2 and
Figure 3, representing the region where cracking is most likely to lead to total blade
detachment from the turbine; in some cases however, FEA suggests that the second
serration down is the most highly stressed.
Operational experience has shown that defects have the tendency to initiate in the
first serration down from the aerofoil-root platform, in the centre of the convex side, and
the extreme ends of the concave side. Typical examples of defects found in several
different rotor designs are illustrated in Figure 4 showing concave side cracking, and
Figure 5 showing convex side cracking. The main target areas for inspection of
CAEFTR has therefore been focussed on coverage of the top two serrations, with
particular focus on the extremities of the concave side roots and the centre portion of the
convex side roots.

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Figure 2 Blade root Concave: Von Mises equivalent tension [MPa]

Figure 3 Blade root Convex: Von Mises equivalent tension [MPa]

Figure 4 Crack propagating in the top serration of the concave side

Figure 5 Crack propagating in the top serration from the centre of the convex side 2

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2.2 Available scanning lands
Due to the complex geometry associated with CAEFTR designs, there are limited
available lands from which to perform ultrasonic testing, varying from one blade design
to another; some having generous platforms from which to scan whilst others have
almost none. The aerofoil however is common to all blade designs and offers the main
scanning surface from which the majority of coverage is attained; see Figure 6 and
Figure 7. Due to the shape of the aerofoil in relation to the root, limitations to the
coverage achieved exist, requiring further scanning from any available platforms
(Figure 8), or end faces of the root block, (
Figure 9). In addition to pulse echo phased array techniques, novel tandem phased
array techniques have been developed to further increase sensitivity in difficult but
critical regions, see Figure 10.

Figure 6 Root inspection from convex aerofoil

Figure 7 Root inspection from concave aerofoil

Figure 8 Root inspections from platforms

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Concave root
serrations

Figure 9 Root shear wave inspection from end face

Transmit

Reflection
from Defect

Receiver
trajectory

Figure 10 Tandem arrangement from end face and platform

2.3 Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT)

Axial coverage of the blade roots is achieved by careful manipulation of the
ultrasonic transducer along the aerofoils, platforms, and end face lands, as seen above.
In order that the critical inspection areas are interrogated in the most efficient and
comprehensive way, phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) is utilised. PAUT is
constrained by the same physical limitations as conventional pulse echo ultrasonic
testing (UT) but offers superior control over ultrasound transduction; having the ability
to steer the ultrasonic beam over many angles of trajectory, many times per second,
enables sectorial images to be built up, offering the inspector a clear view within the
volume of the material. PAUT also offers the ability to focus the ultrasonic bea m at
distances shorter than the natural focal depth of the transducer by introducing time
delays into the firing sequence of the individual elements. This produces narrower beam
profiles and higher sound intensities at the critical areas and thus improving sensitivity
and resolution. In order to take full advantage of the capabilities of PAUT it is necessary
to very accurately position the transducer on the available inspection surfaces in a
positive and repeatable manner. The biggest challenge has been to achieve this whilst
the turbine is in-situ with access to only the outlet side of the root block.

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3 Scanning Aids and bespoke Inspection solutions

A number of solutions have been developed, some unique, to aid in the aim to
increase coverage and sensitivity to defects, and to reduce development time and costs
associated with CAEFTR rotor inspections.

3.1 Inspection jigs and formers

Difficult in-situ access and limited inspection surfaces lead to the development of
bespoke Rexolite wedges, designed to provide the appropriate refraction of the
ultrasonic waves through very limited flat lands on turbine blades, and having the
secondary but crucial function of fitting the surface geometry and acting as positioning
jigs. Rexolite wedges were designed utilising advanced modelling and simulation
software, manufactured using CNC technology, and successfully deployed on a number
of steam turbine applications. Further development of this concept, enabling in-situ
inspection of CAEFTR, has been achieved utilising fast prototyping methodology; the
cost and time required to manufacture solid Rexolite wedges is prohibitive, and a faster
more effective solution was developed. Multi-probe jigs, designed to accurately position
PAUT transducers, were simulated, modelled, and manufactured using
stereolithography (STL). Rexolite wedges were then retrofitted into the STL jigs,
producing a composite former able to clamp the PAUT transducer in position, and
provide the appropriate wedge angle for accurate refraction into very small surfaces.
Due to the flexibility of fast prototyping, all couplant feeds and fixing mechanisms are
incorporated in the jig, see Figure 11. This methodology has allowed PAUT transducers
to be placed accurately in remote positions, with positive and repeatable detection in
critical regions; the utilisation of previously unused non-flat inspection lands has been
enabled, such as the radii between the aerofoil and platform regions, thereby increasing
coverage, see Figure 12.

Rexolite wedges

Figure 11 Typical CAEFTR inspection jig

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Aerofoil-Platform
radius

Figure 12 Typical CAEFTR inspection jig refracting through radii

3.2 Implementation of mechanised aerofoil scans

As described in section 2.2, much of the coverage for inspection of CAEFTRs is
achieved from the aerofoil, interrogating the root serrations at the opposite side. There
are a number of difficulties in performing aerofoil scanning as manual manipulation of
the PAUT transducer is limited almost entirely by the inter-blade spacing. Skewing of
the ultrasonic beam or transducer is also necessary to compensate for the geometric
mismatch between the aerofoil and the blade root (Figure 13); thereby optimising the
geometric reflections and maximising sensitivity to defects in the serrations. Skewing of
the beam has the effect of normalising the ultrasound trajectory to the root serrations
and, although straightforward with manual manipulation of the transducer, is more
challenging where access is limited. One solution would be the introduction of 2D
Phased array transducers with which the ultrasonic beam can be steered and focussed in
3 dimensions. There are however technical and commercial reasons why this is not seen
by the author as an effective solution: - transducer cost and limited application, vast
increase in capital equipment, reduced portability, and complexity of phased array law
generation.

Ideal refracted
Beam
beam trajectories
normal to root trajectories
normal to
aerofoil

Figure 13 Aerofoil – blade root geometric mismatch

In order to perform in-situ inspections where manual manipulation of the PAUT

transducer is difficult, manual scanning frames, commissioned by RWE PI, were

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designed and built by Zetec, Canada. The bespoke frames allow the transducer to be
mechanically driven around the aerofoils, via an encoded manual drive module, and
accommodate the ability to manipulate the skew of the ultrasonic beam, see Figure 14.
Full automation utilising motor drives was discounted due to the desire to limit
equipment required and thereby sustain portability. The inclusion of the encoded
manual drive module allows the application of encoded line scans, thereby producing
permanent records of inspection data and allowing offline data processing to increase
detection capabilities.

Figure 14 Zetec Mechanised manual scanner

In order to reduce the inspection development and validation times associated with
new rotor designs, a flexible scanning frame was conceived which would accommodate
a range of rotor designs, whilst retaining all the functionality of the bespoke frame. The
scanner, was developed and built in partnership with Phoenix Inspection Ltd; consisting
of a flexible steel track which is able to conform to the aerofoil when clamped onto the
blade, and allowing fitment to a range of rotors. The PAUT transducer is driven around
the encoded track, enabling the correct scan trajectory around the aerofoil, see Figure
15. This concept offers huge advantages over the bespoke (fixed) scanning frames
which incur significant cost and long lead times.

Figure 15 Flexible scanning frame

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3.3 Fixed continuous wedge
Further development of the aerofoil scan technique was made by the author to
improve coverage, sensitivity, and coupling of the PAUT transducer. It has been shown
how coverage of the blade root is achieved by scanning around the aerofoil, requiring
skewing to account for the geometric mismatch between them. When encoded line
scans are recorded they must be carried out at fixed skews, requiring several to achieve
sensitive coverage in all target areas. In addition, the wedge designed to refract the
ultrasonic beam into the blade material must be profiled to couple closely with the
aerofoil surface. The profile of the wedge is only correct at a given position around the
scan surface and therefore, either several wedges with different profiles are required
over several separate scans, or the wedge profile is made as a compromise, fitting
reasonably well but not exactly at all positions. The compromise taken in wedge design
has a detrimental effect of coupling and therefore repeatability and sensitivity of the
inspection.
To mitigate these issues the author conceived of a single continuous Rexolite
wedge, one surface of which matches the exact profile of the blade root platform and
aerofoil, and the other face on which the PAUT transducer is scanned, see Figure 17.
Careful modelling of the scanning surface provides the appropriate angles in three
dimensions to refract the ultrasonic beam into the component at the optimised
trajectory. The invention means that, whatever the position of the PAUT transducer
along the scan path, the ultrasonic beam will be refracted into the material at a trajectory
which is normal to the root serrations under interrogation, with no need for skew. As
there is no requirement to mechanically skew the ultrasonic transducer, single line scans
can be taken with consistent sensitivity across the whole scan. Careful design of the
scanning surface of the wedge allows the ultrasonic beam to be further refracted in the
lateral direction, thereby achieving increased coverage toward the outer limits of the
root serrations. The wedge provides perfect coupling to the inspection surface, idealised
sound refraction, ability to single line scan, and improved coverage.

Figure 16 Fixed continuous Rexolite Wedge

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Ultrasound trajectory Ultrasound trajectory

on traditional wedge on continuous wedge

Figure 17 Effect of the fixed wedge on beam trajectory

4 Conclusions
Inspection coverage of the affected areas of CAEFTR designs has been significantly
improved by the innovations in mechanised scanner design and innovative wedge
design. Advanced simulation software tools, coupled with modelling capabilities, and
fast prototyping technology have facilitated the production of bespoke jigs; able to place
PAUT transducers in remote positions and interrogate the most critical root regions,
thereby significantly improving coverage.
The ability to inspect rotors with minimal inter-blade spacing has been achieved
using bespoke scanning frames with innovations such as skewing of the PAUT
transducer. Further development has lead to the invention of flexible scanning frames
which allow new rotor designs to be inspected in-situ without the extensive costs and
lead times associated with fixed frames.
It has been shown how the continuous wedge negates the requirement to skew the
PAUT transducer when scanning around the aerofoil of the blade. Moreover, coupling
to the scanning surface is idealised, single line scans are facilitated, and sensitivity to
small defects in previously un-reachable areas improved. The need to upgrade to 2d
arrays has been mitigated, so existing technology and portability are maintained.
In-situ inspection of steam turbines is critical in reducing the cost of maintenance
and length of service down-time, but and increasing the ability for early detection of
defects. The solutions outlined in this paper offer advanced detection capabilities for
CAEFTR, higher levels of coverage, and offer the station managers a significant saving
over traditional inspection methods.

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References

1. GE Energy, Schenectady, NY, USA, Final report to the US Department of

Energy, High Efficiency Steam Turbines with Extra Long Buckets, December
2005

2. Amir Mujezinovic, GE, Schenectady, NY, USA, Bigger blades cut costs,
Modern Power Systems, February 2003

3. Philippe DUMAS, IMASONIC, Besancon, France, Michael CLOSSEN- VON

LANKEN SCHULZ, Dr. Michael OPHEYS, Hans RAUSCHENBACH,
Siemens Power Generation, Mülheim/Ruhr, Germany, Nondestructive
Inspection of Blade Roots and Blade Attachment Grooves - Ideal Application of
Phased Array Inspection Technique

4. Michael Clossen, Dr Michael Opheys, Hans Rauschenbach, Michael siegel;

Siemens Power Generation, “Lifetime Extension Through Advanced Non-
Destructive Examination Methods”, Power-Gen Europe 30th May to June 1st
2006, Cologne, Germany.

5. Dr Michael F. Opheys, Hans Rauchenbach, Michael Siegel, Graham Goode;

Siemens AG Power Generation, Detlev Heinrich; Celgelec AT Gmbh & Co,
“Blade Root / Blade Attachment Inspection by Advanced UT and Phased Array
Technique”, 6th International Charles Parsons Turbine Conference, 16-18
September 2003, Trinity College, Dublin.

6. Hans Rauschenbach, Michael Siegel; Siemens Germany, and Laurent Capponi;

EDF, France, “Modern Non-Destructive Methods for examining Turbine Blades
and Blade Roots in Steam Turbine Service”, International Journal for Electricity
and Heat Generation, VGB Powertech 9/2008.

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