THE ARC

Contents

1. Introduction

2. Definition of Terms

3. Ionization

4. Types of Arcs

5. Workings of the Welding Machine and arc Characteristics

5.1. Open circuit voltage, short circuit voltage, welding voltage

5.2 Static characteristics of Welding Power sources

5.2.1 Nature of static characteristics of welding power sources

5.2.2 Experimental determination of static characteristic

5.2.3. Characteristics of welding power sources

5.3. Arc Characteristics

6. The arc BLOW of the ELECTRICAL ARC
7. Droplet Formation and metal transfer

8. Arc Voltage and Arc Length

9. Striking, Maintaining and Breaking the Arc

1.4 Page 1 of 34
 1. Introduction

Some of the most important joint welding processes use the arc as a tool and energy source. It provides
penetration, melts the weld metal and delivers the energy for the physical and metallurgical processes which
take place in welding.

First, some basic knowledge should be introduced which is important for understanding and
applying the arc welding process.

Like the luminous current discharge or real artificial lightning, the electric arc is a special kind of gas discharge
which is only possible if there is enough charge carrier to transport the energy and mass within the arc.

Definition of Terms

a) Open circuit voltage: is voltage in a no-load state c.i.e. the arc is not flashing) which is measured on
the welding sets terminals. For reasons of safety the open circuit voltage strength must not be permitted to
surpass a certain value (see EN 60974-1)

b) Short circuit voltage:resulte when the electrode tips are struck. The voltage drops down to practically
zero while at the same time a strong short circuit current occurs.
c) Arc voltam: appears between the electrode tip and the base metal in the form of a flashing arc when the
welding device is on-loaded. The arc voltage is measured on the device's terminals. Its intensity is decided by
the welding amperage and the arc length.

Ampere (A)

Fig. 1 .Current, Voltage diagram for shielded metal arc welding

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3. Ionization

3.1 In the electric arc the following process occurs (Fig. 2):

a) The open circuit voltage exists

between the electrode and the base metal
when the welding supply current is
switched on but no arc flashes.

b) A short circuit is produced when the tip of the

electrode comes in contact with (or strikes) the base
metal (Fig. 2, second from top).

The point where the electrode strikes the base metal

becomes white hot because of the high short circuit
current. The electrons in the atoms then become free.
Through heating the rotation of the electrons increases
c)
in such a way that they escape from their orbit and
become free (Fig. 3). Now the electrode is with-drawn
from the base metal (ignition) (Fig. 2, third from top)
and the freed electrons remain under the influence of
the open circuit voltage. The higher voltage causes the

Fig. 2. Ionization of the Air gap electrons to be closed to the positive pole with high
speed through what is actually a non conductive gap of
air. Thus the electric current flows (i.e. the arc is on).

d) In the air gap the electrons come across other particles

from which they pull away the electrons. The remaining
atom torsos (=ions) (Fig. 3) are positively charged and are
pulled together by negative poles (Fig. 2, bottom).

Fig. 3. The formation of an atomic tor

1.4 Page 3 of 34
 Taken from EN 60974-1

Nr. Operating conditions Open circuit voltage level Note

Direct current (DC) = 19 V max. value
1 increased electrical danger
Alternating current (AC) = 68 V max.
sec 10.1.1.
value
without DC4819VVeffective
and max. value
value
2
increased AC 19 V max. value
Sec 10.1.2.
electrical danger and 80 V effective value
mechanically driven DC 141 V max. value
3
tourches with increased AC 141 V max. value
Sec 10.1.3.
protection for the welder .
DC 710 V max. value
4 special processes and 100 V effective value
AC 710 V max. value
Sec 10.1.4.
and 500 V effective value

Table 1: List of permissible open circuit voltage levels

3.2. standardized welding voltage for testing

The welding current source must be able to give off the standardized welding current at the
standardized arc
voltage in accordance with the formulas in sections 10.2.1 and 10.2.4. through out the
entire range of its use. These include U2 the welding voltage

12 the welding current (amperage)

TEST - Sufficient numbers of measurements

10.2.1. Manual metal arc welding with coated electrodes

U2 = (20+0.01412) V

until 44 V at 600 amps, after thet U2 remains constant

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 4. Types of Arcs

4.1 DC - Direct current-arc

- straight polarity: electrode negative - base metal positive

TIG, SMAW, SAW - pole + pole

- Reverse polarity: electrode positive - base metal negative

GMAW, SMAW, SAW + pole - pole

negative pole positive pole

positive negative pole

pole

Fig. 4: Direct current (DC) arc

4.2 The AC - alternating current - arc

In this form of current the polarity makes no difference because the polarity changes
continuously at a rate of 50 HZ frequency (in sinus wave form current supply). This means
that the arc, with double the frequencies (i.e. 100 times per second) extinguishes when
changing direction and subsequently must be re struck.

A sinus wave current necessitates the use of a high voltage pulse generator (high frequency)
when striking and re striking the arc. If the change in polarity takes place quickly enough then
the arc will not extinguish when passing through the zero axis. The high voltage impulse
generator would then only be used for the striking procedure.

1.4 Page 5 of 34
 1. arc extinguishing point
2. arc ignition
point At arc idle
time

U2 ignition voltage

Fig. 5 The AC - occurrences in AC-arc

1.4 Page 6 of 34
 5. Workings of the Welding Machine and Arc Characteristics

example for shielded metal arc welding

Fig. 6 a

Fig. 6 b

Fig. 6 c

Fig. 6. Open Circuit Voltage (a) Short Circuit (b) Welding Voltage (c)

1.4 Page 7 of 34
Standardized welding voltage for drooping characteristic
For shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

Welding current Js< 600 A).

UA = 20 + 0,014 •Js

For TIG (tungsten inert gas welding) (Js< 600A)

UA = 10 + 0,014 • Js

For GMAW welding with constant voltage characteristic (J s< 600A)

Up = 14 + 0,05 • Js

* Fig. 6 a = Here open voltage is understood to be the voltage which occurs between the electrode and the
base metal when the welding device is switched on, even though no arc flashes. The open circuit voltage is
measured on the welding devices terminals. For reasons of safety the open circuit voltage level may not
exceed a set limit.
* Fig. 6 b = When striking the electrode a short circuit results

* Fig. 6 c = Arc voltage is understood to be voltage between the electrode and the base metal,
appearing in the form of a flashing arc. Arc voltage is also measured on the welding devices terminals.
NOTE: Voltage and amperage take on definite values when the arc is flashing:

5.2 Static characteristics of Welding Power sources

5.2.1 Nature of static characteristics of welding power sources

A static characteristic of a welding power source is a curve which shows the relation between the amperage
and the voltage with the dial (hand wheel) at a definitive setting. In other words: at each setting on the dial
of a welding power source a curve can be drawn up on a "voltage - amperage" diagram. Each pair of
"voltage - amperage" values which lie on the curve can be supplied from the welding power source when
the dial is at its defined setting.

1.4 Page 8 of 34
 5.2.2 Experimental determination of static characteristic

See Fig. 7: here are some clarifications:

Definite setting of dial At each setting of the segments the
(handwhoel) v *voltage – ampere* values are to be read

Measurement Voltage Amperage

Note
point number (V) (A)
open circuit
1 for example 0
voltage
50 (Fig.1.5-6a)
for short circuit
2 0
example current
200A
(Fig. 1.5-6b)
result of
3 for example
measurements
4 for example
above
etc

Fig. 7 . Experimental determination of static characteristic

* The defined setting of the dial (hand wheel) on a welding set is not to be changed during the experiment!
* Open circuit voltage and short circuit amperage (measuring points 1 and 2) are determined by Fig. 8 - 6
* The "voltage - amperage" values are to be read together at each setting of the changing resistance
(measuring point 3)
* The measurements on the table produce a static characteristic curve of the welding power source.

1.4 Page 9 of 34
 NOTE:

a) By placing the dial (or hand wheel) of the welding power source at a defined setting the
welder actually sets a definite static characteristic of the power source. This means that

b) At a defined dial setting the welding power source will deliver all the matching "Voltage - amperage"
values which lie on the fixed static characteristic curve. To obtain an arc one needs an "arc voltage and a
welding current it

5.2.3. Characteristics of welding power sources

100
real constant
90 current caracteristic

80

70
Welding Voltage (V)

60

50

40

30

20

10

100 200 300 400 500 600

Welding Current (A)

Fig. 8. Static characteristics of welding power sources.

1.4 Page 10 of 34
5.3 Arc Characteristics

5.3.1 If while welding, the arc is not to be broken nor smothered (simply put - if the arc is to flash
continuonsly without interruption than the arc voltage and amperage must remain in a fixed relation to one
another.The static characteristic curve of an arc shows graphically the relation between the arc's voltage and
amperage.

5.3.2 Experimental data of static characteristics of the arc are taken from Fig. 9: Here are some
clarifications.
a) Eperiment column I = The arc length stabilizing device is adjusted to the normal arc length (1
normal) ler the chosen electrode-type & 1 (and during the melting process remains unchanged!). A
setting is performed with the power source dial, the electrode is struck and when the arc is flashing
well enough then the "voltage-amperage" readings should be taken. This procedure is repeated at
different settings. The readings are then placed in the left hand table of Fig. 9 b.
Experiment column H = The highest possible arc length is engaged (1-max., if this value is
exceeded the arc will be broken(. The measuring procedure of experiment column I is repeated and
the "voltage - amperage" readings are placed in the middle table of Fig. 9 b.
Experiment column 81 = Just as is done above, only this time with the lowest possible arc length
(1-min. anything below this point and the arc will be smothered). The "voltage - amperage" readings
obtained are put into the right hand table of Fig. 9 b.
b) Fig. 9 c = the measurements are plotted on a voltage - amperage graph and then are connected by a
line. Thus one obtains the arc characteristics for normal (left) maximal (middle) and minimal (right)
arc lengths.
c) Fig. 9 d = These three graphs are brought together into one graph and these by
producing the arc characteristic curve of the chosen electrode

Fig. 9 a

1 max = if value is exceeded arc will be broken

1 min = any value below this point will cause the arc to smother

1.4 Page 11 of 34
 Experiment column I Experiment column 8 Experiment column
III

normal arc length max arc length min arc length

For the electrode use in this experiment

Experiment column I Experiment column II Experiment column III

(normal) (Max.) (Min.)
experim. Arc experim. Arc experim. Arc
amperage amperage amperag
number voltage number voltage number voltage
e
A A
V V V
— A
1 - 1 ----- — 1 — —

2 -- - 2 ----- ------- 2 --- ---

--- --
3 --- - 3 3

Fig. 9 b

eu ••
ea

Fig. 9 c Amperage (A) Amperage (A) Amperage (A)

Fig. 9. Experimental data on static arc characteristics

1.4 Page 12 of 34
 d) The manual electrode welder instinctively sets the right working point. That means that by
setting the amperage with the dial he is actually setting the "voltage-amperage" value of the
working points.

Fig. 10. Working point regulating effect with manual Slight change in amperage
electrode welding (SMAW)

1.4 Page 13 of 34
 1. Fluctuations in the arc length will not affect the quality of the weld. Fig. 1.t- 10 illustrates:

1st) When welding with a normal arc length (1 normal) work-point A sets itself by way of
the

electrode used.
2nd) If the electrode is suddenly raised (1 max) then the arc characteristic
curve is pushed
upwards in parallel fashion.

2. As already mentioned, the gap of air between the electrode tip and the base metal is in itself non conductive and
it is only through the process of electron and ion formation (electrically charged particles) that allows an arc
flow through the air space. Ionization is understood to be the formation of electrons and ions which gives the air
the ability to conduct electricity.

3. Because of the rapid bombardment of electrically charged particles into the pole temperatures of over 3000°C
can result. The positive pole, therefore, is always the hotter pole (in the arc there are always more electrons than
ions Fig. 2) The temperatures of the gases found inside the pillar of air between the electrode and base metal is
essentially higher (and it varies depending on the welding process).

6. The arc BLOW of the ELECTRICAL ARC

1.Around every substance through which electricity flows there is a magnetic field. Within this field operate
magnetic forces. These forces can be made visible with the aid of a magnetic needle or very fine iron powder
which arrange themselves around the wire (Fig 8).

2.These magnetic fields are found around the electrode, the arc and the electric path through the base metal. These
fields combine in such a way as to deflect the moving arc. Therefore the arc blow is understood to be the irregular
shimmying of the arc is undesired directions.

3.Consequences of the arc blow. The fidgety arc, which is short and then long again does not
melt the metal sufficiently well, causes marginal undercuts, slag inclusions and spatters.

1.4 Page 14 of 34
 4.NOTE: The arc blow has nothing to do with the deflection of the arc when welding outdoors
(wind!) or
with the effects of drafts.

Fig. 8. Magnetic force field of an electric conductor

5. Arc blow laws

Steel is normally a magnetizable substance. This means that magnetic fields expand strongly in steel
and the arc blow is more noticable. Size and direction of combined magnetic fields are unpredictable
but for a few simple cases there are basic rules that have been observed:

a) The arc is always deflected in the direction of the electrodes slope. In Fig. 12 the compression of
the magnetic line of force occurs in such a way as to push the arc in the direction of the electrode
slope.

b) The arc is attracted to large masses of steel (Fig. 9). In building up welding the arc is pulled towards
the bead. when welding with lap joints the arc directs itself toward the plate laying on the sheet metal.

c) The arc always blows from the edge of the base metal towards the center (Fig. 14). The magnetic forces
crowd together at the edges because there then can distribute themselves better than in the poor conductivity
of the air gap. This accumulation of forces entails a magnetic force which is the reason for the "edge effect"
of the arc.

1.4 Page 15 of 34
Fig. 12: Fig. 9:

The arc always blows in the direction of the arc slope The arc is attracted to large blocks of steel

Fig. 14:

The arc always blows from the edge of the base metal and towards the center

d) The arc always blows away from the power source connection when it is close to the point
being welded (Fig. 21).
e) The arc blow grows with its length.
f) The arc blow is stronger with bare or core electrodes than with coated ones (effect of the stabilizing
gas shield!)
g) The arc blow is stronger when welding with DC than with AC (because the AC continually
changes its direction and consequently its magnetic field results. - Fig. 8 - a weaking of the magnetic
field results.
h) When welding the first position of a fillet weld or when welding the root of a butt joint the arc
will always blow on the already finished weld. (Fig 15). Magnetic forces can more easily distribute
themselves in finished welds but they have difficulty bridging the gap of air between electrode and
base metal there a collection of magnetic lines of force occurs.
i) When welding with non magnetic metals (non-iron metals, high alloy steels, unalloy steels above
a temperature of 769 °C and containing up to 0,8 % Carbon or 723 °C - more than 0.8 % C) the arc
will blow from the metals edge outwards.

1.4 Page 16 of 34
Fig. 16 shows the arc blow when welding copper (= non magnetic substance)

Fig. 17 shows the arc blow on a sheet of steel.

Fig. 17 (left) = Figure 1.4 - 14 = The arc always blows from the edge inwards towards the
center (at temperatures under 769 °C or 723 °C respectively, steel is magnetic)
Fig. 1.4- 17 (right) = The arc blows outwards, because above 769 °C or 723 °C respectively, steel
becomes non magnetic.

Fig. 15: Fig. 16 Fig. 17:

Blowing onto the Blowing on the edge Blowing on the edge of a
sheet finished weld of a sheet of copper of steel
left: magnetic steel
right: non magnetic steel

6. Ways of Controlling the Arc Blow

1. Attention:

When welding the arc must blow as follows

a) When welding with bare or core electrodes the arc must blow in the direction of the weld or in front of the
weld. This produces a pre - heating of the welding crater and at the same time prevents the already finished weld
from becoming overheated by a backward flashing arc. The weld has no protective slag covering:
b) When welding with coated electrodes the arc must always blow onto the already finished
weld. Only then can moving in front of the slag be prevented.

1.4 Page 17 of 34
 2. For controlling the Arc Blow the following steps can be taken:

a) Tilting the electrode while welding is the most important step in fighting the arc blow. Depending on the
angle of the electrode slope one can more or less counteract the forces deflecting the arc (Fig. 14) In hard to reach
places it might help to bend the electrode a bit (Fig. 18).
b) Numerous and strong tack welds reduce the length of the air gap and give the magnetic lines of
force the possibility of passing in front of the arc without too much blockage.
c) Welding with a pilgrim step (back step sequence) Fig. 19.
d) Application of connection pieces (Fig. 20).run on and run off plates?

Fig. 18 Fig. 19 Fig. 20

Bending the electrode Pilgim step (back step sequence) Connection pieces (thin
sheets

welding or joint equal, depending on

the
thickness of the base metal

e) Applying additional blocks of steel (Fig. 18)

Use of a movable connection or resulting poles (Fig. 21)

1.4 Page 18 of 34
 g) Provide for electrical connection not on one side but on both sides (Fig. 22)

h) Heating the edges of the base metal before welding with the help of a long arc (letting the droplets
fall away)

j) Welding with AC - alternating current

k) Places exposed to a strong arc blow are not to be welded with electrode ends which have
become hot. After replacing them with cold electrodes the welding often proceeds without
difficulty

Fig. 22:
Fig. 21: Consequence Poles
Earth connections on both sides of the base
metal
I) Preheating

m) Demagnetizing by means of a transformer

1.4 Page 19 of 34
7. Droplet Formation and metal transfer

The electric arc serves as a source of heat not only when melting the electrode but for fusing the
base metal as well. After drawing an arc the electrode tip will liquify very quickly due to the intense
heat and because of surface tension and the metal inner viscosity it will form into droplets.
The particles passing from the electrode to the base metal are constricted particularly by the effect of the
magnetic force which surrounds the electrode in ring formation. The droplet is then drawn away from
the electrode end (pinch effect!). Besides the amount of energy being used the size of the particle also
depends definitely on the type and thickness of the respective electrode coating and on the slag skin
which is formed from it. The particle is surrounded mostly by the slag skin (Fig. 23). If many small
particles result than a spray transfer occurs. When only large singular droplets form this it is known as
globular transfer.

As a result of the constriction which takes place around the electrode tip as well as the various thermal,
chemical and physical forces develop in connection with the electrodynamic properties of the arc in a
plasma stream. This moves with high velocity, comparable to that of a pressure wave, in an axial
direction and brings about the actual particle transfer. The particles are freed by being ripped off the
electrode end and being flung in the direction of the base metal.

Since the sum of these forces is greater than the force of gravity, it is possible to weld on vertical
walls or overhead positions.
The droplet transfer in the arc goes from the electrode tip to the base metal regardless of the type of
current or pole positioning. The quantity of electrode material transferred at a certain voltage is
dependent not only on the arc amperage but also among other factors, on the properties of the metal,
the type of current and the electrode coating.
Various phenomena in metallic transfer even today cannot be easily explained. As soon as the arc
wanders away from the point being welded the liquid pool begins to crystallize.

1.4 Page 20 of 34
 Fig. 23 Manual metal arc welding process with coated electrodes

Fig. 24 : Particle separation at electrodes end (after killing )

1.4 Page 21 of 34
8. METAL TRANSFER WITHIN

Fig. 25 – Droplet transfer

within the arc

The particles which are melted away from the electrode to the base metal fall not only because of their
weight (think of over head welding!). important chemical physical and electrical forces are at work
which move droplets despite gravitational forces.

9. Protection against air penetration while welding

1. If one welds an unprotected wire in the open air than a high absorbtion of oxygen and nitrogen into the
fluid welding metal occurs. The result is porosity and embrittlement of the weld metal because of the
dissolving gases. On top of that the alloying elements added to the base metal oxidize or "burn up'.

OPEN ARC To prevent these unfavorable effects the point being welded

WELDING PROCESSES must be protected in different ways from the surrounding air.
In the open arc welding gases formed either from the
electrodes, flux coating or from the filling or gases delivered
from externed forces serve as protection against the
atmosphere. One must differentiate between metal arc welding
with coated electrode
SUBMERGED ARC (manual metal arc welding) or with selfprotecting tubular cored
WELDING electrodes and gas shielded arc welding (T1G, Plasma-, GMAW). In
submerged arc welding (SAW) the protective gases are
formed from the flux which is thrown up.

When welding with bare electrodes (non coated bare wire) the transfering droplets, the weld pool and
the finished weld are left exposed to the air (Fig. 26). Molten metal (cast) has affinity for gases.
AIR = approx 1/5 oxygen + 4/5 nitrogen.

1.4 Page 22 of 34
Consequences of air absorbtions
a) a faulty de-gassing of the fluid solution leaves pores (Fig. 27) shows how the surface of the fluid
weld melts quickly (no slag covering) leaving the rising gas bubbles frozen.
b) A too high oxygen content in the weld. The addition of oxygen leads to the formation of iron oxide
(Fe 0) which can liquify when re-heating the weld to a red hot level and thus could lead to crumbling of
the steel structure. Burned steel is not forgeable and is brittle when red hot.

Fig. 26 Fig. 27
Air penetration when welding with De-gassing of the weld
bare electrodes

c) A too high nitrogen content in the weld. The addition of nitrogen leads to the formation of iron
nitride (Fe N), brittle crystals which prevent the break-down of steel crystals. Welds with a high
nitrogen content are brittle when cold.
2. When welding with coated electrodes protection against air penetration is achieved as follows (Fig. 1.4
- 28)
a) A gaseous shield is produced from the melted coat which protects the welding
area from the surrounding air (Air displacement) Fig. 1.4 - 28, item 11
b) The transfering droplets are covered with a thin slag skin to protect them from air
penetration Fig.1.4 - 28 )-

c) The weld pool (Fig. 1.4 - 28, item 7) is covered with a fluid slag
d) The red hot finished weld (Fig. 1.4 - 28, item 13) is covered with a solid slag. The
liquid metal can de-gas thanks to a long cooling off period.

e) If possible air still absorbed in the weld pool is taken up as slag in the coating material.

1.4 Page 23 of 34
 Fig. 28 Welding with coated electrodes
Protection against air penetration
1. Welding rod core
2. coating
3. Fluid metal
4. fluid slag
5. arc
6. base metal
7. weld pool
8. solidified slag
9. fluid slag
10. chalice
11. protective gas
12 droplet covered with slag

3. Expert welding with coated electrodes produces welds with low oxygen and nitrogens content. This
means pore free forgeable and ductile weld.
In gas shielded arc welding based on the TIG, GMAW, Plasma processes protection against
penetration, air is achieved through inert or active shielding gases.

4. In SAW and ESW processes protection against air penetration is achieved through the melted or
fluid slag pool and the solidified slag.

10. Arc temperatures

The temperature of the anode is higher than that of the cathode due to its heavy bombardment
with highly accelerated electrons.

Text-books still often give temperatures of 3800 °C for the cathode and 4200 °C for the anode, but these
should not be seen as the norm. Temperatures depend on the process, the electrode, the shielding gas and the
current range.

1.4 Page 24 of 34
 Temp. in the the burn point melted droplets
Process and arc type
arc center in °K on the electrode in °K in ''K
carbon arc in air 7000 - 13000 4000 anode
3200 - 4000 cathode
melting point of carbon

4500°K

Electrode arc welding

melting point of iron
3000°K
6 000 - 12 000 2 500 - 3 000
bare electrode
coated electrode (5 000 - 6 000) ≤ 3000
submerged arc welding (6 000) 2 300 - 3 000

GMAW welding
steel wire electrode
(>8 000) (≤3 000) < 2 800
with argon shielding
tungsten electrode 4 000 - 5 000 3 000
with hydrogen
protection tungsten 10 000 - 30 000 3 000 - 3 200
Plasma welding (≥20000) (≥3000)
electrode with argon
shielding
Fig. 29 Arc Temperatures

11. Types of Arc Beams - Protectionary Measures

1. The electric arc emits different kinds of beams which can be either %-isible or invisible. The intensity
of the beams depends on the welding process and the welding current used.

2. The electric arc emits the following types of beams.

a) visible light beams can lead to a dal7ling effect on the eyes if not well enough protected. This can be
desturbing at work and if repeated often and in longer durations it can lead to visual impairment especially at
twilight. Protection - use of a welding screen or helmet with standardized and suitably dark timed protective
goggles (!).

b) Infrared or heat beams (invisible) when operating can cause heating of the work gloves or the body
itself. When used year after year it can lead to blurring the eye lenses which are not protected
sufficiently enough or not at all. Eye protection - wearing standardized protective goggles.

1.4 Page 25 of 34
c) Ultraviolet beams (invisible) can after a short time damage the eyes as well as burn the skin where it
is not protected.
First aid for burning eyes lay cold cloths on the eyes and use appropriate eye
drops. Protection wear suitable working clothes and use the appropiate
standardized goggles.
3. Using protective filters which comply with the approved standard EN 769 sheet 1) are labeled with the
manufacturer's identification letters (awarded on the basis of an approval test), the level of protection (Figure
30 gives a listing) and the breaking level class (EN 769-sheet) as well as the association lable DIN. The
fable is permanently placed at the glasses edge and must not hinder vision.

Protection level number

recomanded when welding using.....
based on EN 769.
welding electrodes with diameters over
10 5 mm and gas shielded arc welding with Fig. 30 - Usual levels
amperage to 75 A of protection

11 5carbon
nun and gas shielded
electrodes arcdiameters
having welding with
over amperage
between 75 A - 400 A

12 and gas shielded

electrodes arc welding
with especially highwith high amperage.
brightness

Most important is the selection of adequate protection glass. Protective filters which prevent
dazzling also provide sufficient protection against invisible beams.

5. To keep expensive protective goggles from being damaged by welding spatter which over
time can cover the glass and make it difficult to see a cover glass is recommended. Made of
ordinary glass the cover glass is inexpensive and easily replaced.

6. Ultra violet beams (UV) cannot only damage with direct contact to the eyes, but with indirect contact as
well in the form of scottered beams reflecting off the base metal or off the walls. This means that not only
should you be protected but the people in the area must be protected as well. This

* Never look directly at the arc (even when striking)

* Use approved protective goggles

* Block off work area

1.4 Page 26 of 34
 * Place up a sign saying "Warning! Never look directly at the arc"

* Cover all parts of the body. Never weld when the upper torse is uncovered or with rolled up
sleeves.

*Protect the assistant as much as the welder

7 NOTE: The electric arc does not emit any X-ray like beams during electric welding.

Fig. 31 – Eye Protection - Protective levels based on EN 769

12. Arc Voltage and Arc Length

The arc in metal-arc welding is a gaseous conductor of electricity. It is not primarily self starting, and if extinguished
it must be re-established. The two factors essential for its continuity are proper ionization and a method of feeding the
electrode constantly in order to maintain the proper electrode to work spacing or arc length. when coated electrodes
are used, the arc voltage is dependent on the type of coating and the length of the arc.
In order to reduce oxidation and porosity to a minimum, it is generally desirable to maintain a relatively short arc for the
process being used. A long arc is erratic and is also inefficient, since it increases spatter loss. a constant arc voltage can be
attained more readily by the use of the drag-type technique.

1.4 Page 27 of 34
13. Striking, Maintaining and Breaking the Arc
A metal arc is struck by touching the work with the electrode and quickly withdrawing it to normal arc length. When
a metal arc is struck, there is a tendency for the electrode to freeze, or sick, to the work. This tendency is very
pronounced in manual bare metal-arc welding, and it is desirable when this process is used to employ a lateral motion
to strike the arc, similar to that of striking a match.

The problem of re striking the arc varies the electrode type. Generally, the projecting covering on the electrode tip
becomes conductive during use and assists in re striking the arc, particularly when iron powder is used in the coating.
When using electrodes such a AWS Class E6020, low-hydrogen and stainless steel, it may be necessary to break the
projecting covering in order to expose the core wire and facilitate re-striking.

A metal arc is maintained by a uniform movement of the electrode toward the work to compensate progressively

for that portion which has been melted and deposited in the weld At the same time the electrode is also advanced

progressively in the direction of welding

Various procedures are commonly employed to break the arc. One procedure requires that the arc be shortened and
the electrode moved quickly sideways out of the crate. This method is used in manual welding when electrodes are
changed and the weld is to be continued from the crater. In another procedure the electrode is held stationary long
enough to fill the crater and then gradually withdrawn. This method is used in manual, semiautomatic and automatic
welding when either full or partial crater elimination is desired.

When the arc is re-established in a crater (first procedure), it should be struck at the forward or cold end of the crater,
moved backward over the crater and then forward again to continue the weld. The crater is filled when this procedure
is used, and porosity and trapping of slag are avoided. This factor is particularly important with low-hydrogen
electrodes.

14. Accident Prevention

Radiation found in the physical and chemical processes of the arc can, under unsuitable working conditions,
endanger the welder with the arc's intensive emissions as well as the gas, fumes and smoke which result from
welding.

The beams must be kept from touching the body with suitable clothing, gloves and protective shield. For the protection of
the eyes a safety window shield is necessary to filter the beams. Along with protection against visible dazzle sufficient
protection against ultra violet and infrared beams must also be ensured. The EN 769 defines thedifferent levels of
protection and orders them according to working conditions.

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Not only can unprotected eyes become endangered through direct exposure to a beam but beams reflected off walls can
also be hazardous. To prevent this the walls should have an appropriate coat of paint and protective goggles should be
worn against scatter beams.

Ultra violet beams break up solvents of Halogen-Hydrocarbons and oxidize them into phosgene. Solvent traces can also
escape before welding by hot water. Degreasing pools should not be placed in rooms close to a welding area.

Ozone is produce by intensive ultra violet beams. Furthermore one should figure on the formation of nitric oxide.

These gases and gases which escape directly from the arc range (metallic fumes as well as smoke) are depending on
the quantity and composition, damaging to your health and if breathed in can lead to considerable pain. So for the
various gases, fumes and floating particles a maximal work place concentration has been developed. (MWC value in
cm3/min for gases in mg/m3 for floating particles) which will not normally pose a threat to health when worked with
over a 8 hour day. MWC values are listed in Fig. 1.4 - 32

Sufficient ventilation of the welding area is absolutely necessary and when welding certain metals (Cu, Pb, Cd, Be and their
alloys) a breathing mask is required.

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