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DataBase Management Systems Lecture Notes

UNIT-1
Data:
It is a collection of information.
The facts that can be recorded and which have implicit meaning known as 'data'.
Example:
Customer ----- 1.cname. 2. cno. 3.ccity.
Database:
It is a collection of
interrelated data.
These can be stored
in the form of
tables.
A database can be of any size and varying complexity.
A database may be generated and manipulated manually or it may be computerized.
Example:
Customer database consists the fields as cname, cno, and ccity

Cname Cno Ccity

Database System:
It is computerized system, whose overall purpose is to maintain the information and to
make that the information is available on demand.

Advantages:
1.Redunden cy can be reduced.
2.Inconsistency can be avoided.
3.Data can be shared.
4.Standards can be enforced.
5.Security restrictions can be applied.
6.Integrity can be maintained.
7.Data gathering can be possible.
8.Requirements can be balanced.

Database Management System (DBMS):

It is a collection of programs that enables user to create and maintain a database. In other
words it is general-purpose software that provides the users with the processes of defining,
constructing and manipulating the database for various applications.
Disadvantages in File Processing
Data redundancy and inconsistency. Difficult in accessing data.
Data isolation. Data integrity.
Concurrent access is not possible. Security Problems.
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Advantages of DBMS:
1.Data Independence. 2.Efficient Data Access. 3.Data Integrity and security.
4.Data administration.
5.Concurrent access and Crash recovery. 6.Reduced Application Development
Time.

Application

Database Applications:
Banking: all transactions
Airlines: reservations, schedules
Universities: registration, grades
Sales: customers, products, purchases
Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions

People who deal with databases

Many persons are involved in the design, use and maintenance of any database. These
persons can be classified into 2 types as below.

Actors on the scene:

The people, whose jobs involve the day-to-day use of a database are called as
'Actors on the scene', listed as below.

1. Database Administrators (DBA):

The DBA is responsible for authorizing access to the database, for

Coordinating and monitoring its use and for acquiring software and hardware resources
as needed.
These are the people, who maintain and design
the database daily. DBA is responsible for the
following issues.
a. Design of the conceptual and physical schemas:
The DBA is responsible for interacting with the users of the system to
understand what data is to be stored in the DBMS and how it is likely to be
used.
The DBA creates the original schema by writing a set of definitions and is
Permanently stored in the 'Data Dictionary'.
b. Security and Authorization:
The DBA is responsible for ensuring the unauthorized data access is not
permitted.
The granting of different types of authorization allows the DBA to regulate
which parts of the database various users can access.
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c. Storage structure and Access method definition:

The DBA creates appropriate storage
structures and access methods by writing a set of
definitions, which are translated by the DDL compiler.

d. Data Availability and Recovery from Failures:

The DBA must take steps to ensure that if the system fails, users can
continue to access as much of the uncorrupted data as possible.
The DBA also work to restore the data to consistent state.

e. Database Tuning:
The DBA is responsible for modifying the database to
ensure adequate Performance as requirements change.

f. Integrity Constraint Specification:

The integrity constraints are kept in a special system structure that is
consulted by the DBA whenever an update takes place in the system.

2. Database Designers:
Database designers are responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the database and for
choosing appropriate structures to represent and store this data.

3. End Users:
People who wish to store and use data in a database.
End users are the people whose jobs require access to the database for querying, updating and
generating reports, listed as below.

a. Casual End users:

These people occasionally access the database, but they may need

different information each time.

b. Naive or Parametric End Users:

Their job function revolves around constantly querying and updating the
database using standard types of queries and updates.

c. Sophisticated End Users:

These include Engineers, Scientists, Business analyst and others familiarize to
implement their applications to meet their complex requirements.

d. Stand alone End users:

These people maintain personal databases by using ready-made program
packages that provide easy to use menu based interfaces.

4. System Analyst:
These people determine the requirements of end users and develop specifications for transactions.

5. Application Programmers (Software Engineers):

These people can test, debug, document and maintain the specified transactions.

b. Workers behind the scene:

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Database Designers and Implementers:

These people who design and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces as a software
package.

2. Tool Developers:
Include persons who design and implement tools consisting the packages for design,
performance monitoring, and prototyping and test data generation.

3. Operators and maintenance personnel:

These re the system administration personnel who are responsible for the actual running and
maintenance of the hardware and software environment for the database system.

3.LEVELS OF DATA ABSTRACTION

This is also called as 'The Three-Schema Architecture’, which can be used to separate
the user applications and the physical database.

1. Physical Level:
This is a lowest level, which describes how the
data is actually stores. Example:
Customer account database can be described.

2. Logical Level:
This is next higher level that describes what data and what
relationships in the database. Example:
Each record
type customer = record
cust_name: sting;
cust
_cit
y:
strin
g;
cust
_str
eet:
strin
g;
end;

3. Conceptual (view) Level:

This is a lowest level, which
describes entire database. Example:
All application programs.
4. DATA MODELS

The entire structure of a database can be

described using a data model. A data model is a
collection of conceptual tools for describing
Data models can be classified into following types.
1.Object Based Logical Models.
2.Record Based Logical Models.
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3.Physical Models.

Explanation is as below.

1. Object Based Logical Models:

These models can be used in describing the data at the logical and view levels.
These models are having flexible structuring capabilities classified into following types.
a) The entity-relationship model.
b) The object-oriented model.
c) The semantic data model.
d) The functional data model.

2. Record Based Logical Models:

These models can also be used in describing the data at the logical and view levels.
These models can be used for both to specify the overall logical structure of the database and a
higher-level description.
These models can be classified into,
1. Relational model.
2. Network model.
3. Hierarchal model.

HISTORY OF DBMS
1950s and early 1960s
 data processing using magnetic tapes for storage
Tapes provide only sequential access
 P
unched
cards for
input
Late
1960s
and
1970s:
 Hard disks allow direct access to data
 Network and hierarchical data models in widespread use
 Ted Codd defines the relational data model
Would win the ACM Turing Award for this work
IBM Research begins System R prototype
UC Berkeley begins Ingres prototype
 High-performance (for the era) transaction processing

1980s:
 Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
 Parallel and distributed database systems
 Object-
oriented database
systems 1990s:
 Large decision support and data-mining applications
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 Large multi-terabyte data warehouses

 Emergen
ce of Web
commerce
2000s:
 XML and XQuery standards
 Automated database administration
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Role of DBA

A database administrator (DBA) is a person or group in charge of implementing DBMS in an

organization. The DBA job requires a high degree of technical expertise. DBA consists of a team
of people rather than just one person.
The primary role of Database administrator is as follows −
 Database design
 Performance issues
 Database accessibility
 Capacity issues
 Data replication
 Table Maintenance

Responsibilities of DBA
The responsibilities of DBA are as follows −
 Makes the decision concerning the content of the database.
 Plans the storage structure and access strategy.
 Provides the support to the users.
 Defines the security and integrity checks.
 Interpreter backup and recovery strategies.
 Monitoring the performance and responding to the changes in the requirements.

File System Approach

File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual system. It is also called a traditional
based approach in which a decentralized approach was taken where each department stored and controlled
its own data with the help of a data processing specialist. The main role of a data processing specialist
was to create the necessary computer file structures, and also manage the data within structures and
design some application programs that create reports based on file data.

DBMS:

A database approach is a well-organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful way which can
be accessed by different users but stored only once in a system. The various operations performed by the
DBMS system are: Insertion, deletion, selection, sorting etc.

There are the following differences between DBMS and File systems:
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Basis DBMS Approach File System Approach

Meaning DBMS is a collection of data. In DBMS, the The file system is a collection of data. In
user is not required to write the procedures. this system, the user has to write the
procedures for managing the database.

Sharing of data Due to the centralized approach, data sharing Data is distributed in many files, and it
is easy. may be of different formats, so it isn't
easy to share data.

Data Abstraction DBMS gives an abstract view of data that The file system provides the detail of the
hides the details. data representation and storage of data.

Security and DBMS provides a good protection It isn't easy to protect a file under the file
Protection mechanism. system.

Recovery DBMS provides a crash recovery mechanism, The file system doesn't have a crash
Mechanism i.e., DBMS protects the user from system mechanism, i.e., if the system crashes
failure. while entering some data, then the content
of the file will be lost.

Manipulation DBMS contains a wide variety of The file system can't efficiently store and
Techniques sophisticated techniques to store and retrieve retrieve the data.
the data.

Concurrency DBMS takes care of Concurrent access of In the File system, concurrent access has
Problems data using some form of locking. many problems like redirecting the file
while deleting some information or
updating some information.

Where to use Database approach used in large systems File system approach used in large
which interrelate many files. systems which interrelate many files.

Cost The database system is expensive to design. The file system approach is cheaper to
design.

Data Redundancy Due to the centralization of the database, the In this, the files and application programs
and Inconsistency problems of data redundancy and are created by different programmers so
inconsistency are controlled. that there exists a lot of duplication of
data which may lead to inconsistency.

Structure The database structure is complex to design. The file system approach has a simple
structure.

Data In this system, Data Independence exists, and In the File system approach, there exists
Independence it can be of two types. no Data Independence.
o Logical Data Independence
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o Physical Data Independence

Integrity Integrity Constraints are easy to apply. Integrity Constraints are difficult to
Constraints implement in file system.

Data Models In the database approach, 3 types of data In the file system approach, there is no
models exist: concept of data models exists.
o Hierarchal data models
o Network data models
o Relational data models

Flexibility Changes are often a necessity to the content of The flexibility of the system is less as
the data stored in any system, and these compared to the DBMS approach.
changes are more easily with a database
approach.

Examples Oracle, SQL Server, Sybase etc. Cobol, C++ etc.