MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

LAB MANUAL

Subject Code: MF F219

Birla Institute of Technology & Science,

Pilani - Hyderabad
 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Second Semester, 2023-24

ME F219: Manufacturing Processes Lab

PRACTICALS
Notes:
(a) All students must complete this practical’s batch-wise. If necessary, due to time constraint,
some batches may be combined.
(b) Each student must maintain a record and write the aim, apparatus, description of the
experiment, procedure as well as the results obtained.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

E1. Pattern making for the sand casting

E2. Characterization of the moulding sand
E3. Gating design and sand casting
E4. Disc compression test & Hydraulic bulge test
E5. Single point cutting tool
E6. TIG & MIG welding
E7. Gas welding & Demo on Plasma Arc Cutting
E8. Surface roughness & Spur gear tooth thickness measurement
E9. Study on Coordinate Measuring Machine
E10. Taper measurement
------------------------------------------------------------
COVERAGE MATRIX FOR EACH EXPERIMENT
--------------------------------------------------------------
Batch Experiment No
E1
A E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9
0
B E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E1
C E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E1 E2
D E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E1 E2 E3
E E5 E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E1 E2 E3 E4
F E6 E7 E8 E9 E10 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5
G E7 E8 E9 E10 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6
H E8 E9 E10 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7
I E9 E10 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8
J E10 E1 E2 E3 E4 E5 E6 E7 E8 E9

Note: It is individual student’s responsibility to complete all the experiments.

Prof. N. Suresh Kumar Reddy

Instructor-In-Charge, ME F219
 Experiment No: 1 Pattern Making for the Sand Casting

Aim: To calculate the allowances and prepare the pattern for sand casting

Drawing: (choose the dimensions as per the maximum capacity of the crucible)

Material: Plastic (pattern), aluminum (casting) m.p: 660 ˚C

EQUIPMENT/MACHINERY Required: Need to be identified during experiment and written

in the report

THEORY

Pattern

The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to
be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the
addition of pattern allowances, and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be
hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to create these cavities in the finished
product.

Allowances

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified
in the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be
made. The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid
rejections. The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Machining allowance
3. Draft allowance
 i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage;
riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the
patterns.

Machining allowance:

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor, and therefore, when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension.

Draft allowance:

By draft, the taper is provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be
removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive rapping by the
molder.

Allowances for Aluminium (Density=2700 kg/m3)

Shrinkage allowance Machining Draft allowance

allowance
1.3% 1.5 mm 1o

Procedure/Observation/Calculations:

Include a neat sketch of the pattern with all the allowances. Show the dimensions properly in
the sketch.
 Experiment No: 2 Characterization of the molding

sand Aim: To characterize the molding and determine its properties

Procedure/Observation/Calculations:

The report should include the following results

1. Composition of the molding sand used. Typical molding sand consists of silica sand,
moisture, and clay.

2. Determine the moisture content in the molding sand.

3. Determine the variation in the green strength of the sand with varying moisture content.
Show the plot of strength variation with moisture content

4. Estimate the permeability and grain fineness number of the molding sand.

Permeability, P = V H/ (pAt)
Volume of air, V =2000 cm3
Height of the sand specimen, H = 5.08
cm Air pressure, p in g/cm2
Cross-sectional area, A = 20.268 cm2
Time in minutes for the complete air to pass through, t

Grain fineness number, GFN = ∑ 𝑀𝑖𝐹𝑖

∑𝐹𝑖
Mi – multiplying factor of the ith sieve
Fi – the amount of sand retained on the ith sieve
 Experiment No: 3 Gating design and Sand Casting

Aims: (i) Design a proper gating system for the casting

(ii) Perform sand casting and observe the defects

Procedure/Observation/Calculations:

1. Determine the weight of the casting (w) [Density of Aluminium, ρ = 2700 kg/m3]

2. Determine the time to fill the mold cavity (t) [Typical pouring rate is 0.25 to 0.3 kg/s].

3. Determine the gate area. (A=

w/ρCdtV3) Cd- coefficient of discharge
V3 – gate velocity

4. Choose an appropriate gating ratio and decide the dimensions of the runner and sprue.
[Typically non-pressurized gating ratio is adopted for light alloys and a pressurized gating
ratio for ferrous alloys].
5. Determine the solidification time for the casting (ts) [ts =

C(V/A)n] Mold constant, C0.5 = 𝜌√𝜋𝛼(𝐿+𝐶(𝑇𝑝−𝑇𝑚))

2𝑘(𝑇𝑚−𝑇𝑎)

V- volume of the casting

A – surface area of the
casting n = 2
α- thermal diffusivity of sand (m2/s)
ks – thermal conductivity of sand = 0.8655
W/mK ρs – density of sand = 1600 kg/m3
Cs – specific heat capacity of sand = 1.17
kJ/kgK L- latent heat of fusion of Al = 415
kJ/kg Tp – pouring temperature
Tm – melting point,
660˚C Ta – ambient
temperature

6. Determine the solidification time for the riser.

7. Determine the casting yield = (w/W) x 100

W – the weight of the casting, including the gating system

8. Note down the defects in the casting and comment on how to avoid the defects.

In the report, the aforementioned details are to be included along with a

neat sketch of the gating system.
 Experiment No:4 .(A) Disc compression test (Upset forging)

Aim: To study the effect of friction on barreling during upset forging.

APPARATUS/MATERIALS REQUIRED:
SPECIMEN DETAILS: Type of material & dimensions

Theory:

Upsetting or Upset Forging is the simplest case of open-die forging involving compression of
a workpiece between two flat dies. Upset forging reduces the height of the workpiece but
increases its cross-sectional area. The present study considers upsetting of a round billet.
Under ideal conditions where there is no friction between the work piece and the dies, the
billet deforms homogeneously (the cylindrical shape of the billet remains cylindrical
throughout the process, see Figure 4.1). But in practical conditions the billet tends to barrel
since there is some friction as shown in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.1: Homogeneous upsetting of a cylindrical billet (without friction)

Figure 4.2: Practical upsetting of a cylindrical billet (with friction &

barreling) Do, D, Df = average billet diameters before, during and at the end of

deformation ho, h, hf = billet heights before, during and at the end of

deformation
 Procedure:

Observations:

Without Lubricant With lubricant

Load Diameter, Diameter, Hieght h rf/h
Sl.No. Hieght h (mm) rf/h
(Tonnes) 2rf (mm) 2rf (mm) (mm
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
*Note: Final reading in each case should be the average of at least 3 readings.

Graph: Plot Load versus rf/h

Calculations:

The expression for the radius of curvature of the barrel which follows a circular arc is as follows:

ℎ𝑓2
𝑅 = 4(𝑑 −𝑏 𝑑 )
𝑐

R(without

Lubricant)=

R(with
Lubricant)=

Conclusions:
 Experiment 4(B): Hydraulic Bulge Test

HYDRAULIC BULGE TEST

TITLE: Hydraulic bulge test
AIM: To find out the flow stress behavior of sheet metal under equi-biaxial stress condition.
APPARATUS/MATERIALS REQUIRED:
SPECIMEN DETAILS: Type of material & dimensions
THEORY:
The stress-strain relationship of sheet metals are conventionally determined by tensile test, where the
specimen is loaded uniaxially; but the range of stable uniform strain is restricted to approx 30% of the
fracture value. Mostly the stress-strain states in actual sheet metal forming processes are biaxial but not
uniaxial; so for finding out the biaxial stress-strain relationship of sheet metals Hydraulic bulge test is
widely used, which gives flow curves for sheet metals with extended range of plastic strain up to 70% of
fracture value. Another advantage of the process is that the deformation occurs isothermally.
In Hydraulic bulge test a thin metallic sheet is clamped at its periphery between circular die ring & blank
holder and then uniform hydraulic pressure is applied at one side of the sheet; as shown in the figure 3. The
edge of the dome is prevented from slipping by a lock bead placed in the die ring. It consists of a ridge with
small radii on one side and a matching groove on the other. The constant parameter for die set is the die
corner radius rc; as it affects the bulged sheet`s shape & size. Initial thickness of sheet metal t0 is another
constant. As pressure is introduced, the metal starts to bulge to a hemispherical dome shape. Instantaneous
variables of this bulging are the dome height hd, pressure P, dome apex thickness t and bulge or dome radius
Rd. In order to obtain the flow curve, these values should be measured at different stages of bulging, and then
should be converted into strain and stress values. These values should then be plotted as a flow curve.

Since the bulge diameter is greater than 10 times of the sheet thickness, so the effect of bending of the sheet
can be neglected & the bulged sheets can be treated as a ‘membrane’ in which the stresses are tangential to
the middle surface of the wall & uniformly distributed across its thickness. Such stresses are called
membrane stresses and can easily be calculated by applying membrane theory neglecting bending stresses
as:

Where σc and σr are the principle stresses on the sheet surface along the circumferential & radial directions,
Rc and Rr are the corresponding radii of the curved surface, P is the hydraulic pressure, and td is the
thickness of bulged sheet. For axisymmetric case of the hydraulic bulge test, σc = σr and radius of the bulged
dome is Rd = Rc = Rr.

In, hydraulic bulge test initially both internal & outer sheet surfaces remain at atmospheric pressure. But
once hydraulic pressure is applied the internal sheet surface experiences pressure P. Therefore the average
stress 𝜎𝑛 in the sheet metal normal to the sheet surface will be:

Now the effective stress 𝜎 can be calculated using ‘Von Mises’ Plastic flow criterion as:

Substituting 𝜎𝑥𝑥= ,𝑦= 𝜎𝑟,𝜎𝑧𝑧=𝜎𝑛 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦= 𝜏𝑦𝑧= 𝜏𝑧𝑥=0; and then simplifying the equation we get:

Similarly the strain normal to the sheet surface can be calculated using Volume constancy condition as:

Substituting ɛ𝑥𝑥=ɛ𝑐, ɛ𝑦𝑦= ɛ𝑟 & ɛ𝑧𝑧= ɛ𝑡 in the above equation we get;

Now similar to the effective stress, effective strain can also be calculated as:

PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATIONS:

Initial thickness of the sheet blank 𝑡0 =

Length between two legs of spherometer (𝑎𝑙) = _____mm
Diameter of circle marked on the sheet = ________mm
Initial depth micrometer reading (𝐻0) = _______ mm
Table:1

Table 2

CALCULATIONS:

RESULTS:

Plot a graph for following variations & give a proper justification for each variation

 Variation of Dome height with Hydraulic pressure

 Variation of Dome bulge radius with Dome height‟
 Variation of Dome apex thickness with Dome height
 Variation of Effective stress with Effective strain

DISCUSSIONS:

PRECAUTIONS:

CONCLUSIONS:

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:
1. What is Plane stress and Plane strain?

2. What is Principal stress & Principal strain?

3. What is Strain rate?

 Experiment 5: Single Point cutting tool

OBJECTIVE: To grind the given single point cutting tool as per given
specifications
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
MACHINE TOOLS
CUTTING TOOLS
WORK HOLDING FIXTURES (IF ANY)
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
MISCELLENEOUS

THEORY:
ELEMENTS OF A SINGLE POINT TOOL:

Shank: It forms the main body of a solid tool and it is this part of the tool which is gripped in the
tool holder.
Face: It is the top surface of the tool between the shank and the point of the tool. In the cutting
action the chip flows along this surface only.
Flank: Portion of the tool which faces the work is termed as flank. It is the surface adjacent to and
below the cutting edge when the tool lies in horizontal position.
Tool corner or point: It is the wedge shaped portion where the face and flank of the tool meet. It is
the cutting part of the tool. It is also called nose
Base: It is actually the bearing surface of the tool on which it is held in a tool holder or clamped
directly in a tool post.
Cutting edge: It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes material from the work piece.
The total cutting edge consists of side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
PRINCIPAL ANGLES OF A SINGLE POINT TOOL
Rake Angle: It is the angle formed between the face of the tool and a plane parallel to its base. The
top face of the tool over which chip flows is known as the rake face. The angle which this face
makes with the normal to the machined surface at the cutting edge is known as back rake angle and
the angle between the face and a plane parallel to the tool base and measured in a plane
perpendicular to both the tool holder and the side cutting edge is known as side rake angle. These
rake angles guide the chips away from the cutting edge, thereby reducing the chip pressure on the
face and increasing the keenness of the tool so that less power is required for cutting.
Side cutting angle: Angle between the side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank.
Complimentary angle of SCEA is also called the approach angle. It is the angle which prevents
interference as the tool enters the work material.
End cutting Edge angle: The ECEA provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting
edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the trailing part of the cutting
edge. Only small angle is sufficient for this purpose. An angle of 8₀ to 15₀ has been found
satisfactory in most cases.
Clearance angle: It is the angle formed by the front or side surfaces of the tool which are adjacent
and below the cutting edge when the tool is held in a horizontal position. It is the angle between one
of these surfaces and a plane normal to the base of the tool. When the surface considered for this
purpose is in front of the tool i.e. just below the point, the angle formed is called front clearance and
when the surface below the side cutting edge is considered the angle formed is known as side
clearance angle. The purpose of providing front clearance is to allow the tool to cut freely without
rubbing against the surface of the job and that of the side clearance to direct the acting thrust to the
metal area adjacent to the cutting edge.
Relief angle: It is the angle formed between the flank of the tool and a perpendicular line drawn
from the cutting point to the base of the tool.
Nose Radius: If the cutting tip of a single point tool carries a sharp cutting point the cutting tip is
weak. It is therefore highly stressed during the operation, may fail or lose its cutting ability soon and
produces marks on the machined surface. In order to prevent these harmful effects the nose is
[provided with a radius called nose radius. It enables greater strength of the cutting, tip, a prolonged
tool life and a superior Surface finish on the work piece. Also as the value of this radius increases, a
higher cutting speed can be used. But if it is too large it may lead to chaffer. So a balance has to be
maintained.
TOOL AND CUTTER GRINDER:

Tool and Cutter grinders are used mainly to sharpen and recondition multiple tooth cutters like
reamers, milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs and other types of tools used in the shop. With various
attachments they can also do light surface, cylindrical, and internal grinding to finish such items as
jig, fixture, die and gauge details and sharpen single point tools. They are classified, according to
the purpose of grinding into two groups:
Universal – tool and cutter grinders
Single – purpose tool and cutter grinders

Universal tool and cutter grinders are particularly intended for sharpening of miscellaneous cutters.
Single purpose grinders are used for grinding tools such as drills, tool-bits, etc in large production
plants where large amount of grinding work is necessary to keep production tools in proper cutting
condition. In addition tools can be ground uniformly and with accurate cutting angles.
PROCEDURE:
OBSERVATIONS/ CALCULATIONS:
PRECAUTIONS:
CONCLUSIONS:
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS/ ASSIGNMENTS:
 Experiment No (E6): TIG & MIG welding process

Objectives:
The objectives of Welding Process laboratory are
❖ To study the different welding processes.
❖ To weld T, Corner and Butt joint by TIG and MIG.
❖ To study the effect on Metal Deposition Rate by varying voltage in MIG Welding
❖ To study the effect on Metal Deposition Rate by varying current in TIG Welding
❖ To study the microstructure of the welded joint.
❖ To study different welding defects

Outcomes:
The expected outcome of Welding Process lab is that the students will be able
❖ A practical hand on experience to the students of MIG & TIG Welding Process.
❖ On increasing voltage in MIG Welding Process Metal Deposition rate increases.
❖ On increasing current in TIG Welding Process Metal Deposition Rate Increases.
❖ An understanding of the microstructure of the welded joint and defects induced
during welding
Aim:
Job No. 1: To make a Butt- Joint
Job No. 2: To make a T joint
Job No. 3: To make Corner Joint

Theory:
Welding is a fabrication process which is defined as a localized coalescence of metals or non-metals
produced either by heating the materials to the welding temperature, with or without the application
of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone, with or without the use of filler metal. During
welding, the pieces to be joined (the work pieces) are melted at the joining interface and usually a
filler material is added to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that solidifies to become a
strong joint.
Types of Welding: Modern methods of welding can be classified, depending on the state of the
material during welding (plastic or molten state), as follows:
1. Plastic welding or pressure welding
2. Fusion welding or non-pressure welding
 Welding Terminology
Filler Material:
When welding two pieces of metal together, we often have to leave a space between the joint. The
material that is added to fill this space during the welding process is known as the filler material (or
filler metal).
Electrode:
The term electrode refers to the component that conducts the current from the electrode holder to
the metal being welded. Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable and non-consumable.
Consumable electrodes not only provide a path for the current but they also supply filler metal to the
joint.Non-consumable electrodes are only used as a conductor for the electrical current, such as in
gas tungsten arc welding.
Flux:
The term flux refers to a material used to dissolve oxides and release trapped gases and slag
(impurities) from the base metal such that the filler metal and the base metal can be fused together.
Fluxes come in the form of a paste, powder, or liquid.

Types of Welded Joints:

Butt Joint: It is used to join two members aligned in the same plane and aligned with maximum
deviation of 50. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work.

Corner and Tee Joints: These joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each
other. In cross section, the corner joint forms an L-shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the letter
T.

Lap Joint: This joint is made by lapping one piece of metal over another. This is one of the strongest
types of joints.
Edge Joint: It is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most
cases, one of the members is flanged.
MIG welding
MIG (Metal Inert Gas) welding, also known as MAG (Metal Active Gas) and in the USA as
GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding), is a welding process that is now widely used for welding a
variety of materials, ferrous and nonferrous. The essential feature of the process is the small
diameter electrode wire, which is fed continuously into the arc from a coil. As a result, this process
can produce quick and neat welds over a wide range of joints. MIG welding is carried out on DC
electrode (welding wire) positive polarity (DCEP). However, DCEN is used (for higher burn off
rate) with certain self-shielding and gas shield cored wires.

Fig: A Typical MIG welding setup

TIG Welding Process
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding also known as GTA (Gas Tungsten Arc) in the USA and WIG
(Wolfram Inert Gas) in Germany, is a welding process used for high quality welding of a variety of
materials, especially, Stainless Steel, Titanium and Aluminium.
 Fig:TIG welding setup
Procedure:
1. Inert gas valve on the torch is opened slightly and lightened with the help of a
spark lighter.

2. The torch tip is to be positioned above the plates so that white cone is at a distance
of 1.5mm to 3mm from the plates.

3. Torch is to be held at an angle of 300 to 450 to the horizontal plane.

4. Now filler rod is to be held at a distance of 10mm from the flame and 1.5 mm to
3mm from the surface of the weld pool.

5. As the backward welding allows better penetration, back ward welding is to be

used.

6. After the completion of welding, slag is to be removed by means of chipping

hammer, wire brush.
 Observation Table:
Table 1: MIG Welding

S.N Current (A) Voltage (V) Shielding gas (LPM) Time (second) Speed (mm/Sec.)

Table 2: TIG Welding

S.N Current (A) Voltage (V) Shielding gas (LPM) Time (second) Speed (mm/Sec.)

Safety and precautions:

a) Must wear auto-darkening welding mask or manual masks, whichever is available.

b) Wear gloves and protective clothing to protect you from molten metal splattering
off of your workpiece.

c) Must wear leather shoes or boots.

d) Weld in a well ventilated area.

e) Never touch the workpiece just after the welding. It is very hot, as the temperature
during welding is very high.

Results/Conclusions:

********END*******
 EXPERIMENT (E8): GAS WELDING AND PLASMA ARC CUTTING

A.GAS WELDING
Student will be introduced to:
❖ The gas welding equipment, related tools and the essential process safety
considerations
❖ Types of work materials, filler rods and fluxes

Aim: To make butt-welding using gas welding equipment.

Theory:
Gas welding, or oxy-fuel gas welding, is a general term used to describe any welding process that
uses a fuel gas combined with oxygen to produce a flame. The most commonly used fuel is
acetylene (C2H2) gas. The heat source is the flame obtained by the combustion of oxygen and
acetylene. When mixed together in the correct proportions within a hand-held torch or blowpipe, a
relatively hot flame is produced with a temperature of about 3300ºC (6000ºF). The chemical action
of the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to
acetylene. The combustion of oxygen and acetylene (C2H2) is a two-stage reaction. Chemical
reactions are as follows:
Stage 1: In the first stage, the supplied oxygen and acetylene react to produce Carbon Monoxide
and Hydrogen. Approximately one-third of the total welding heat is generated in this stage.
C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + heat
Stage 2: The second stage of the reaction involves the combustion of the CO and H2. The
remaining two-third of the heat is generated in Stage 2. The specific reactions of the second stage
are:
2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + heat
H2 + ½ O2 = H2O + heat

Figure: Gas Welding (Oxygen– acetylene gas) process

Types of flames:
Three different types of flames can be obtained by varying the oxygen–acetylene (or oxygen–
fuel gas) ratio.
Neutral Flame: When the ratio of oxygen-acetylene (or oxygen–fuel gas) is between 1:1 and
1.15:1, all reactions are carried to completion and a neutral flame is produced. As the supply of
oxygen to the blowpipe is increased, the flame contracts and the white cone becomes clearly
defined, assuming a definite, rounded shape. This type of flame is the one most extensively used by
the welder, who should make himself thoroughly familiar with its appearance and characteristics.
Oxidising flame: A higher ratio of oxygen-acetylene (oroxygen–fuel gas), such as 1.5:1, produces
an oxidising flame, which is hotter than the neutral flame (about 3600°C or 6000°F). With the
increase in oxygen supply, the inner cone will become shorter and sharper, the flame will turn a
deeper purple colour, and it will emit a characteristically slight "hiss.". An oxidising flame is only
used for special applications.

Carburizing flame: Excess fuel compared to oxygen produces a carburizing flame. The excess
fuel decomposes to carbon and hydrogen, and the flame temperature is not as great (about 3050°C
or 5500°F). This type of flame is mainly used for hard surfacing and should not be employed for
welding steel, as unconsumed carbon may be introduced into the weld and produce a hard, brittle,
deposit.

Procedure:
1. The acetylene valve on the torch is opened slightly and lightened with the help of a spark
lighter.
2. Now acetylene valve is opened to get required flow of acetylene.
3. Oxygen valve is opened until the intermediate flame feather reduces into inner cone to get a
neutral flame.
4. The torch tip is to be positioned above the plates so that the white cone is at a distance of
1.5mm to 3mm from the plates.
 5. The torch is to be held at an angle of 300 to 450 to the horizontal plane.
6. The filler rod is to be held at a distance of 10mm from the flame and 1.5 mm to 3 mm from
the surface of the weld pool. As backward welding allows better penetration, backward welding
is to be used.
7. After the completion of welding, slag is to be removed by means of chipping hammer or wire
brush.

Results:

B.PLASMA ARC CUTTING

Aim: To cut a given specimen using plasma arc cutting equipment.

Theory:
The plasma arc cutting process is illustrated in Fig. 1. The basic principle is that the arc formed
between the electrode and the workpiece is constricted by a fine bore, copper nozzle. This increases
the temperature and velocity of the plasma emanating from the nozzle. The temperature of the
plasma is in excess of 20 000°C and the velocity can approach the speed of sound. When used for
cutting, the plasma gas flow is increased so that the deeply penetrating plasma jet cuts through the
material and molten material is removed in the efflux plasma.

Fig. The plasma arc cutting process

The process differs from the oxy-fuel process in that the plasma process operates by using the arc to
melt the metal, whereas in the oxy-fuel process, the oxygen oxidises the metal and the heat from the
exothermic reaction melts the metal. Thus, unlike the oxy-fuel process, the plasma process can be
applied to cutting metals that form refractory oxides, such as stainless steel, aluminium, cast iron,
and non-ferrous alloys.
Power source
The power source required for the plasma arc process must have a drooping characteristic and a
high voltage. Although the operating voltage to sustain the plasma is typically 50 to 60 V, the open
circuit voltage needed to initiate the arc can be up to 400 V DC. On initiation, the pilot arc is formed
within the body of the torch between the electrode and the nozzle. For cutting, the arc must be
transferred to the workpiece in the so-called 'transferred' arc mode. The electrode has a negative
polarity and the workpiece has a positive polarity, so that the majority of the arc energy
(approximately two thirds) is used for cutting.
Gas composition
In the conventional system using a tungsten electrode, the plasma is inert and formed using either
argon, argon-H2 or nitrogen. However, as described in Process Variations, oxidising gases, such as
air or oxygen, can be used, but the electrode must be copper with hafnium. The plasma gas flow is
critical and must be set according to the current level and the nozzle bore diameter. If the gas flow is
too low for the current level or the current level is too high for the nozzle bore diameter, the arc will
break down, forming two arcs in series, electrode to nozzle and nozzle to work piece. The effect of
'double arcing' is usually catastrophic with the nozzle melting.
Steel: Air, Oxygen, and Nitrogen
Stainless steel: Nitrogen, Argon-H2, CO2
Aluminium: Argon-H2, Nitrogen / CO2

Procedure:
1. The gas (helium or hydrogen) valve on the torch is opened slightly and lightened with the
help of a spark lighter.
2. Now ionised gas is forced through the arc and nozzle (at a flow rate of 1.5 to 15 litres per
minute), with the result that these get ionised and become plasma.
3. The torch tip is to be positioned above the plates so that white cone is at a distance of 1.5mm
to 3mm from the plate.
4. The torch is to be held almost vertical to the base metal surface for cutting.
5. The torch is to be held almost vertical to the base metal surface, and filler metal wire is fed at
angle for welding.
6. The filler rod is to be held at a distance of 10mm from the flame and 1.5 mm to 3 mm from
the surface of the weld pool.
7. As backward welding allows better penetration, backward welding is to be used.
8. After the completion of welding, slag is to be removed by means of chipping hammer or wire
brush.

Results/Conclusions:

********END*******
 Experiment 8(A): Surface roughness measurement

Aim: To study the effects of cutting parameters on surface roughness of turned parts.

Materials required:

Machine tools
Cutting tools
Work holding fixtures (If any)
Measuring instruments
Miscellaneous
Job details:

Theory:

Surface topography is of great importance in specifying the function of a surface. A

significant portion of component failure starts at the surface due to either an isolated
manufacturing discontinuity or gradual deterioration of the surface quality. The most
important parameters describing surface integrity is surface roughness. Therefore, measuring
surface roughness is vital to quality control of machining work piece. Below are the
definition of surface roughness and its main measured methods.

ROUGHNESS is a quantitative measure of the process marks produced during the creation of
the surface and other factors such as the structure of the materials. The action of the cutting
tool, chemical action, polishing, lapping, and the structure of the material all contribute to the
roughness of the surface. There are many different roughness parameters in use, but Ra by far
the most common one. Other common parameters include Rz and Rq.

Ra (Average Roughness): The average roughness is the area between the roughness profile
and its mean line, or the integral of the absolute value of the roughness profile height over
the evaluation length. Graphically, the average is the area (shown below) between the
roughness profile and its center line divided by the evaluation length (normally five sample
lengths with each sample length equal to one evaluation length). This is the parameter that
has been universally for many years.

Ra = ∑ A/L = ∑ H/N
Where A= Area between the center line & the

profile. L= Sampling length.

H= height of a point chosen from the profile with respect to the center line.

N= number of heights taken.

CUTOFF is a filter and is used as a means od separating or filtering the wavelength of a

component. Cut-off’s have a numerical value that when selected will reduce or remove the
unwanted wavelengths on the surface. For example, a roughness filter cut-off with a numeric
value of 0.8 mm will allow wave length below 0.8 mm to be assessed with wavelength above 0.8
mm being reduced in amplitude; the greater the wavelength, the more severe the reduction. For a
waviness filter cut-off with a numeric value of 0.8m, wavelength above 0.8mm will be assessed
with wavelength below 0.8mm being reduced in amplitude.

SAMPLE LENGTH: after the data has been filtered with a cut-off, we then sample it. Sampling
is done by breaking the data into equal sample lengths. The sample lengths have the same
numeric value as the cut-off. In other words, if you see a 0.8mm cut-off, then the filtered data
will be broken down into 0.8mm sample length. These sample lengths are chosen in such a way
that a good statistical analysis can be made of the surface. In most cases, five sample lengths are
used for analysis.

PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATIONS/CALCULATIONS:

Plot a curve: Surface roughness vs feed

CONCLUSION:
 Experiment 8(B): Spur gear tooth thickness measurement

Aim: To measure the spur year parameters by using Gear tooth Vernier calipers and compare
with Analytical Value

Introduction
Gears are mainly used for transmission of power & motion. In order that the rotary motion
of the driven shaft be perfectly uniform relative to the rotating shaft. It is essential that both gears
be of perfect geometrical form & be perfectly mounted on perfect shaft, running in the perfect
bearing_ It is thus obvious that big factor which decides the accuracy of gearing is the precision
with which gears mounted.
For close control over accuracy of manufacture, precision measurement of gear plays a
vital role.

Measurement of Tooth Thickness

The permissible error or the tolerance on thickness of tooth is the variation of actual
thickness of tooth from its theoretical value. This is generally measured at pitch circle & is
therefore, the pitch line thickness of tooth. It may be mentioned that the tooth thickness is defined
as the length of arc which is difficult to measure directly.

Instruments Used for Tooth Thickness Measurement

1. Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper:
It is used to measure the thickness of gear tooth at the pitch line or choral thickness of the
teeth and the distance from top of the tooth to the chord. The thickness of tooth at the pitch line
and addendum is measured by an adjustable tongue, each of which is adjusted independently by
adjusting screw on graduated bars.

It is simple & inexpensive. However, it needs different settings for a variation in number
of teeth for a given pitch & accuracy is limited by least count of instruments.

Method of Measuring the Gear Tooth Thickness by Gear Tooth Vernier Caliper
The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured by gear tooth Vernier. Since the
gear tooth thickness varies from the tip to the base circle of the tooth. The instrument must capable
of measuring tooth thickness at specified position on tooth. Thy. Tooth thickness generally
measured at pitch circle & is therefore referred as pitch line thickness of tooth. The gear tooth
Vernier has two Vernier scales & they are set for the width (w), of the tooth & depth
(d) from the top at which 'w' occurs.

Considering one gear tooth, the theoretical value of 'w' and 'cl` can be found out of which
may be verified by the instrument.

The theoretical value of 'W' is found out by,

 90
𝑊 = 𝑁𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )
𝑁
The theoretical value of 'd' is given

𝑁𝑚 2 90
𝑑 = (1 +
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ))
2 𝑁 𝑁
Where
N = Number of tooth on gear
m = Module of gear

Figure 1: Gear tooth Vernier Caliper

Procedure:

1. Determine the parameters analytically using the formulae given the theory
2. Measure these parameters using measuring instrument like gear tooth Vernier
caliper(Figure 1).
3. Check these reading with analytical value.
Observation and Calculation

Sl. Analytical Value Measured Value

No. Parameter Trial %age Error
in mm in mm
Width, w 1
2
3
Avg.
Depth, d 1
2
3
Avg.

Conclusion: Above method can be used for measurement of spur gear parameters.
Observation and Calculation

Sl. Analytical Value Measured Value

No. Parameter Trial %age Error
in mm in mm
Width, w 1
2
3
Avg.
Depth, d 1
2
3
Avg.

Conclusion: Above method can be used for measurement of spur gear parameters.
 Experiment 9: Coordinate Measuring Machine

Objective: Demonstration of CMM

Working principle:

A coordinate measuring machine (CMM): is a device for measuring the physical geometrical
characteristics of an object. Basically, they consist of a platform on which the workpiece
being measured is placed and moved linearly or rotated. A probe attached to a head capable
of lateral and vertical movements records all measurements. There are five types of CMM are
available i.e., Cantilever, Bridge Type, Column Type, Gantry and Horizontal type.

Presently we are discussing about Bridge Type which is available in our lab.

(a) (b)
Figure: Co-ordinate Measuring machine (a) Schematic representation (b) co-ordinates axis
movements.

The typical 3D "bridge" CMM is composed of three axes, X, Y and Z. These axes are
orthogonal to each other in a typical three-dimensional coordinate system as show in fig.1(b).
Each axis has a scale system that indicates the location of that axis. The machine reads the
input from the touch probe, as directed by the operator or programmer. The machine then
uses the X, Y, Z coordinates of each of these points to determine size and position, typically
with micrometer precision.A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is also a device used in
manufacturing and assembly processes to test a part or assembly against the design intent. By
precisely recording the X, Y, and Z coordinates of the target, points are generated which can
then be analysed via regression algorithms for the construction of features.

Outline produce to operate CMM:

● Click on software icon ARCO CAD inspection. Once software opens on power
button on service desk then probe moves to home position.
● Go to file new project, click on wizard then go to calibration wizard click next then
click tick mark on carriage for deleting old angles and then press delete.
● Click new- graphical- sensor designer- select TP20SF-18.7- click add- stylus-
Click A- 500-4161-20.0-4.0-PS17R- Click add-then ok- again click next button.
● Angle Back- RIT- put tick mark in row 0.0-put tick mark in column-0.0 &90.00.
then click ok- next button- then click finish button, later select carriage use sensor
P10 0P00.
● It asks the dimensions of standard sphere. For this new gauge enter 29.9992,
travelling speed 500 mm/sec, measure position speed enter 100 mm/sec and then click
next and then finish.
● Then CMM asks to select five points on object. manually select 5 points then click ok
 ● Later CMM again selects 5 points automatically and again asks to tilt stylus to
90degree position. Once you tilt the stylus to 90-degree position click ok. It again
selects five points on objection automatically and report is generated in new window.
● At last go to file save project and exit project.

Conclusions:

Discussion questions/ assignments:

1. Draw figures of left hand and right hand turning tools.

2. How is the size of lathe specified?
3. Why are follow-rest and steady-test used?
4. What is Live Center and Dead center of the lathe?
5. What is coordinate measuring machine, how it works, how accuracy of
machine is defined?
6. Define axial length measuring accuracy.
7. Mention the advantages of CMM.
 Experiment 10: Measurement of external and internal taper

Aim: To determine the taper angle of the given specimen using slips & rollers.

Introduction

Taper is defined as uniform reduction in dimension (may be width, height or diameter)

over specified length. For example, for the shank of a twist drill bit, if the taper is specified as 1:10,
it means that for every 10 mm length there will be a reduction of diameter by 1 mm (from major
to minor dia.). Taper is employed on elements like cotter, keys and shanks of twist drill bits, end
mills, reamers adapters etc. Presence of taper enables self-locking of the element in the
corresponding mating part. For close control over accuracy of manufacture, precision
measurement of gear plays a vital role.

Procedure

1. Place the Taper specimen on the surface plate as shown in the figure.
2. Pile up slip gauge combinations of equal heights H1 and place them on opposite sides of
taperspecimen.
3. Place two rollers of equal diameter on slip gauge combinations.
4. Take measurement over the rollers with the help of micrometer (say M1)
5. Take slip gauge combinations of another height H2 and repeat steps 3 and 4
let themeasurement over the rollers be M2
6. If θ is the included angle of taper
specimen. Taper angle may be obtained
as follows:

tan θ/2 = M 2  M1
2(H 2  H1 )

7. To check the uniformity of taper H2 may be varied by two to three values and ‘θ’
may becalculated.
8. Verify the obtained taper angle using Bevel Protractor.
 Fig.1. External taper measurement

Internal taper measurement:

In this method, we require two balls of different sizes, depth gauge, height gauge etc.
This method is particularly suitable for checking the angle of a tapered ring gauge.
First a small ball of R1 is inserted in the hole in lower position and depth H1 from upper surface
of tapered hole to the top of the ball is measured. Small ball must be of such size as to be
seated somewhere in between hole. Then bigger ball of radius R2 is placed in the hole and
distance H2
i.e. between the top of ball and tapered hole is measured with height gauge. In Fig. 2, O1 and
O2 represent the centers of two balls. Draw O1S parallel to the XY of tapered hole in section
and 02Sperpendicular to O1S. Then O2O1S = A/2; (where A is the angle of tapered hole.)

𝑂2𝑆 𝑅2 − 𝑅1
sin ( 𝐴/2) = =
𝑂1𝑆 𝐻1 + 𝐻2 + 𝑅1 − 𝑅2

R2 Y H2

O2 S
H1

O1
R1

Fig. 2. Internal taper measurement by unequal balls