INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

INPUT DEVICES:
Barcode scanners (readers)
A barcode is a set of black and white lines of different thickness that represent numbers. The lines are
scanned by a laser or LED, and the reflected light is read by sensors. The pattern generated by the bars is
converted into digital data, allowing the computer to read the barcode. Barcodes are commonly used in
supermarkets, where they are scanned at the checkout.
When a barcode is scanned, the stock database is looked up to find the corresponding item, and its price
and other details are sent back to the checkout. The number of stock items is reduced by 1 each time the
barcode is read, and if it falls below a certain level, more stock items are automatically ordered. When new
stock arrives, the stock levels are updated in the database.

Advantages to the management of using barcodes:

1. Faster and easier to change prices on items
2. Provides more up-to-date sales information and trends
3. Eliminates the need to manually price items on shelves
4. Reduces time and cost to management
5. Allows for automatic stock control
6. Possible to link barcodes to customer loyalty cards to track buying habits more easily

Advantages to the customers of using barcodes:

1. Faster checkout queues
2. Staff don't need to remember or look up prices of items
3. Reduces errors in charging customers
4. Provides itemized bills to customers
5. Cost savings can be passed on to customers
6. Better tracking of "sell by dates"
7. Helps ensure food is fresher

Quick response (QR) codes

A QR code is a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light background that can hold more information than
conventional barcodes. It consists of a block of small squares (pixels) that can hold up to 4296 characters,
compared to a maximum of 30 digits for a barcode. The three large squares at the corners of the code
function as a form of alignment.

Uses of QR Codes:
QR codes can be scanned using smartphones and tablets, giving rise to various uses. These include
advertising products, giving automatic access to a website or contact telephone number, and storing
boarding passes electronically at airports and train stations.

How to Read QR Codes:

To read QR codes on the move, one needs to point the phone or tablet camera at the QR code, and the app
will process the image taken by the camera, converting the squares into readable data. The browser software
on the mobile phone or tablet will automatically read the data generated by the app and decode any web
addresses contained within the QR code. If the QR code contained a boarding pass, it will be automatically
sent to the phone/tablet.
Newer QR codes called frame QR codes are being used because they allow for advertising logos to be
added inside the code itself. Frame QR codes have a 'canvas area' where images or graphics can be included,
which is not possible in normal QR codes. Software to create frame QR codes is not usually free.

Advantages of QR codes compared to traditional barcodes:

1. QR codes have more data capacity than traditional barcodes
2. They have built-in error-checking systems which means fewer errors
3. They can be read by cameras on smartphones or tablets
4. They can be easily transmitted as text messages or images
5. They can be encrypted for greater protection

Disadvantages of QR codes compared to traditional barcodes:

1. Multiple QR formats are available
2. QR codes can be used to transmit malicious codes, a practice known as attagging
3. Malicious code can be embedded within the QR code by anyone using free QR code generation apps
4. Malicious code can give the creator access to everything on the user's phone or lead to a fake website or
virus download

Digital cameras
Digital cameras have become the norm and have replaced traditional film cameras. Unlike film cameras,
digital cameras allow photographers to instantly view the images they capture. This has made them more
cost-effective to operate since there's no need for developing and printing the images. Additionally, modern
digital cameras have an embedded system that can automatically carry out various tasks such as adjusting
the shutter speed, focusing the image, operating the flash gun, adjusting the aperture size, and even
removing "red eye" when the flash gun has been used. These cameras are also easy to transfer photos to a
computer system using a USB port or Bluetooth.

What happens when a photograph is taken:

Digital cameras capture images when light passes through a lens onto a light-sensitive cell made up of tiny
sensors acting as photodiodes. These sensors are often referred to as pixels. The image is converted into
tiny electric charges that pass through an analog to digital converter to form a digital image array. The
number of pixels determines the size of the file used to store the photograph. The quality of the image
depends on the recording device, the number of pixels, levels of light, and how the image is stored. Mobile
phones now have very sophisticated optics and photography software as standard. However, the drawback
is often inferior lens quality and limited memory for storage.

Keyboards
Keyboards are the most common method for entering data into electronic devices such as computers,
tablets, and mobile phones. Each key on a keyboard has an ASCII value, and when a key is pressed, it
creates a digital signal that the computer interprets. However, frequent use of keyboards can lead to injuries
like repetitive strain injury (RSI). Ergonomic keyboards can help to overcome this problem by having keys
arranged differently and providing support to the wrists and hands. The computer recognizes a letter pressed
on the keyboard through a membrane or circuit board at the base of the keys, and the CPU identifies the
character through an index file of corresponding ASCII values.

Microphones
Microphones are input devices that can be built into the computer or connected externally. They convert
sound waves into electric current and then to a digital format.

How Microphones Work:

When sound is created, air vibrates, and the diaphragm of the microphone picks up the vibrations.
The diaphragm is connected to a copper coil that moves in and out, producing an electric current through a
magnetic field.
The current output is analogue and can be amplified or is sent to a sound card in the computer to convert
the current into a digital signal.
The digital signal can be stored or manipulated using software.

Optical mouse
An optical mouse is a type of pointing device that can work on almost any surface. It uses tiny cameras to
take 1500 images per second, which are processed to determine its movement. A red LED is used to bounce
light off the surface, and a CMOS picks up the reflection. The CMOS generates electric pulses, which are
sent to a digital signal processor (DSP). The DSP works out the mouse's coordinates based on the changing
image patterns. The computer moves the on-screen cursor to the coordinates sent by the mouse.

Benefits of an optical mouse over a mechanical mouse:

1. Optical mice have no moving parts, making them more reliable.
2. Dirt can't get trapped in any mechanical components of the mouse.
3. Optical mice can work on virtually any surface and don't require any special surfaces.
4. Most optical mice use Bluetooth connectivity, which makes them more versatile.
5. Wired mice have advantages over Bluetooth mice:
No signal loss since there is a constant signal pathway (wire).
Cheaper to operate since there is no need to buy or charge batteries.
Fewer environmental issues since there is no need to dispose of old batteries.

2D and 3D scanners
Scanners are either two dimensional (2D) or three dimensional (3D).

2D scanners:
2D scanners are commonly used to scan paper documents and convert them into electronic files that can be
stored on a computer. Optical character recognition (OCR) software can also be used to convert the scanned
text into editable text files. Similarly, if the original document was a photograph or image, the scanned
image is saved in an image file format such as JPEG.
Application of 2D scanners at an airport:
2D scanners are used at airports to scan passports using OCR technology to create digital images. These
images can be manipulated and the text can be extracted and stored in different formats. The passport's
photograph is also scanned and stored as a JPEG image, and the passenger's face is photographed using a
digital camera. The two digital images are compared using face recognition/detection software that checks
various positions and features on the face such as the distance between the eyes, width of the nose, and
shape of the cheekbones to uniquely identify a person's face.

3D scanners:
3D scanners create a three-dimensional image of solid objects by taking images at several points along the
x, y, and z coordinates. These scanners can be used in computer aided design (CAD) or sent to a 3D printer
to produce a working model. Different technologies, such as lasers and magnetic resonance, are used in 3D
scanners.
Application of 3D scanning - computed tomographic (CT) scanners:
CT scanners create a 3D picture of a solid object by taking many thin slices of it. Each slice is a 2D image
that is made using X-rays, radio frequencies, or gamma imaging. These slices are stored as digital images
in the computer's memory and together they make up a 3D picture of the object. CT scanners are also called
tomographic scanners, and the name may change depending on how the image is formed.

Touch screens
Touch screens are used to interact with a device by touching the screen, and are commonly found on mobile
phones and tablets. They have replaced traditional pointing devices like a mouse. There are three types of
touch screen technologies: capacitive, infrared, and resistive. The most commonly used technology is
resistive.

Capacitive touch screens:

Capacitive touch screens have a layer of glass and a conductive electrode layer. When a finger touches the
screen, the electrostatic field of the conductive layer is changed and the microcontroller can determine the
point of touch. There are two types of capacitive touch screens: surface and projective. Surface screens
have sensors at the corners of the screen, while projective screens have a 3D electrostatic field created by
an X-Y matrix pattern, which allows multi-touch capability and works with gloves.
Advantages:
1. Capacitive touch screens offer better image clarity compared to resistive screens, particularly in strong
sunlight.
2. Capacitive touch screens are very durable and have high scratch resistance.
3. Projective capacitive screens allow for multi-touch functionality.
Disadvantages:
1. Surface capacitive screens only work with bare fingers or a special stylus.
2. They are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation (such as magnetic fields or microwaves).
Infrared touch screens:
Infrared touch screens have sensors and infrared transmitters. When you touch the screen, your finger
breaks some of the infrared beams, which the sensors can detect. The sensors send this information to a
microcontroller, which then knows where you touched the screen.
Advantages:
1. Infrared touch screens allow multi-touch facilities.
2. They have good screen durability, meaning they are resistant to scratches and cracks.
3. The operability of infrared touch screens is not affected by a scratched or cracked screen.
Disadvantages:
1. Infrared touch screens can be sensitive to water or moisture
2. Accidental activation can occur if the infrared beams are disturbed
3. They can be sensitive to light interference.

Resistive touch screens:

Resistive touch screens have two layers of resistive material separated by air or gas. When the top layer is
touched, it makes contact with the bottom layer, and this completes a circuit that results in a flow of
electricity. The point of contact is detected where there was a change in voltage, and a microcontroller
converts this voltage to digital data, which is sent to the microprocessor.
Advantages:
1. Resistive touch screens have good resistance to dust and water.
2. They can be used with bare fingers, stylus, and gloved hand.
Disadvantages:
1. Low touch sensitivity (require more pressure to register touch)
2. Does not support multi-touch facility
3. Poor visibility in strong sunlight
4. Vulnerable to scratches on the screen (made of polymer).

OUTPUT DEVICES:
Actuators
Actuators are devices used to control machines, such as conveyer belts or valves, by converting an electrical
signal into mechanical movement. One example of an actuator is a solenoid, which produces linear motion
by creating a magnetic field when an electric current flows through its coil. A magnetized metal bar, called
a plunger, is placed inside the coil, which moves when a current is applied. This movement can be used to
operate valves, switches, or other mechanical components. Rotary solenoids are also available, which use
a cylindrical coil to produce rotational movement.

Light projectors
Projectors are utilized for displaying computer output on bigger screens or interactive whiteboards. They
are commonly employed in multimedia applications and presentations.
There are two common types of Light projector:
1. Digital light projector (DLP)
2. Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector

Digital light projectors (DLP):

Digital light projectors use a small device called a DMD chip that has millions of micro mirrors. The
arrangement of these mirrors determines the resolution of the image projected. When the mirrors tilt
towards the light source, they are ON and create a light pixel on the screen. When they tilt away, they are
OFF and create a dark pixel. By switching on or off several thousand times per second, different shades of
grey can be produced. A white light source passes through a color filter and is split into primary colors. The
ON and OFF states of each mirror are linked with colors from the filter to produce a colored image.
The DMD chip is a tiny system that has thousands of tiny mirrors made of polished aluminum metal. Each
mirror is very small, about 16 millionths of a meter in size, and they are arranged on the chip's surface.
Each mirror represents a single pixel in the image displayed on the screen.

Liquid crystal display (LCD) projector:

LCD projectors are an older technology compared to DLP projectors. They work by generating a powerful
beam of white light from a bulb or LED inside the projector body. This light is reflected back at different
wavelengths by chromatic-coated mirrors. The three different coloured light components pass through three
LCD screens to produce different versions of the same image in different shades of red, green, and blue.
These images are then re-combined using a special prism to produce a full-color image, which is then
projected onto a screen.

Inkjet and laser printers

Inkjet printers:
An inkjet printer is made up of various components that work together to produce high-quality prints. These
components are:
1. Print Head: This component consists of nozzles that spray droplets of ink onto the paper to form
characters.
2. Ink Cartridge: It contains ink of different colors (blue, yellow, magenta, and black) that are used to create
images and text.
3. Stepper Motor and Belt: These components work together to move the print head assembly across the
page from side to side.
4. Paper Feed: It automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.
Ink droplets are produced using two different technologies:
Thermal Bubble: This technology uses tiny resistors to create localized heat which makes the ink vaporize.
As the bubble expands, some of the ink is ejected from the print head onto the paper.
Piezoelectric: In this technology, a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle. The
crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration forces ink to be ejected onto
the paper; at the same time, more ink is drawn in for further printing.
Laser printers:
Laser printers use dry powder ink and static electricity to print text and images on a whole page at once.
They use 4 toner cartridges for color printing. The method is similar to monochrome printers, but colored
dots are used to create the images.

Applications of Inkjet Printer:

Inkjet printers are best suited for printing one-off photos or for small-scale, high-quality color printing jobs.
They are not ideal for large-volume printing jobs due to the small ink cartridges and paper trays they use.
Applications of Laser Printer:
Laser printers are suitable for high-volume printing jobs and can produce high-quality prints quickly. They
are ideal for applications that require large numbers of high-quality flyers, posters, or other printed
materials. Laser printers have the advantage of using large toner cartridges and paper trays, making them
suitable for large-scale printing jobs.

3D printers
3D printers use inkjet and laser technology to produce solid objects layer by layer using materials like
powdered resin, metal, paper, and ceramic. They come in different sizes and use additive manufacturing,
building up the object from layers, unlike traditional subtractive manufacturing methods. Direct 3D
printing uses inkjet technology, while binder 3D printing uses a two-pass method with dry powder and
binder spray. Newer technologies use lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers, expanding the range
of products that can be made.

How to create a solid object using 3D printers:

Uses of 3D printing:
1. 3D printing is a possible "industrial revolution" that will change manufacturing methods in many
industries
2. Can be used to create prosthetic limb covers and precise parts for reconstructive surgery
3. Aerospace industry is looking to create lightweight, precise parts such as wings using 3D printing
4. 3D printing allows for new creative ideas in fashion and art
5. Can be used to make parts for items no longer in production, such as suspension parts for a vintage car

LED and LCD screens

LED screens:
An LED screen is made of small colored lights called LEDs. By changing the electricity to each LED,
different colors and brightness can be made. These screens are great for outdoor displays because they are
bright. Some TVs are called LED, but they are actually LCD screens with LED lights behind them.
LCD screens:
LCD screens are made of tiny liquid crystals that make up pixels which are affected by electric fields. LCD
screens need backlighting to work, and this is usually done with LED technology. LED backlighting gives
good contrast and brightness. Before LED, CCFL was used for backlighting which used fluorescent tubes.
Advantages over CCFL:
1. Immediate maximum brightness
2. Whiter light for sharper image and vivid colors
3. Brighter light for improved color definition
4. Thinner monitors
5. Indefinite lifespan for more reliable and consistent product
6. Low power consumption resulting in less heat and energy usage.

Organic light emitting diodes (OLED):

OLED technology uses organic materials to create semiconductors that emit light when an electric field is
applied, so no backlighting is required. OLED screens are very thin and flexible, making it possible to bend
them into any shape. This technology allows for screens to be wrapped around your wrist like a watch strap
or folded up and placed in your pocket until they are needed. OLED displays can even be attached to fabrics,
creating "smart" clothing with integrated circuits, mobile phones, GPS receivers, and OLED displays sewn
into the clothing.

Advantages of using OLED compared to existing LEDs and LCDs:

1. OLED layers are made of plastic, making them thinner, lighter, and more flexible.
2. OLEDs produce a brighter light than LEDs.
3. OLEDs don't require backlighting like LCDs, so they generate their own light.
4. OLEDs use less power than LCDs because they don't need backlighting, making them ideal for battery-
operated devices.
5. OLEDs can be made into large, thin sheets, which is useful for large advertising boards.
6. OLEDs have a wide viewing angle of about 170 degrees, making them suitable for use in TVs and
advertising screens.

Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers are devices that make sound. When sound is stored on a computer, it needs to be turned into
an electric current to work with loudspeakers. This is done by a digital to analogue converter (DAC), which
changes the digital data into an electric current. The current is then amplified, making it strong enough to
drive a loudspeaker, which turns it into sound. The sound needs to go through a DAC to convert digital data
into an analogue electric current to work with loudspeakers.
How the loudspeaker converts the electric current into sound:
1. Electric current flows through a coil of wire wrapped around an iron core.
2. The iron core becomes a temporary electromagnet.
3. A permanent magnet is positioned close to the electromagnet.
4. The induced magnetic field in the iron core varies as the current through the coil varies.
5. This causes the iron core to vibrate towards the permanent magnet.
6. The vibration of the iron core causes a cone made of paper or synthetic material to vibrate.
7. The vibration of the cone produces sound waves.