Alternating

Current & Voltage

Learning with Purpose

Slide 1
 Sine Waves

The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental

alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage waveform.

Electrical sine waves are named

from the mathematical function Amplitude
with the same shape.

Sine waves are characterized

by the amplitude and period.

Period
Slide 2
Polarity of a Sine Wave

Slide 3
 Period of a Sine Wave

The time required for a given sine wave to complete one

full cycle is called the period (T).
The Unit is the second (s)

Slide 4
 Frequency of a Sine Wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, German Physicist, 1857–1894

Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave

completes in one second.
The Unit is the hertz (Hz)

Slide 5
 Relationship of Frequency and Period

𝟏 𝟏
𝐟= 𝐓=
𝐓 𝐟

Question: Which sine wave has the higher frequency?

Determine the frequency and the period of both waveforms.

T=333 ms, f=3 Hz T=200 ms, f=5 Hz

Slide 6
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Instantaneous Value
The instantaneous value is different at different points
along the curve.

Slide 7
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Peak Value
The peak value of a sine wave is the value of voltage (or
current) at the positive or the negative maximum (peaks) with
respect to zero.
Since positive and negative peak values are equal in magnitude,
a sine wave is characterized by a single peak value

Slide 8
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Peak-to-Peak Value
The peak-to-peak value of a sine wave is the voltage (or
current) from the positive peak to the negative peak.

𝑉𝑝𝑝 = 2 𝑉𝑝
𝐼𝑝𝑝 = 2 𝐼𝑝

Slide 9
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

rms Value
The rms value (root mean square), also referred to as the
effective value, of a sinusoidal voltage is actually a measure of
the heating effect of the sine wave.

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707 𝑉𝑝
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707 𝐼𝑝

Slide 10
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Average Value
For some purposes, the average value (actually the halfwave
average) is used to specify the voltage or current. By definition,
the average value is as 0.637 times the peak value.
𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.637 𝑉𝑝
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0.637 𝐼𝑝

Slide 11
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Angular Measurement
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (o) or radians.
The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when the arc is
equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360o or 2p radians in
one complete revolution.

Slide 12
 Reminder

Radian/Degree Conversion
𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 180°
𝑟𝑎𝑑 = × 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 = × 𝑟𝑎𝑑
180° 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑

Slide 13
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Sine Wave Angles

The angular measurement of a sine wave is based on 360o
or 2p rad for a complete cycle. A half-cycle is 180o or p rad;
a quarter-cycle is 90o or p/2 rad; and so on.

Slide 14
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Sin Wave Equation

Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as v or i. The

equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine wave is

𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where
Vp = Peak voltage
q = Angle in rad or degrees

Slide 15
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

The Phase Shift

The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that

specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a reference.
To show that a sine wave is shifted to the left or right of
this reference, a term is added to the equation given
previously.
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑝 sin(𝜃 ± ∅)
where
∅ = Phase shift

Slide 16
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

Phase of Sine Wave

The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement that
specifies the position of that sine wave relative to a reference

Slide 17
 Exercise

Determine Vp, Vpp, Vrms, and the half-cycle Vavg for the sine wave
Vp=4.5 V, Vpp=9 V, Vrms=3.18 V, Vavg=2.87 V

Slide 18
 Exercise
Determine the instantaneous value at 90o on the horizontal axis
for each voltage sine wave

Slide 19
 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES OF SINE WAVES

The Phase Shift

An important application of phase-shifted sine waves is in
electrical power systems. Electrical utilities generate ac with
three phases that are separated by 120° as illustrated.

Normally, 3-phase power is delivered to the user with three

hot lines plus neutral. The voltage of each phase, with
respect to neutral is 120 V.

Slide 20
 Power in resistive AC circuits

The power relationships developed for dc circuits apply to

ac circuits except you must use rms values in ac circuits
when calculating power.

Power formulas are: For example, the dc and the ac

sources produce the same power
𝑃 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 to the bulb
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑃= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 𝑅

Slide 21
 Power in resistive AC circuits

Example:
Assume a sine wave with a peak value of 40 V is applied to
a 100 W resistive load. What power is dissipated?

Solution: 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707 × 𝑉𝑝 = 0.707 × 40 𝑉 = 28.3 𝑉

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 28.3
𝑃= = =8𝑊
𝑅 100

Slide 22
 Superimposed dc and ac voltages

Frequently dc and ac voltages are

together in a waveform. They can be
added algebraically, to produce a
composite waveform of an ac voltage
“riding” on a dc level.

VDC>Vp VDC<Vp
Nonalternating Alternating
Slide 23
 Alternators

Alternators are ac generators. Utility companies use

3-phase alternators and deliver all three phases to
industrial customers.

The rotor shown is a permanent magnet that produces a

strong magnetic field. As it sweeps by each stator winding,
a sine wave is produced across that winding. The neutral
is the reference.
Slide 24
 Alternators

In vehicles, alternators generate ac, which is converted to

dc for operating electrical devices and charging the
battery. AC is more efficient to produce and can be easily
regulated, hence it is generated and converted to dc by
diodes.

The output is taken from the

rotor through the slip rings.

Basic vehicle alternator

Slide 25
 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
Pulse Waveform
Ideal pulses

A pulse can be described as a very rapid transition (leading edge)

from one voltage or current level (baseline) to another level; and
then, after an interval of time, a very rapid transition (trailing
edge) back to the original baseline level.

Slide 27
 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
Pulse Waveform
Actual pulses are never ideal

Rise and fall times Pulse width

Rise and fall times are measured between the 10% and 90% levels.

Pulse width is measured at the 50% level.

Slide 28
 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
Pulse Waveform
Repetitive Pulses: Any waveform that repeats itself at fixed intervals is
periodic.

The duty cycle is the ratio of the pulse width (tW) to the period (T) and is
usually expressed as a percentage.
𝑡𝑊
Percent duty cycle = 100%
𝑇

Slide 29
 Exercise

Determine the period, frequency, and duty cycle for the

pulse waveform.

1 1
𝑇 = 10 µ𝑠 𝑓 = = = 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑇 10
𝑡𝑊 1µ𝑠
Percent duty cycle= 100% = 100% = 10%
𝑇 10µ𝑠

Slide 30
 Nonsinusoidal Waveforms
Pulse Waveform
A square wave is a pulse waveform with a duty cycle of 50%.

The average value of a pulse waveform is equal to its baseline value

plus the product of its duty cycle and its amplitude

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = baseline + (duty cycle)(amplitude)

Example: Determine the average voltage

of the positive-going waveforms

𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 1 V + 50 5 V = 1 + 2.5 𝑉 = 3.5 𝑉

Slide 31
 Triangular and Sawtooth waves

Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by voltage

or current ramps (linear increase/decrease)

Triangular waveforms have The sawtooth waveform consists

positive-going and negativegoing of two ramps, one of much longer
ramps of equal duration. duration than the other.
Slide 32
 Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed of a
fundamental frequency (repetition rate of the waveform) and
harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonics are frequencies that are odd multiples of the
fundamental frequency.
Even harmonics are frequencies that are even multiples of the
fundamental frequency.

Slide 33
 Oscilloscope

Typical oscilloscopes. Copyright © Tektronix

Slide 34
 Exercise

A sinusoidal voltage is applied to the resistive circuit.

Determine: IP, IPP, Irms, Iavg & i at the positive peak

IP=VP/R = 10 mA / IPP = 20 mA
Irms = 7.07 mA / Iavg = 0 A
I at the positive peak = 10 mA

Slide 37