KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

TCBE 2206 RESEARCH METHODS

Lecturer: Charles Onyutha

[email protected]
 Introduction
Materials in this slides were all
extracted from:

Kothari C.R. (2004). Research

methodology - methods and
techniques. New Age
International (P) Ltd.,
Publishers. ISBN (13) : 978-
81-224-2488-1

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Materials in this slides were also extracted from:

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
What is research?

Research is search for knowledge through objective and systematic

method of finding solution to a problem.

It is an art of scientific investigation of relationships among natural

phenomena intended to produce verifiable and generalizable
knowledge.

The investigation should be

• systematic,
• controlled,
• Empirical, and
• critical.
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
What is research?

Research refers to the systematic method consisting of

• enunciating the problem,
• formulating a hypothesis,
• collecting the facts or data,
• analyzing the facts, and
• reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in
certain generalizations for some theoretical
formulation.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Objectives of research

Main aim => to find hidden/undiscovered truth

Specific objectives => varies from one research study to another

Research specific objectives can be categorized as follows:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies

with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are

known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Motivation in research

What makes people undertake research?

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits,

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research,

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work,

4. Desire to be of service to society,

5. Desire to get respectability,

6. Directives of government,

7. Employment conditions,

8. Curiosity about new things,

9. Desire to understand causal relationships,

10. Social thinking and awakening (Social thinking = the process of interpreting information to better
understand and respond to another person’s experience)

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 Introduction
Characteristics of research
1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

2. Research involves the quest for answers to un-solved problems.

3. Research requires expertise.

4. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles, or

theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.

5. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.

6. Research demands accurate observation and description.

7. Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or
using existing data for a new purpose.

8. Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous

analysis.

9. Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to

validate the procedures employed the data collected and the conclusions
reached.

10. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.

11. Research is carefully recorded and collected.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Criteria of Good Research

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common
concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to
permit another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in
procedural design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its
significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The
validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the
research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is
experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Criteria of Good Research

In other words, the qualities of a good research are that:

1. Good research is systematic:
It means that research is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified
sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of
the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the use of
guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical:
This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and the logical
process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is
the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that
very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical:
It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation
and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.
4. Good research is replicable:
This characteristic allows research results to be verified by replicating the study and
thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
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 Introduction
Types of research

Research types can be classified on the basis of

• method of research

• approach of research

• utility of content or nature of subject matter of research:

• nature of information

• the time required to accomplish research,

• the environment in which research is done,

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of nature of information

Quantitative research

is based on the measurement of quantity or amount.

It is limited to phenomena which can be expressed in terms of

quantity e.g. rainfall intensity, evaporation rate, soil depth, etc.

Qualitative research

is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or

involving quality or kind.

e.g. color of soil, religion, gender, etc.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research

a) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical Research:

Here, the utility is universal.

b) Experimental or Applied Research:

For this type, the utility is limited.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of utility of content or nature of subject matter of research

Applied research

aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an

industrial/business organization

Fundamental research

is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.

Pure of basic research= Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure

mathematics are examples of fundamental research.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of approach of research

a) Longitudinal Research

Examples of this category are historical, Case study and Genetic research.

a) Cross-Sectional Research

Examples of this category are Experimental and Survey Research.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

based on:

the time required to complete the research,

we can think of

o one-time research => the research is confined to a single time-period

o longitudinal research => the research is carried on over several time-periods.

the environment in which the research is conducted,

we have

o field-setting research

o laboratory research

o simulation research
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

a) Philosophical Research:

It is purely qualitative in nature and we are focusing on the vision

of others on the content of research.

b) Historical Research:

It is both qualitative & quantitative in nature and deals with past

events. Historical research is that which utilizes historical

sources such as, documents, and remains, to study events or

ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups

at any remote point of time.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

c) Survey Research:

It deals with present events and is quantitative in nature. It may

further be sub-divided into; discretional, correlational and

exploratory type of research.

d) Experimental Research:

This is purely quantitative in nature and deals with future events.

e) Case-Study Research:

It deals with unusual events. It may be qualitative as well as

quantitative in nature depending upon the content.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

Clinical vs. diagnostic research,

o clinical research => all research conducted on humans (healthy or sick people)

to determine the safety and effectiveness of medications, and treatment regimens

intended for human use.

o diagnostic research => the research conducted on sick people with focus on

estimating the sensitivity and specificity of individual

diagnostic tests, or other parameters of interest

Derived through Latin from Greek:

“dia” meaning apart, and “gnosis” meaning to learn.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

Clinical vs. diagnostic research,

A diagnostic test is done on sick people

• patient presents with symptoms,
• disease prevalent is high,
• tests are conducted to verify the hypothesized disease

NOTE: diagnostic test is different from screening test.

Screening test is conducted on asymptomatic (apparently healthy) people

• one has no symptoms of a given disease,
• disease prevalent is low,
• tests are conducted to verify the hypothesized disease

BEWARE: Misdiagnosis is common!

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

We can also have diagnostic research in Engineering,

We can have failure of an Engineering

• system
• structure

In a diagnostic research, we
• hypothesize the probable cause of the failure
• conduct engineering tests to verify the suspected cause

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented,

Conclusion-oriented research

a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he

proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes

Decision-oriented research

is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is
not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination.

Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing
executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under their control.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

Exploratory vs. formalized research,

Exploratory research

has the objective of developing hypotheses rather than their testing,

Formalized research

are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

Conceptual research

is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory.

It is to develop new concepts or to re-interpret existing ones.
e.g. rainfall-runoff generation

Empirical research

relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory.
• It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are

capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

• One starts with a working hypothesis, collects data, & tests the hypothesis

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

On the basis of method of research

Analytical = the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
Descriptive
• Includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
• Major purpose = is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
• Often termed as ex post facto (after-the-fact) research in science and business fields.
• Main characteristic = the researcher has no control over the variables; one can only
report what has happened or what is happening.
• Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data.
• Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even
when they cannot control the variables.
• The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
Types of research

QUESTION

Distinguish between the following types of research

a) Descriptive vs. Analytical,

b) Applied vs. Fundamental,

c) Quantitative vs. Qualitative,

d) Conceptual vs. Empirical.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
RESEARCH APPROACHES

There are two basic approaches

a) Quantitative approach

b) Qualitative approach

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
RESEARCH APPROACHES

1) Qualitative approach

• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective

assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior.
• Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights
and impressions.
• Such an approach to research generates results either in non-
quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis.
• Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
RESEARCH APPROACHES

2) Quantitative approach

involves the generation of data in quantitative form which

can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a

formal and rigid fashion.

Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into

• inferential,

• experimental,

• simulation approaches.
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
RESEARCH APPROACHES

Quantitative approach

a) Inferential approach

The purpose is to research is to form a data base from which

to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This

usually means survey research where a sample of population

is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its xtics, and

it is then inferred that the population has the same xtics.

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RESEARCH APPROACHES

Quantitative approach

b) Experimental approach

is characterized by much greater control over the research

environment and in this case some variables are manipulated

to observe their effect on other variables.

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RESEARCH APPROACHES

Quantitative approach

c) Simulation approach

involves the construction of an artificial environment within which

relevant information and data can be generated.

Simulation = the use of given values of initial conditions, parameters

and exogenous variables to generate behavior of a dynamic process
over time.

We can use simulation approach to build models for understanding

future conditions.

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 Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS

Before embarking on the details of research methodology and techniques, it is

appropriate to present a brief overview of the research process.

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively

carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS

An example of a
research process
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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
 Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS
These research actions or steps are;
(i) Formulating the Research Problem
(ii) Extensive Literature Survey
(iii) Developing the Research Hypothesis
(iv) Preparing the Research Design
(v) Determining the Research Design
(vi) Collecting the Research Data
(vii) Execution of the Project
(viii) Analysis of Data
(ix) Hypothesis Testing
(x) Generalization and Interpretation
(xi) Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result

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RESEARCH PROCESS

i) Formulating the Research Problem

At the very outset, the researcher must decide the general area of
interest or aspect of a subject matter that he would like to inquire
into and then research problem should be formulated.

ii) Extensive Literature Survey

Once the problem is formulated the researcher should undertake

extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this
purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to academic
journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc.
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem.

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 Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS
iii) Development of Working Hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear
terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. It’s very important or it provides the focal
point for research.

iv) Preparing the Research Design

After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a research design i.e. we
have to state the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the
function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with optimum effort, time and expenditure. But how all these
can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
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RESEARCH PROCESS
iv) Preparing the Research Design

Consideration for preparing research design:

a) means of obtaining the information;

b) availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);

c) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining

information will be organized & the reasoning leading to the selection;

d) time available for research; and

e) cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the

purpose.

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C. Onyutha (2021). Research Methods: Lecture Slides, Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Kyambogo University, Uganda
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RESEARCH PROCESS

v) Determining Sample Design

A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is

actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.in

census inquiry we involve a great deal of time, money and energy so

it is not possible in practice under many circumstances. Sample

designs can be either probability or non-probability. With probability

samples each element has a known probability of being included in

the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the

researchers to determine this probability.

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 Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS

vi) Collecting the data

There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey. In case of survey, data can be collected
by any one or more of the following ways;

By observation,
Through personal interview,
Through telephonic interviews,
By mailing of questionnaires or
Through schedules.

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 Introduction
RESEARCH PROCESS
vii) Execution of the Project

Execution of project is a very important step in the research process. If

the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable. A careful watch should
be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey realistic as
much as possible.
viii) Analysis of Data
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations
such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories
to raw data through
 coding,
 tabulation and then
 drawing statistical inference.
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RESEARCH PROCESS

viii) Analysis of Data

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation

of various percentages; coefficients etc., by applying various well
defined statistical formulae.

In the process of analysis, relationships of differences supporting or

conflicting with original or new hypothesis should be subjected to
tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said
to indicate any conclusions.

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RESEARCH PROCESS

ix) Hypothesis Testing

• After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to test the

hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier.
• Do the facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary?
• This is the usual question which is to be answered by applying
various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc.
• Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it.
• If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, generalizations
established on the basis of data may be stated.

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RESEARCH PROCESS

How does one go about developing working hypotheses?

1. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its

origin and the objectives in seeking a solution;
2. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
3. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and
4. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of
the problem.

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RESEARCH PROCESS

x) Generalizations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible
for the researcher to arrive at generalization i.e. to build a theory. As a
matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at
certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start
with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory.
It is known as interpretation.

xi) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done
by him. The layout of the report should be as follows; the preliminary
pages, the main text and end matter. The preliminary pages carry title,
acknowledgements and forward and then index. The main text of the
report should have introduction, review of literature and methodology.
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