12/25/2018 Fundamentals of Database Management

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Fundamentals of Database Management

What is data base management systems?

Data base management system is essentially a collection of interrelated data and a set of programs to

access this data. This collection of data is called the database. The primary objective of a DBMS is to
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provide a convenient environment to retrieve and store database information. Database system support Employment Opportunities

single user and multi-user environment. While on one hand DBMS permits only one person to access the Study Abroad
database at given time, on the other DBMS allows many users simultaneous access to the database.
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A DBMS makes it possible for end users to create, read, update and delete data in a database. The
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DBMS essentially serves as an interface between the database and end users or application programs,

ensuring that data is consistently organized and remains easily accessible. Fellowships

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The DBMS manages three important things: the data, the database engine that allows data to be Placement Guide
accessed, locked and modified -- and the database schema, which defines the database’s logical
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structure. These three foundational elements help provide concurrency, security, data integrity and
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uniform administration procedures. Typical database administration tasks supported by the DBMS
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include change management, performance monitoring/tuning and backup and recovery. Many database

management systems are also responsible for automated rollbacks, restarts and recovery as well as the Job Guidance

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The DBMS is perhaps most useful for providing a centralized view of data that can be accessed by

multiple users, from multiple locations, in a controlled manner. A DBMS can limit what data the end user Related Topics
sees, as well as how that end user can view the data, providing many views of a single database History of Data Base Systems

schema. End users and software programs are free from having to understand where the data is Data Modeling
physically located or on what type of storage media it resides because the DBMS handles all requests.
Introduction to the Relational Model

Database Languages
The DBMS can offer both logical and physical data independence. That means it can protect users and

applications from needing to know where data is stored or having to be concerned about changes to the Transaction Management

physical structure of data (storage and hardware). As long as programs use the Application- Introduction to Database Management
Systems
Programming Interface (API) for the database that is provided by the DBMS, developers won't have to

modify programs just because changes have been made to the database.

With relational DBMSs (RDBMSs), this API is SQL, a standard programming language for defining,

protecting and accessing data in a RDBMS.

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A database system consists of two parts namely, database management system and database

applications. Database management system is the program that organizes and maintains the

information whereas the database application is the program that let us view, retrieve update

information stored in the DBMS.

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Database models are broadly classified into two categories. They are

Network Model and Hierarchical Model

Relational Model

Object based logical Model

Record based logical model

Access techniques of a DBMS:

The object based logical model can be defined as a collection of ideal tool for describing data, data

relationship and data constrains. The record based model describes the data structures access

techniques of a DBMS. There are four types of record-based logical models. They are

File Management System (FMS)

Hierarchical database management systems (HDBMS)

Network Database Management Systems (NDBMS)

Relational Database Management Systems (RDBMS)

Advantages of DBMS

The database management system has promising potential advantages, which are explained below:

1. Controlling Redundancy: In file system, each application has its own private files, which cannot be

shared between multiple applications. This can often lead to considerable redundancy in the stored

data, which results in wastage of storage space. By having centralized database most of this can

be avoided. It is not possible that all redundancy should be eliminated. Sometimes there are sound

business and technical reasons for• maintaining multiple copies of the same data. In a database

system, however this redundancy can be controlled.

For example: In case of college database, there may be the number of applications like General

Office, Library, Account Office, Hostel etc. Each of these applications may maintain the following

information into own private file applications:

It is clear from the above file systems, that there is some common data of the student which has to

be mentioned in each application, like Rollno, Name, Class, Phone_No~ Address etc. This will cause

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the problem of redundancy which results in wastage of storage space and difficult to maintain, but

in case of centralized database, data can be shared by number of applications and the whole

college can maintain its computerized data with the following database:

It is clear in the above database that Rollno, Name, Class, Father_Name, Address,

Phone_No, Date_of_birth which are stored repeatedly in file system in each application, need not be

stored repeatedly in case of database, because every other application can access this information

by joining of relations on the basis of common column i.e. Rollno. Suppose any user of Library

system need the Name, Address of any particular student and by joining of Library and General

Office relations on the basis of column Rollno he/she can easily retrieve this information.

Thus, we can say that centralized system of DBMS reduces the redundancy of data to great extent

but cannot eliminate the redundancy because RollNo is still repeated in all the relations.

2. Integrity can be enforced: Integrity of data means that data in database is always accurate, such

that incorrect information cannot be stored in database. In order to maintain the integrity of data,

some integrity constraints are enforced on the database. A DBMS should provide capabilities for

defining and enforcing the constraints.

For Example: Let us consider the case of college database and suppose that college having only

BTech, MTech, MSc, BCA, BBA and BCOM classes. But if a \.,ser enters the class MCA, then this

incorrect information must not be stored in database and must be prompted that this is an invalid

data entry. In order to enforce this, the integrity constraint must be applied to the class attribute of

the student entity. But, in case of file system tins constraint must be enforced on all the application

separately (because all applications have a class field).

In case of DBMS, this integrity constraint is applied only once on the class field of the General

Office (because class field appears only once in the whole database), and all other applications will

get the class information about the student from the General Office table so the integrity constraint

is applied to the whole database. So, we can conclude that integrity constraint can be easily

enforced in centralized DBMS system as compared to file system.

3. Inconsistency can be avoided: When the same data is duplicated and changes are made at one

site, which is not propagated to the other site, it gives rise to inconsistency and the two entries

regarding the same data will not agree. At such times the data is said to be inconsistent. So, if the

redundancy is removed chances of having inconsistent data is also removed.

Let us again, consider the college system and suppose that in case of General_Office file

it is indicated that Roll_Number 5 lives in Amritsar but in library file it is indicated that

Roll_Number 5 lives in Jalandhar. Then, this is a state at which tIle two entries of the same object

do not agree with each other (that is one is updated and other is not). At such time the database is

said to be inconsistent.

An inconsistent database is capable of supplying incorrect or conflicting information. So there

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should be no inconsistency in database. It can be clearly shown that inconsistency can be avoided

in centralized system very well as compared to file system ..

Let us consider again, the example of college system and suppose that RollNo 5 is .shifted from

Amritsar to Jalandhar, then address information of Roll Number 5 must be updated, whenever Roll

number and address occurs in the system. In case of file system, the information must be updated

separately in each application, but if we make updation only at three places and forget to make

updation at fourth application, then the whole system show the inconsistent results about Roll

Number 5.

In case of DBMS, Roll number and address occurs together only single time in General_Office table.

So, it needs single updation and then another application retrieve the address information from

General_Office which is updated so, all application will get the current and latest information by

providing single update operation and this single update operation is propagated to the whole

database or all other application automatically, this property is called as Propagation of Update.

We can say the redundancy of data greatly affect the consistency of data. If redundancy is less, it is

easy to implement consistency of data. Thus, DBMS system can avoid inconsistency to great

extent.

4. Data can be shared: As explained earlier, the data about Name, Class, Father __name etc. of

General_Office is shared by multiple applications in centralized DBMS as compared to file system

so now applications can be developed to operate against the same stored data. The applications

may be developed without having to create any new stored files.

5. Standards can be enforced: Since DBMS is a central system, so standard can be enforced easily

may be at Company level, Department level, National level or International level. The standardized

data is very helpful during migration or interchanging of data. The file system is an independent

system so standard cannot be easily enforced on multiple independent applications.

6. Restricting unauthorized access: When multiple users share a database, it is likely that some users

will not be authorized to access all information in the database. For example, account office data is

often considered confidential, and hence only authorized persons are allowed to access such data.

In addition, some users may be permitted only to retrieve data, whereas other are allowed both to

retrieve and to update. Hence, the type of access operation retrieval or update must also be

controlled. Typically, users or user groups are given account numbers protected by passwords,

which they can use to gain access to the database. A DBMS should provide a security and

authorization subsystem, which the DBA uses to create accounts and to specify account

restrictions. The DBMS should then enforce these restrictions automatically.

7. Solving Enterprise Requirement than Individual Requirement: Since many types of users with

varying level of technical knowledge use a database, a DBMS should provide a variety of user

interface. The overall requirements of the enterprise are more important than the individual user

requirements. So, the DBA can structure the database system to provide an overall service that is

"best for the enterprise".

For example: A representation can be chosen for the data in storage that gives fast access for the

most important application at the cost of poor performance in some other application. But, the file

system favors the individual requirements than the enterprise requirements

8. Providing Backup and Recovery: A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from hardware or

software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem of the DBMS is responsible for recovery. For

example, if the computer system fails in the middle of a complex update program, the recovery

subsystem is responsible for making sure that the .database is restored to the state it was in

before the program started executing.

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9. Cost of developing and maintaining system is lower: It is much easier to respond to unanticipated

requests when data is centralized in a database than when it is stored in a conventional file

system. Although the initial cost of setting up of a database can be large, but the cost of

developing and maintaining application programs to be far lower than for similar service using

conventional systems. The productivity of programmers can be higher in using non-procedural

languages that have been developed with DBMS than using procedural languages.

10. Data Model can be developed: The centralized system is able to represent the complex data and

interfile relationships, which results better data modeling properties. The data madding properties

of relational model is based on Entity and their Relationship, which is discussed in detail in chapter

4 of the book.

Concurrency Control: DBMS systems provide mechanisms to provide concurrent access of data to

multiple users.

Disadvantages of DBMS

The disadvantages of the database approach are summarized as follows:

1. Complexity: The provision of the functionality that is expected of a good DBMS makes the DBMS an

extremely complex piece of software. Database designers, developers, database administrators

and end-users must understand this functionality to take full advantage of it. Failure to understand

the system can lead to bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for an

organization.

2. Size: The complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an extremely large piece of

software, occupying many megabytes of disk space and requiring substantial amounts of memory

to run efficiently.

3. Performance: Typically, a File Based system is written for a specific application, such as invoicing.

As result, performance is generally very good. However, the DBMS is written to be more general, to

cater for many applications rather than just one. The effect is that some applications may not run

as fast as they used to.

4. Higher impact of a failure: The centralization of resources increases the vulnerability of the system.

Since all users and applications rely on the ~vailabi1ity of the DBMS, the failure of any component

can bring operations to a halt.

5. Cost of DBMS: The cost of DBMS varies significantly, depending on the environment and

functionality provided. There is also the recurrent annual maintenance cost.

6. Additional Hardware costs: The disk storage requirements for the DBMS and the database may

necessitate the purchase of additional storage space. Furthermore, to achieve the required

performance it may be necessary to purchase a larger machine, perhaps even a machine dedicated

to running the DBMS. The procurement of additional hardware results in further expenditure.

7. Cost of Conversion: In some situations, the cost oftlle DBMS and extra hardware may be

insignificant compared with the cost of converting existing applications to run on the new DBMS

and hardware. This cost also includes the cost of training staff to use these new systems and

possibly the employment of specialist staff to help with conversion and running of the system. This

cost is one of the main reasons why some organizations feel tied to their current systems and

cannot switch to modern database technology.

Database Management System Vs File Management System

A Database Management System (DMS) is a combination of computer software, hardware, and

information designed to electronically manipulate data via computer processing. Two types of database

management systems are DBMS’s and FMS’s. In simple terms, a File Management System (FMS) is a

Database Management System that allows access to single files or tables at a time. FMS’s

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accommodate flat files that have no relation to other files. The FMS was the predecessor for the

Database Management System (DBMS), which allows access to multiple files or tables at a time (see

Figure 1 below)

File Management Systems

Advantages Disadvantages

Simpler to use Typically does not support multi-user access

Less expensive· Limited to smaller databases

Fits the needs of many small businesses and Limited functionality (i.e. no support for

home users complicated transactions, recovery, etc.)

Popular FMS’s are packaged along with the

operating systems of personal computers (i.e. Decentralization of data

Microsoft Cardfile and Microsoft Works)

Good for database solutions for hand held devices

Redundancy and Integrity issues
such as Palm Pilot

Typically, File Management Systems provide the following advantages and disadvantages:

The goals of a File Management System can be summarized as follows (Calleri, 2001):

Data Management. An FMS should provide data management services to the application.

Generality with respect to storage devices. The FMS data abstractions and access methods should

remain unchanged irrespective of the devices involved in data storage.

Validity. An FMS should guarantee that at any given moment the stored data reflect the operations

performed on them.

Protection. Illegal or potentially dangerous operations on the data should be controlled by the FMS.

Concurrency. In multiprogramming systems, concurrent access to the data should be allowed with

minimal differences.

Performance. Compromise data access speed and data transfer rate with functionality.

From the point of view of an end user (or application) an FMS typically provides the following

functionalities (Calleri, 2001):

File creation, modification and deletion.

Ownership of files and access control on the basis of ownership permissions.

Facilities to structure data within files (predefined record formats, etc).

Facilities for maintaining data redundancies against technical failure (back-ups, disk mirroring,

etc.).

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Logical identification and structuring of the data, via file names and hierarchical directory

structures.

Database Management Systems

Database Management Systems provide the following advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages Disadvantages

Greater flexibility Difficult to learn

Packaged separately from the operating system

Good for larger databases (i.e. Oracle, Microsoft Access, Lotus/IBM

Approach, Borland Paradox, Claris FileMaker Pro)

Greater processing power Slower processing speeds

Fits the needs of many medium to large-sized

Requires skilled administrators
organizations

Storage for all relevant data Expensive

Provides user views relevant to tasks performed

Ensures data integrity by managing transactions

(ACID test = atomicity, consistency, isolation,

durability)

Supports simultaneous access

Enforces design criteria in relation to data format

and structure

Provides backup and recovery controls

Advanced security

The goals of a Database Management System can be summarized as follows (Connelly, Begg, and

Strachan, 1999, pps. 54 – 60):

Data storage, retrieval, and update (while hiding the internal physical implementation details)

A user-accessible catalog

Transaction support

Concurrency control services (multi-user update functionality)

Recovery services (damaged database must be returned to a consistent state)

Authorization services (security)

Support for data communication Integrity services (i.e. constraints)

Services to promote data independence

Utility services (i.e. importing, monitoring, performance, record deletion, etc.)

The components to facilitate the goals of a DBMS may include the following:

Query processor

Data Manipulation Language preprocessor

Database manager (software components to include authorization control, command processor,

integrity checker, query optimizer, transaction manager, scheduler, recovery manager, and buffer

manager)

Data Definition Language compiler

File manager

View of Data:

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Data are actually stored as bits, or numbers and strings, but it is difficult to work with data at this level.

It is necessary to view data at different levels of abstraction.

Schema: Description of data at some level. Each level has its own schema. We will be concerned with

three forms of schemas:

Physical

Conceptual

External

Physical Data Level

The physical schema describes details of how data is stored: files, indices, etc. on the random access

disk system. It also typically describes the record layout of files and type of files (hash, b-tree, flat).

Early applications worked at this level - explicitly dealt with details. E.g., minimizing physical distances

between related data and organizing the data structures within the file (blocked records, linked lists of

blocks, etc.)

Problem:

Routines are hardcoded to deal with physical representation.

Changes to data structures are difficult to make.

Application code becomes complex since it must deal with details.

Rapid implementation of new features very difficult.

Conceptual Data Level

Also referred to as the Logical level

Hides details of the physical level.

In the relational model, the conceptual schema presents data as a set of tables.

The DBMS maps data access between the conceptual to physical schemas automatically.

Physical schema can be changed without changing application:

DBMS must change mapping from conceptual to physical.

Referred to as physical data independence.

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External Data Level

In the relational model, the external schema also presents data as a set of relations. An external schema

specifies a view of the data in terms of the conceptual level. It is tailored to the needs of a particular

category of users. Portions of stored data should not be seen by some users and begins to implement a

level of security and simplifies the view for these users

Examples:

Students should not see faculty salaries.

Faculty should not see billing or payment data. Information that can be derived from stored data

might be viewed as if it were stored.

GPA not stored, calculated when needed.

Applications are written in terms of an external schema. The external view is computed when accessed.

It is not stored. Different external schemas can be provided to different categories of users. Translation

from external level to conceptual level is done automatically by DBMS at run time. The conceptual

schema can be changed without changing application:

Mapping from external to conceptual must be changed.

Referred to as conceptual data independence.

Instance and schema in DBMS

Definition of schema: Design of a database is called the schema. Schema is of three types: Physical

schema, logical schema and view schema.

The design of a database at physical level is called physical schema, how the data stored in blocks

of storage is described at this level.

Design of database at logical level is called logical schema, programmers and database

administrators work at this level, at this level data can be described as certain types of data records

gets stored in data structures, however the internal details such as implementation of data

structure is hidden at this level (available at physical level).

Design of database at view level is called view schema. This generally describes end user

interaction with database systems. To learn more about these schemas, refer 3 level data

abstraction architecture.

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Definition of instance:

The data stored in database at a particular moment of time is called instance of database.

Database schema defines the variable declarations in tables that belong to a particular database;

the value of these variables at a moment of time is called the instance of that database.

Independent from the database model it is important to differentiate between the description of the

database and the database itself. The description of the database is called database scheme or

also metadata. The database scheme is defined during the database design process and changes

very rarely afterwards.

The actual content of the database, the data, changes often over the years. A database state at a

specific time defined through the currently existing content and relationship and their attributes is

called a database instance.

The following illustration shows that a database scheme could be looked at like a template or

building plan for one or several database instances.

Analogy Database Schemes and Building Plans

When designing a database it is differentiated between two levels of abstraction and their

respective data schemes, the conceptual and the logical data scheme.

Conceptual Data Scheme: A conceptual data scheme is a system independent data description. That

means that it is independent from the database or computer systems used. (Translated) (ZEHNDER

1998)

Logical Data Scheme:

A logical data scheme describes the data in a data definition language DDL of a specific database

management system.

A logical data scheme describes the data in a data definition language DDL of a specific database

management system.

The conceptual data scheme orients itself exclusively by the database application and therefore by

the real world. It does not consider any data technical infrastructure like DBMS or computer

systems, which are eventually employed.

Entity relationship diagrams and relations are tools for the development of a conceptual scheme.

When designing a database the conceptual data scheme is derived from the logical data scheme

(see unit Relational Database Design). This derivation results in a logical data scheme for one

specific application and one specific DBMS. A DB-Development System converts then the logical

scheme directly into instructions for the DBMS.

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Schematic Represenation of the Different Schemes

Data Models:

Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data Models are

fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data models define how data is

connected to each other and how they are processed and stored inside the system.

The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are to be kept in the

same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence they were prone to introduce lots of

duplication and update anomalies.

Entity-Relationship Model

Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships

among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates

entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.

ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.

ER Model is based on -

Entities and their attributes.

Relationships among entities.

Entity Concept

Entity - An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes. Every

attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For example, in a school database, a student

is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes like name, age, class, etc.

Relationship - The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships are

mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of association

between two entities. Mapping cardinalities are-

one to one

one to many

many to one

many to many

Entity Relational Components:

1. Rectangle: Entity Sets

2. Ellipse : Attributes

3. Diamond : Relationship sets

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4. Double Eclipse : Multivalved Attributes

5. Dashed Ellipse : Derived Attributes

6. Double Rectangle : Weak entity sets

7. Lines : Connectors

Relational Model

The most popular data model in DBMS is the Relational Model. It is more scientific a model than others.

This model is based on first-order predicate logic and defines a table as an n-ary relation.

The main highlights of this model are -

Data is stored in tables called relations.

Relations can be normalized.

In normalized relations, values saved are atomic values.

Each row in a relation contains a unique value.

Each column in a relation contains values from a same domain.

Example:

Published on 11/13/2015 4:33:00 PM

Tags:

Fundamentals of Database Management DBMS RDBMS SQL Database Management System

Data Scheme physical data independence

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