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UNIT I DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

Chapter 1 : The Living World

Chapter 2 : Biological Classification

Chapter 3 : Plant Kingdom

UNIT II

STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

Chapter 5 : Morphology of Flowering Plants

Chapter 6 : Anatomy of Flowering Plants

UNIT III

CELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Chapter 8 : Cell : The Unit of Life

Chapter 9 : Biomolecules

Chapter 10 : Cell Cycle and Cell Division

UNIT IV

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 11 : Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

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The Living World

1. Why are living organisms classified?
This classification system makes it easier for scientists to study certain groups of
organisms. Characteristics such as appearance, reproduction, mobility, and functionality
are just a few ways in which living organisms are grouped together.

2. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then?
Millions of plants, animals, and microorganisms are found on earth. Many of these have
been identified by the scientists while many new species are still being discovered around
the world. Therefore, to classify these newly discovered species.

3. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you meet often?
The various criteria that may be chosen to classify people whom we meet often
include behavior, geographical location, morphology, gender, family members etc.
Geographical location of the individual defines their ability to adapt to the environment .

4. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations?

The knowledge of the characteristics of an individual or its whole population helps in
the identification of similarities and dissimilarities among individuals of the same kind or
between different types of organisms. By identifying individuals and populations, we
learn the following things(i) Sex(ii) Skin colour(iii) Native place(iv) Mother tongue(v)
Food habit(vi) Religion(vii) Caste

5. Given below is the scientific name of Mango. Identify the correctly written name.
Mangifera Indica Mangifera indica .Why
The correctly written scientific name of mango is Mangifera indica. In binomial system
of nomenclature, the generic name of a species always starts with a capital letter whereas
the specific name starts with a small letter. Therefore, the correct scientific name of
Mango is Mangifera indica.

6. Why are the classification systems changing every now and then?
Millions of plants, animals, and microorganisms are found on earth. Many of these have
been identified by the scientists while many new species are still being discovered around
the world. Therefore, to classify these newly discovered species.

7. What different criteria would you choose to classify people that you meet often?
The various criteria that may be chosen to classify people whom we meet often
include behavior, geographical location, morphology, gender, family members etc.
Geographical location of the individual defines their ability to adapt to the environment .

8. What do we learn from identification of individuals and populations?

The knowledge of the characteristics of an individual or its whole population helps in
the identification of similarities and dissimilarities among individuals of the same kind or
between different types of organisms. By identifying individuals and populations, we
learn the following things(i) Sex(ii) Skin colour(iii) Native place(iv) Mother tongue(v)
Food habit(vi) Religion(vii) Caste
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9. Define a taxon. Give some examples of taxa at different hierarchical levels.

A taxon is a level of hierarchy used in the system of defining organisms.
The hierarchical levels are as follows
(i) Kingdom ii) Phylum iii) Class (iv) Order (v) Family (vi) Genus (vii) Species

7. Can you identify the correct sequence of taxonomical categories? (a) Species Order Phylum
Kingdom (b) Genus Species Order Kingdom (c) Species Genus Order Phylum
The correct hierarchical arrangement of taxonomic categories in ascending order is
from Species → Genus → Family → Order → Class → Phylum → Kingdom-

8.Try to collect all the currently accepted meanings for the word ‘species’. Discuss with
your teacher the meaning of species in case of higher plants and animals on one hand,
and bacteria on the other hand.
Species are defined as the basic unit of classification and taxonomic rank of organisms
and a unit of biodiversity. They are described as groups of individuals who share a
similar gene pool.
Higher plants and animals: The criteria of reproductive isolation can be used to classify
the species.
Bacteria: Interbreeding and reproductive isolation cannot be used in case of bacteria.
Gene pool can be used to classify species.

9. Definee following terms: (i) Phylum (ii) Class (iii) Family (iv) Order (v) Genus
i) Phylum is a taxonomical hierarchy present below Kingdom and above Class. It is a taxon with
one or more classes of organisms with similar characters.
ii) Class is a taxonomical hierarchy present higher than Order and lower than Phylum. Class
includes orders of the organisms. Example: Presence of notochord in mammals.
iii) Family has a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to
genus and species. Example: Fox and dog are present in the same family. It is a group of entities
below Order and above Genus.
iv) Order is a taxon higher than Family and lower than class. Order being a higher category is
the assemblage of families which exhibit a few similar characters.
v) Genus comprises of a group of related species which has more characters in common in
comparison to species of other genera. Ex: Lion, tiger and leopard are classified under
genus Panthera. It is above species and below family.

10. Illustrate the taxonomical hierarchy with suitable examples of a plant and an animal.
Taxonomical hierarchy refers to the classification of organisms into a definite sequence of
taxonomic categories starting from the kingdom and going up to species.
Taxonomic categories Animals- human Plant- rose
Kingdom Animalia Plantae
Phylum/Division Chordata Angiospermae
Class Mammalia Dicotyledonae
Order Primata Rosales
Family Hominidae Rosaceae
Genus Homo Rosa
Species sapiens indica
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Biological Classification
1. Discuss how classification systems have undergone several changes over a period of
time?
The first-ever classification was given by Aristotle who divided plants into herbs, shrubs and
trees based on their habit and animals based on presence or absence of red blood.

2. State two economically important uses of: (a) heterotrophic bacteria (b) archaebacteria
a) Vitamins, medicines, cheese, and curd are all made using heterotrophic bacteria. They aid
in nitrogen fixation and the production of humus. b) Archaebacteria are employed to make
biogas.

3. What is the nature of cell-walls in diatoms?

The cell walls of diatoms are made of silica. Their cell wall construction is known as
frustule.It consists of two thin overlapping shells that fit into each other such as a soap box.
When the diatoms die, the silica in their cell walls gets deposited in the form of
diatomaceous earth.

4. Find out what do the terms ‘algal bloom’ and ‘red-tides’ signify.
In contaminated water, algal blooms can be discovered. Algae overgrowth, particularly blue-
green algae, causes them (cyanobacteria). Their expansion pollutes the water supply. They
breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen.
Red tides are caused by the rapid expansion of red-pigmented dinoflagellates such as
Gonaulax, which turns the sea, red. Toxins produced by these algae destroy fish and other
aquatic species.

5. How are viroids different from viruses?

Viroids are free RNA molecules of low molecular weight without any protein coat while
viruses can have either RNA or DNA molecules encapsulated in a protein coat. Viroids are
smaller in size than viruses. Viroids infect only plants whereas virus infects all types of
organisms.

6. Describe briefly the four major groups of Protozoa.

The following are the four primary groups of Protozoa:
Protozoa of the amoeboid class: They live in aquatic habitats and use pseudopodia to
move and catch their prey.
Flagellated protozoans: Flagellated protozoans are either free-living or parasitic
protozoans. Flagella are their locomotory structure.
Ciliated protozoans: Ciliated protozoans are aquatic protozoans with active movement
due to the presence of cilia.
Sporozoans: Sporozoans are multicellular organisms that produce infectious spores during
their entire life cycle. Their spore-like phase aids in their transition from one host to the
next.

7. Plants are autotrophic. Can you think of some plants that are partially heterotrophic?

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These organisms are green and autotrophic, yet they hunt on and digest minute components
for their nitrogen supply. Insectivores and carnivorous plants are somewhat
heterotrophic. Utricularia, Drosera, and Nepenthes are examples.

8. What do the terms phycobiont and mycobiont signify?

They both are the components of a lichen. Phycobiont signifies the algal component of a
lichen. On the other hand, mycobiont signifies the fungal constituent of a lichen.

9. Give a comparative account of the classes of Kingdom Fungi under the following:
(i) mode of nutrition (ii) mode of reproduction

10.What are the characteristic features of Euglenoids?

Eugenoids have the following characteristics:
no cell wall.
Their bodies are flexible due to a protein-rich coating known as a pellicle.
There are two flagella of differing lengths.
In the presence of sunshine, they are autotrophic; in the absence of sunlight, they are
heterotrophic.

11. Give a brief account of viruses with respect to their structure and nature of genetic
material. Also name four common viral diseases.
Viruses that infect plants have single-stranded RNA, while those that infect mammals have
single-stranded DNA or RNA. The capsid is a protein coat that protects nucleic acid and is
made up of tiny subunits called capsomers. Influenza, AIDS, Herpes, and Rabies are some
of the most common viral infections.

12. Organise a discussion in your class on the topic – Are viruses living or non living?
Viruses are microscopic organisms that have characteristics of both living and non-living. A
virus consists of a strand of DNA or RNA covered by a protein coat called the capsid. The
presence of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) suggests that viruses are alive.

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PLANT KINGDOM
1. What is the basis of classification of algae?
The absence or presence of pigments is the prime basis for algae classification.

2. When and where does reduction division take place in the life cycle of a liverwort, a moss,
a fern, a gymnosperm and an angiosperm?

The reduction division takes place in the following stages:

(i) Liverworts – In the sporangium, meiosis occurs in the spore mother cells, culminating in the
generation of haploid spores.
(ii) Moss – In the capsule of the sporangium, meiosis occurs in spore mother cells of spore sacs.
(iii) Fern – On sporophylls, sporangia are tolerated (fertile leaves). Meiosis is a process that
occurs in sporangium spore mother cells to produce haploid spores.
(iv) Gymnosperm – Microsporangia in microsporophylls and microspore mother cells undergo
meiosis to produce haploid pollen grains that give rise to male gametophytes.
(iv) Angiosperm – Pollen grains produced by microspore mother cells result in the creation of a
male gametophyte in the stamen’s anther. Meiosis occurs in the megaspore mother cell in the
ovule nucleus, resulting in the production of haploid megaspore, which finally forms the female
gametophyte.

3. Name three groups of plants that bear archegonia. Briefly describe the life cycle of any
one of them.

The three groups of plants that bear archegonia are bryophytes including mosses and liverworts,
pteridophytes which include horsetails and ferns, and gymnosperms.

(i) Bryophytes produce gametes and are haploid. Bryophytes have multicellular sexual organs.
(ii) The antheridium, which produces biflagellate anterozoids, is the male sex organ.

4. Mention the ploidy of the following: protonemal cell of a moss; primary endosperm
nucleus in dicot, leaf cell of a moss; prothallus cell of a ferm; gemma cell in Marchantia;
meristem cell of monocot, ovum of a liverwort, and zygote of a fern.

Protonemal cell (haploid, x), primary endosperm nucleus of dicot (triploid, 3x), leaf cell of moss
(haploid, x), prothallus cell of fern (haploid, x), gemma cell of Marchantia (haploid, x), meristem
cell of monocot (diploid, 2x), ovum of a liverwort (haploid, x), Zygote of a fern (diploid 2x).

5. Write a note on economic importance of algae and gymnosperms.

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The economic importance of algae is as follows –

-Many algae are used as an important source of food.Porphyria, Laminaria, and Sargassum are
edible.

Algae like Spirulina and Chlorella have a very high content of protein in them, due to which
they are widely used as food supplements by astronauts.
-Algae like Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to produce a substance known as Agar
manufacturing of ice-creams and jellies.
-A Red Algae is used to produce Carrageenan. It is used as an emulsifying agent in paints,
chocolate

-Algae like Corallina which belongs to the class Rhodophyceae has medicinal use in treating
worms.
The economic importance of gymnosperms is as follows –
-Many members of gymnosperms like coniferous trees, such as pine, deodar, etc., are used in
construction.
-The seeds of the tree Pinus gerardiana which is popularly known as chilgoza are a popular
eatery.
-A lot of gymnosperm plants have medicinal values. Taxus tree produces Taxol, which is used as
an anticancerous agent. Ephedrine is obtained from several species of Ephedra. Ephedrine is
used in the treatment of Asthma and Bronchitis.
-Pinus produces the turpentine resin. This resin is used for the manufacturing of the sealing wax
and water-proof paints.

6. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms bear seeds, then why are they classified separately?

Both Gymnosperms and Angiosperms bear seeds, but they are classified separately due to the
anatomy of the seed. The seeds of the Gymnosperms are naked, i.e., they do not have an outer
covering of fruit surrounding them. But the seeds of Angiosperms have a seed that is enclosed
within the fruit and is not naked.

7. What is heterospory? Briefly comment on its significance. Give two examples.

Heterosporis refers to the production of two different types of spores in the same plant.
Heterospory's significance: (i) In gymnosperms and angiosperms, Heterosporis stimulates seed
development. (ii) It is necessary for male and female gametophyte differentiation.The
development of two kinds of spores is known as heterospory. Eg. Selaginella, Marsilea, and
Salvinia are some examples of heterosporous pteridophytes.

8. Explain briefly the following terms with suitable examples:-

(i) protonema (ii) antheridium (iii) archegonium (iv) diplontic (v) sporophyll (vi) isogamy

i) Protonema is the haploid stage of the bryophyte lifecycle, during which a thread-like chain of
cells forms. Protonema originates straight from a spore in mosses, for example.
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ii) Antheridium – In bryophytes and pteridophytes, antheridium is the male sex organ that
produces male gametes. Antheridia are found in many fungus and algae throughout their
reproductive stages.
iii) Archegonium is a flask-shaped female reproductive organ of bryophytes that produces a
single egg. Jacketed and multicellular, with a neck and a bulging venter, they are found in
pteridiophytes, gymnosperms, and bryophytes.
iv) Diplontic – A life cycle in which the predominate free-living phase is diploid and haploid
gametes are produced. Ex: Sargassum
v) Sporophyll is a leaf that carries sporangia and can be microsporophyll or megasporophyll.
Strobini are formed when these structures come together (cones) Pinus
vi) . Isogamy — Sexual reproduction involving the fusing of two gametes that are either
flagellated and of comparable size or non-flagellated (non-motile) but of similar size. Isogamy is
the term for this type of reproduction. Ectocarpus, for example.
9.Differentiate between the following:- (i) red algae and brown algae (ii) liverworts and
moss (iii) homosporous and heterosporous pteridophyte

i)Red algae are characterized by the predominance of the red pigment, r-phycoerythrin in their
body. Whereas brown algae are characterized by the predominance of a xanthophyll pigment,
fucoxanthin present in them.
ii) The liverworts have no protonema phase, but the moss life cycle starts with the protonema.
In liverworts, the plant body is split into a stem-axis if the plant body is dorsiventral.
iii) Homosporous contains only one type of spores whereas heterosporous will have
morphologically type of different spores in different sporangia.
iv) Syngamy occurs when a male gamete fuses with an ovum, whereas triple fusion occurs
when a male gamete fuses with two polar nuclei.

10. Match the following (column I with column II)

Column I Column II

(a) Chlamydomonas (i)Algae

(b) Cycas (ii) Gymnosperm

(c) Selaginella (iii) Pteridophyte

(d) Sphagnum (iv) Moss

11. Describe the important characteristics of gymnosperms

Gymnosperms have the following main characteristics:

(i) The ovules of Gymnosperms are not contained by the ovary. They are exposed to the
environment both before and after fertilisation.
(ii) Gymnosperms comprise medium-sized trees and shrubs, as well as towering trees and shrubs.
(iii) The taproots are the fourth type of root.
(iv) The stems are either branched or unbranched
(v) Simple and complex leaves
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(vi) The sporophyte plant body is divided into roots, stems, and leaves.
(vii) They are heterosporous because they produce two types of spores.
(viii) Fertilization occurs when there is no external water available due to syphonogamy..
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
1. How is a pinnately compound leaf different from a palmately compound leaf?

In pinnately compound leaves, leaflets are present on the common axis and in palmately
compound leaves, leaflets are present on the distal end of the rachis.

2. Explain with suitable examples the different types of phyllotaxy.

Phyllotaxy is the pattern of leaf arrangement on a stem or branch. A single leaf emerges at each
node alternately in China rose, mustard, and sunflower plants, for example.
Phyllotaxy is of three types, namely:
Alternate – the alternating emergence of a single leaf at each node. Example – Hibiscus
Whorled – When two or more leaves emerge from a node, a whorl is generated. Example –
Alstonia
Opposite – At each node, a pair of leaves emerges, facing in opposite directions. Example –
guava

3. Define the following terms:

(a) aestivation(b) placentation (c) actinomorphic (d) zygomorphic (e) superior ovary (f)
perigynous flower (g) epipetalous stamen

(a) Aestivation- The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in the floral bud with respect to the
other members of the same whorl is called aestivation. Aestivation in plants can be valvate,
Wisted, imbricate, and vexillary.

(b)Placentation:The arrangement of ovules within the ovary is known as placentation. In

flowering plants, five types of placentation are found

(c) Actinomorphic- The flowers which can be divided into two radial halves by any radial plane
passing through its center are called actinomorphic flowers. E.g. chilly and mustard.

(d) Zygomorphic- The flowers which can be divided into two similar halves by a single vertical
plane only are known as zygomorphic flowers. E.g. pea and beans.

(e) Superior ovary- When the gynoecium is present at the highest position, while other floral
parts are arranged below it, the ovary is said to be a superior ovary. A flower with this
arrangement is described as hypogynous. Examples include brinjal and mustard.

(f) Perigynous flower- When the gynoecium is present in the center while the rest of the floral
parts are present at the rim of the thalamus at the same level as gynoecium, the flower is called
perigynous flower. E.g. plum and rose.

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(g) Epipetalous stamen- The stamen which remains attached to the petals are called epipetalous
stamens. E.g brinjal

4. Differentiate between (a) Racemose and cymose inflorescence (b) Apocarpous and
syncarpous ovary

Racemose inflorescence Cymose inflorescence

Young flowers are at the tip of the Old blooms are at the tip of the inflorescence,
inflorescence, while older flowers are
arranged at the base. while new flowers are arranged towards the base.

Laterally, the main axis continues to The main axis has limited growth which terminates
expand and produce blooms. into flower.

Apocarpous ovary Syncarpous ovary

In apocarpous ovary, two or more

In syncarpous ovary, two or more carpels are fused
carpels are free

Example: Lotus Example : mustard

6.Draw the labelled diagram of the following: (i) gram seed (ii) V.S. of maize seed

6. Take one flower of the family Solanaceae and write its semi-technical description. Also
draw their floral diagram.
Calyx- sepals 5 in number, gamosepallous (united) Corolla – 5 petals, gamopetallous

Androecium- 5 stamens, polyandrous (free) epipetalous (attached to petals)

Gynoecium- bicarpellary ( two carpels), syncarpous (united) superior ovary.

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7. Describe the various types of placentations found in flowering plants.

Marginal – The placenta forms a ridge that runs across the ovary’s ventral suture, and ovules are
carried on the ridge in two rows. Example – Pea
Axile – In a multilocular ovary, the placenta is axial and ovules are linked to it. Lemon
Parietal – Ovules form on the ovary’s inner wall or on the periphery. It is single-chambered at
first, but as a false septum develops, it becomes two-chambered. Example – Mustard
Basal –A single ovule is linked to the placenta,which develops at the base of the ovary. Marigold
Free central – Septa is missing, and ovules are borne on the central axis. Example – Primrose

8. What is a flower? Describe the parts of a typical angiosperm flower.

The flower is the reproductive component of an angiosperm. It’s a modified shoot in which the
apical meristem transforms into a floral meristem.The reproductive organs are androecium and
gynoecium, whereas the accessory organs are calyx and corolla.
Calyx:Sepals are the lowermost and outermost whorls of the flower. Other floral structures are
supported and protected by them.

Corolla:Corollas are made up of vividly coloured petals that attract pollinating insects. The
stamens are located outside the sepals and inside the sepals.
Androecium:Androecium is made up of stamens, which are male reproductive organs in the
form of a stalk, filament, and anther.
Gynoecium:The female reproductive portion of a flower is the gynoecium, which is made up of
one or more carpels, each of which is made up of three parts: stigma, ovary, and style.

9. Define the term inflorescence. Explain the basis for the different types inflorescence
The inflorescence is how the flowers are arranged on the flowering axis. During the flowering
season, the vegetative apex of the stem gets converted into a floral meristem. Based on whether
the floral axis continues to grow or ends in a flower, the inflorescence is classified into racemose
and cymose.

10. Describe the arrangement of floral members in relation to their insertion on thalamus.
The arrangement of floral members in relation to their insertion on thalamus are of three types:
The ovary is said to be superior in hypogynous flowers because the gynoecium is at the top of
the bloom and the other parts are below it. Example – Brinjal

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Perigynous flowers are those in which the gynoecium remains in the centre and the other
components of the bloom are virtually at the same level as the thalamus rim. It is said that the
ovary is half inferior. Ex Rose
The epigynous flowers are those in which the thalamus edge grows upwards, enclosing the
ovary. The ovary is said to be inferior because it is united with the thalamus and other elements
of the flower rise above it. Example – Flowers of guava

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ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

1. Draw illustrations to bring out the anatomical difference between

(a) Monocot root and Dicot root (b) Monocot stem and Dicot stem

3.Cut a transverse section of young stem of a plant from your school garden and observe it
under the microscope. How would you ascertain whether it is a monocot stem or a dicot
stem? Give reasons.

Characteristics of a dicot stem- 1. The vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, and open, with
a strip of cambium between the xylem and phloem.2. The vascular bundles are arranged to form
a ring, around the centrally-located pith3. The ground tissue is differentiated into the
collenchyma, parenchyma, endodermis, pericycle, and pith.4. In between the vascular bundles,
medullary rays are present.

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Characteristics of monocot stem 1. The hypodermis is made up of sclerenchyma.2. The

Vascular bundles are conjoint, closed and scattered.3. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a
sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.4. Phloem parenchyma is absent.5. Water-containing cavities
are present within the vascular bundles.

4.The transverse section of a plant material shows the following anatomical features - (a)
the vascular bundles are conjoint, scattered and surrounded by a sclerenchymatous bundle
sheaths. (b) phloem parenchyma is absent. What will you identify it as?
Monocot stem is used for the traversing section. Because the vascular bundles in monocot
stems are distributed, this is the case. There is no phloem parenchyma to be identified.

5.What is stomatal apparatus? Explain the structure of stomata with a labelled diagram.

Stomata are the kidney/dumbell shaped cells present in the epidermal tissues. The tissues
that get differentiated further, it is surrounding cells are called subsidiary cells. Stomata
facilitate the exchange of gases. In the stomata, changes in pH cause the opening of a pore.
This pore is called a stomatal aperture.
Mostly they are found on the lower surface of the leaves . This position facilitates less loss of
air. Stomata help in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

6.Name the three basic tissue systems in the flowering plants. Give the tissue names under
each system
Epidermal tissue system
Epidermis and epidermal appendages make up the epidermal tissue system. The epidermis is
made up of epidermal cells and guard cells, with root hair, stem hair, stinging hair, and
glandular hair as epidermal appendages.
The ground tissue system
Simple tissues such as parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma make up the ground
tissue system.
Vascular tissue system
Complex tissues such as xylem, phloem, and vascular cambium make up the vascular tissue
system.
7.How is the study of plant anatomy useful to us?
The anatomy of plants is beneficial to us in many ways-
Plant anatomy helps us understand the concept behind the structure that is found in a plant.
Under the anatomy, transverse longitudinal sections of different parts are studied.
The parts which are studied under it include leaf, flower stem, and root anatomy.
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Example – Kranz anatomy found in C 4 plants. (in this mesophyll cells are arranged in ring-
shaped structure)
8 Describe the internal structure of a dorsiventral leaf with the help of labelled diagrams.

Dicots exhibit dorsiventral leaves. dorsiventral leaf consists of three different parts, they are:
Epidermis – It can be present on the adaxial epidermis (upper surface) as well as the abaxial
epidermis (lower surface) (lower surface). The epidermis is protected on the outside by a thick
cuticle. The abaxial epidermis contains more stomata than the upper epidermis.
Mesophyll – It’s a type of tissue that lies between the abaxial and adaxial epidermis. The
palisade parenchyma and the spongy parenchyma are two types of this tissue. The palisade
parenchyma is made up of tall, tightly packed cells, whereas the spongy parenchyma is made up
of round or oval cells that are loosely packed and have intercellular spaces. The chloroplasts in the
mesophyll are responsible for photosynthesis.
Vascular system – In leaves, the vascular bundles are closed and joined, and they are encircled
by dense layers of bundle-sheath cells.

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BIOMOLECULES
1. What are macromolecules give example
Macromolecules are large complex molecules that occur in colloidal state in intercellular fluid.
They are formed by the polymerization of low molecular weight
micromolecules. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are common examples of
macromolecules.

2. What is meant by tertiary structure of proteins?

The tertiary structure of a protein refers to the overall three-dimensional arrangement of its
polypeptide chain in space. It is generally stabilized by outside polar hydrophilic hydrogen and
ionic bond interactions, and internal hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar amino acid side
chains.
3 Find and write down structures of 10 interesting small molecular weight biomolecules.
Find if the industry which manufactures the compounds by isolation who the buyers.

Compound Manufacturer Buyer

Premier starch products private Research institutes and

Starch
limited laundries

Used in making flavored drink

Liquid Glucose Imperial liquid glucose
and in research

Enzymes like amylase, protease,

Planet Biotech India Used in research
and cellulase

4.Find out and make a list of proteins used as therapeutic agents find other applications of
proteins. Proteins used as therapeutic agents are as follows:
Thrombin and fibrinogen – They help in blood clotting.
Antigen (antibody) – It helps in blood transfusion.
Insulin – It helps in maintaining blood glucose level in the body.
Renin – It helps in osmoregulation.
5.Explain the composition of triglyceride
Triglyceride is composed of glycerol and three fatty acids. When all of the fatty acids in a
triglyceride are identical, it "simple" triglyceride.The carboxyl end present in the fatty acids gets
combined with the three hydroxyl (-OH) bonds present in the glycerol molecule and forms
esters.

6. Can you attempt building models of biomolecules using commercially available atomic
models Ball and Stick models?
Yes, the ball and stick model can be used to represent biomolecules. Sticks depict the bonds that
hold the molecule together, while balls represent the atoms.

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7.Draw the structure of the amino acid, alanine.

8.What is the difference between gums and fevicol

Gums are hetero-polysaccharides. They are made from two or more different types of derived
monosaccharides. Fevicol is polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) glue. It is not a polysaccharide.

9. Find out a qualitative test for proteins, fats and oils, amino acids. Test
any fruit juice, saliva, sweat and urine for them.(a) Test for proteinBiuret’s test – If
Biuret’s reagent is added to protein, then the colour of the reagent changes from light blue
to purple. (b) Test for fats and oilsGrease or solubility test(c) Test for amino acid
Ninhydrin test – If Ninhydrin reagent is added to the solution, then the colourless solution
changes to pink, blue, or purple, depending on the amino acid.

Substance Biuret's Test Grease or Solubility Test Ninhydrin Test

Colour changes from Colour changes to pink, blue

light blue to purple. No translucent spot. or purple colour.
Fruit Juice
So, it shows the presence The absence of fats or oils. So, it shows the presence of
of proteins. amino acids.

Colour changes from Colourless solution changes

No transulent spot.
Saliva light blue to purple. to pink, blue or purple.
The absence of oil.
Presence of proteins. Presence of amino acids.

No colour change remains

No colour change. Oily appearance.
Sweat colourless.
The absence of proteins. Presence of fats or oils.
The absence of amino acids.

A Little bit of oily

Colour changes from Colourless solution changes to
appearance.
Urine light blue to purple. pink, blue or purple colour.
Fats or oils may or may not
Presence of proteins. Presence of amino acids.
present.
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10.Describe the important properties of enzymes

Enzymes are biocatalysts, which are high molecular weight proteinous compounds.
It enhances the reactions which occur in the body during various life processes.
It helps the substrate by providing the surface for the reaction to occur
.Enzymes are proteins that help speed up chemical reactions in our bodies.

Enzymes are essential for digestion, liver function and much more.
Enzymes in our blood can also help healthcare providers check for injuries and diseases.

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CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

1.What is the average cell span for a mammalian cell ?
The average cell cycle span for a mammalian cell is about 24 hours.

2.Distinguish between cytokinesis and karyokinesis

3.Describe the events taking place during interphase

Interphase is composed of G1 phase (cell growth), followed by S phase (DNA synthesis),
followed by G2 phase (cell growth). At the end of interphase comes the mitotic phase, which is
made up of mitosis and cytokinesis and leads to the formation of two daughter cells.

4.what is G0 of cell cycle ?

G0 or quiescent phase is the stage wherein cells remain metabolically active but do not
proliferate unless called to do so. Such cells are used for replacing the cells lost during injury.

5.why is mitosis called equational division?

Mitosis is the process of cell division wherein the chromosomes replicate and get equally
distributed into two daughter cells. The chromosome number in each daughter cell is equal to
that in the parent cell, i.e., diploid. Hence, mitosis is known as equational division.

6.Name the stage of cell cycle at which one of the following events occur

Chromosomes are moved to spindle equator Pachytene

Centromere splits and chromatids move apart Zygotene

Pairing between homologous chromosomes takes place Anaphase

Crossing between homologous chromosomes Metaphase

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Describe the following synapsis bivalent chiasmata with diagram

a) Synapsis — During Zygotene of prophase-I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes link
together. Synapsis is the term for this couple.
b) A bivalent or tetrad is a pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes that form a pair of
complexes during the zygotene of prophase I of meiosis.
c) Chiasmata- Chiasmata are X-shaped structures formed by paired chromosomes during
diplotene. The crossing over of two non-sister chromatids occurs at chiasmata.

8.How does cytokinesis differ in plants and animals

Cytokinesis in animal cells occurs by the furrowing of the cytoplasm. In plant cells,
cytokinesis is initiated with the formation of a cell plate in the middle of the cell.

9.Find examples where the four daughter cells from meiosis are equal in size and where they are
found unequal in size.
(a) Spermatogenesis or the formation of sperms in human beings occurs by the process of meiosis. It
results in the formation of four equal-sized daughter cells.
(b) Oogenesis or the formation of an ovum in human beings occurs by the process of meiosis. It results in
the formation of four daughter cells which are unequal in size, i.e., a big mature ovum and 3 small polar
bodies.

10. Distinguish anaphase of mitosis from anaphase 1 from meiosis

Anaphase phase of Mitosis, the equal separation or disjunction of the sister chromatids occurs.
In the Anaphase phase of Meiosis I, the separation of homologous chromosomes occur.
Meanwhile, the sister chromatids remain attached to each other
11.List the main differences between mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis is a type of cell division by which single-cell divides into two identical daughter cells.

Meiosis is a type of cell division in which a single cell divides twice to form four sex cells.

S.no Mitosis Meiosis

1. It occurs in all organisms, except viruses. It occurs in animals, plants, and fungi.

2. No recombination occurs. Recombination occurs in prophase 1.

3. One cell division (Total of 4 stages). Two cell divisions (Total 8 stages).

4. Creates diploid daughter cells. Creates haploid daughter cells.

5. Daughter cells are genetically identical. Daughter cells are genetically different.

12.What is the significance of meiosis?

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Meiosis is a process that produces gametes.

Due to meiosis, the chromosome number of organisms remains constant in each generation.

It causes chromosome shuffling by recombination.

It generates new combinations of features through crossing across.

Due to abnormalities in the meiotic division, mutations occur.

13.Discuss with your teacher about

(i) Haploid insects and lower plants where cell-division occurs and
(ii) Some haploid cells in higher plants where cell-division does not occur?
i) In some insects and lower plants, fertilization is immediately followed by zygotic meiosis, which leads
to the production of haploid organisms. This type of life cycle is known as a haplontic life cycle.

(ii) The phenomenon of polyploidy can be observed in some haploid cells in higher plants in which cell
division does not occur. Polyploidy is a state in which cells contain multiple pairs of chromosomes than
the basic set. Polyploidy can be artificially induced in plants by applying colchicine to cell culture

14.Can there be mitosis without dna replication

Mitotic cell division cannot take place without DNA replication in S phase. Two important
events take place during S phase – one is the synthesis or duplication of DNA and the other is the
duplication of the centriole. DNA duplication is important as it maintains the chromosome
number in the daughter cells.

15. Analyse the events during every stage of cell cycle and notice how the following two
parameters change(i) Number of chromosomes (N) per cell (ii) Amount of DNA content (C)
per cell
Meiosis:

1. Meiosis is called reductional division because the chromosome number of halved.

2. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes and the amount of DNA in a cell changes in
the two phases of meiosis.

Part (i): Number of chromosomes (N) per cell:

1. The number of chromosome in a diploid cell can be considered as 2N.

2. During anaphase I of the meiotic cycle, the homologous chromosomes separate and start
moving toward their respective poles.
3. This is why the chromosome number gets halved here and the number of chromosome
becomes N.
4. The same number of chromosome is maintained after the meiosis II phase because the
chromosome only breaks with two sister chromatids moving to the two poles.
5. Therefore number of chromosome produced per cell at the end of meiosis II is N.
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Part (ii): Amount of DNA content (C) per cell:

1. Let the DNA content of the cell at the start of meiosis be 2C.
2. During the S phase, synthesis of DNA occurs which makes the DNA content become 4C.
3. At the end of meiosis I, the DNA content in the cell again becomes halved, which is 2C.
4. After meiosis II, the DNA content again gets halved and hence final cells produced after
meiosis have DNA content as C

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CELL THE UNIT OF LIFE

1.Which of the following is not correct? (a) Robert Brown discovered the cell. (b) Schleiden
and Schwann formulated the cell theory. (c) Virchow explained that cells are formed from
pre-existing cells. (d) A unicellular organism carries out its life activities within a single cell.
Robert Brown discovered the cell - is a false statement.
The first person to see a cell was Robert Hook. He used a very primitive microscope and
observed empty blocks like structure in the cork cells which was named as cell.

2. New cells generate from (a) bacterial fermentation (b) regeneration of old cells (c) pre-
existing cells (d) abiotic materials
New cells generate from the pre-existing cells. The cell theory is a widely accepted explanation
of the relationship between cells and living things. The cell theory states :
• All living things or organisms are made of cells.
• New cells are created by old cells dividing into two.

• Cells are the basic building units of life.

3. Match the following Column I Column II

Cristae : The inner membrane of mitochondria folds inward into a finger like projection known
as cristae. It increases the surface area for absorption.

Cisternae : A space containing fluid, such as those occurring between the membranes of
flattened sacs of the Golgi apparatus and the
endoplasmic reticulum, also between the two membranes of the nuclear envelope.
Thylakoids : Thalakoids are disc shaped structure which are arranged in stacks known as grana.
These contain the photosynthetic pigments and are site for light reaction during photosynthesis.
Hence, the correct answer is as follows :

Column I Column II
(a) Cristae (ii) Infoldings in mitochondria
(b) Cisternae (iii) Disc-shaped sacs in Golgi apparatus
(c) Thylakoids (i) Flat membranous sacs in stroma

4. Which of the following is correct: (a) Cells of all living organisms have a nucleus. (b)
Both animal and plant cells have a well defined cell wall. (c) In prokaryotes, there are no
membrane bound organelles. (d) Cells are formed de novo from abiotic materials
In prokaryotes, there are no membrane-bound organelles is the correct statement.

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5. What is a mesosome in a prokaryotic cell? Mention the functions that it performs

Mesosome is a complicated membranous structure developed in a prokaryotic cell by the
infolding of the plasma membrane. 1) Mesosome extensions support in the formation of the cell
wall and in DNA replication. 2) They also assist the equal separation of chromosomes in the
daughter cells.

6.How do neutral solutes move across the plasma membrane? Can the polar molecules also
move across it in the same way? If not, then how are these transported across the
membrane?
Neutral solutes in a plant can move across the plasma membrane through the help of passive
diffusion or osmosis. On the other hand there are polar molecules which cannot pass through the
non-polar membrane. Neutral molecules move across the plasma membrane by simple passive
diffusion.

7.Name two cell organelles that are double membrane bound. What are the characteristics
of these two organelles?
State their functions and draw labelled diagrams of both.
Mitochondria and chloroplast are the two double membrane bound organelles. They play an
important role in various cellularactivities. Such as the chloroplast contains the green pigment
which is necessary for the process of photosynthesis.

9..Multicellular organisms have division of labour. Explain

Hence, a particular function is carried out by a group of cells at a definite place in the body.
Similarly, different functions are carried out by different groups of cells in an organism. This is
known as the division of labor in multicellular organisms.

10.Cell is the basic unit of life. Discuss in brief.

Cells are the basic units of life capable of doing all the required biochemical processes that a
normal cell has to do in order to live. The basic needs for the survival of all living organisms are
the same. All living organisms need to respire, digest food for obtaining energy, and get rid of
metabolic wastes.

11.What are nuclear pores? State their function.

Nuclear pores are tiny holes present within the nuclear membrane of the nucleus. They are
evolved through the fusion of two nuclear membranes. These holes allow particular substances to
be transferred into a cell and out from it.

12.Both lysosomes and vacuoles are endomembrane structures, yet they differ in terms of
their functions. Comment.
The vacuoles and lysosomes both are endomembrane structures but differ in the functin as
vacuoles perform the function of storage whereas the lysosomes carry out the function of
digestion. The lysosome has hydrolytic enzymes and carries out digestion of proteins,
carbohydrate and lipids.

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13. Describe the structure of the following with the help of labelled diagrams. (i) Nucleus (ii)
Centrosome

Nucleus shows a membrane-bound organelle containing the hereditary information responsible

for controlling both the growth and reproduction cycle of the cell. -A nucleus is composed of a
nuclear membrane, chromosomes, nucleoplasm, and nucleolus.
i) Nuclear Membrane: This is defined as a double membrane structure enclosing nuclear contents.
The outer membrane layer gets connected with the endoplasmic reticulum; while the nuclear
envelope forms a lipid bilayer compromising phospholipids.

ii) Nucleoplasm: The gelatinous substance that is present and enclosed within the nuclear
envelope represents the nucleoplasm.
iii) Nucleolus: The nucleolus content of the nucleus is defined as dense and a membrane devoid
structure consisting of RNA and proteins.
Centrosome is defined as an organelle that acts as a microtubule-organizing centre of animal
cells, and also a regulator of cell-cycle progression. The centrosome is thought to have evolved
only within the metazoan lineage of eukaryotic cells. Fungi and plants do not possess
centrosomes and thus use structures.
Centrosomes are made up of two centrioles arranged at right-angles to each other. Each centriole
is predicated on a nine-triplet microtubule that gets arranged in a cartwheel structure containing
centrin, cenexin, and tektin.

Centrosomes' functions
i) It leads to Organizing changes to the form of the cytomembrane that allows the membrane to
"pinch" in two during cellular division.
ii) It ensures that chromosomes are properly distributed to daughter cells by creating and
shortening mitotic spindle fibres.

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14.What is a centromere? How does the position of centromere form the basis of
classification of chromosomes. Support your answer with a diagram showing the position
of centromere on different types of chromosomes.
Centromere is a primary constriction present on the chromosome where the chromatids are held
together. Chromosomes are divided into four types based on the position of the centromere.

(i) Metacentric chromosome

The chromosomes in which the centromere is present in the middle and divides the chromosome
into two equal arms.

(ii) Sub-metacentric chromosome

The chromosome in which the centromere is slightly away from the middle region is known as a
sub-metacentric chromosome. In this, one arm is slightly longer than the other.

(iii) Acrocentric chromosome

The chromosome in which the centromere is located close to one of the terminal ends is known
as an acrocentric chromosome. In this, one arm is extremely long and the other is extremely short.

(iv) Telocentric chromosome

The chromosome in which the centromere is located at one of the terminal ends is known as
a telocentric chromosome.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

1. By looking at a plant externally can you tell whether a plant is C3 or C4 ? Why and how?
Plants acclimated to a dry tropical climate have the C4 pathway, but they have no outward
morphologic features. As a result, judging a plant’s C3 or C4 status just by its appearance is
impossible.

2. By looking at which internal structure of a plant can you tell whether a plant is C3 or
C4 ? Explain.
C4 plants have kranz anatomy, which distinguishes them from C3 plants. Bundle sheath cells are
specialised cells that wrap the vascular bundles in C4 plants. Chloroplasts are found in every cell
of the bundle sheath. Leaves’ mesophyll cells do not differentiate into the spongy and palisade
parenchyma, which have fewer intercellular spaces, but chloroplasts are present in the mesophyll
cells. The bundle shealth of C3 plants, on the other hand, lacks chloroplasts, and the mesophyll
cells of the leaves are divided into spongy and palisade parenchyma. As a result, we can detect
whether a plant is C3 or C4 by looking at its internal structure.

3. Even though a very few cells in a C4 plant carry out the biosynthetic – Calvin pathway,
yet they are highly productive. Can you discuss why?
The pace at which photosynthesis occurs can be used to assess plant productivity. The rate of
photosynthesis is directly related to the amount of carbon dioxide in a plant. Despite the fact that
just a small percentage of C4 plant cells carry out the biosynthetic pathway, they are extremely
prolific for the following reasons.
They have a mechanism that raises CO2 levels at the enzyme’s active site.
Mesophyll cells are degraded in bundle sheath cells, resulting in CO2 release and a rise in
intracellular CO2 concentration.
Rubisco works as a carboxylase, reducing oxygenase activity.
Increase in photosynthesis make C4 plants more productive.

4. RuBisCO is an enzyme that acts both as a carboxylase and oxygenase. Why do

you think RuBisCO carries out more carboxylation in C4 plants?
It is the relative concentration of CO2 and O2 that determines which of the two will bind to the
enzyme. RuBisCO carries out more carboxylation in C4 plants because these plants have a
mechanism that increase the concentration of CO2 at the enzyme site .

5. Suppose there were plants that had a high concentration of Chlorophyll b, but
lacked chlorophyll a, would it carry out photosynthesis? Then why do plants

have chlorophyll b and other accessory pigments?

Because chlorophyll-a is a reaction centre responsible for the conversion of solar energy into
chemical energy, photosynthesis will not occur without it. Although chlorophyll is the major

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pigment that absorbs and transfers energy to chlorophyll-a, accessory pigments such as
chlorophyll-b, xanthophylls, and carotenoids also absorb and transmit energy to chlorophyll-a.

6. Why is the colour of a leaf kept in the dark frequently yellow, or pale green?

Which pigment do you think is more stable?

In the absence of light, chlorophyll fails to absorb energy and hence loses stability, resulting in
the yellow coloration of the leaf. This demonstrates that carotenoids, which are responsible for
the yellow colour, are more stable.

7. Look at leaves of the same plant on the shady side and compare it with the
leaves on the sunny side. Or, compare the potted plants kept in the sunlight with
those in the shade. Which of them has leaves that are darker green ? Why?
Shaded leaves receive less sunlight for photosynthesis than plants that are kept in direct
sunshine. More chlorophyll is found in leaves that receive less sunlight, allowing for more
effective photosynthesis. The chloroplasts in the mesophyll cells are oriented irregularly and in
vertical files along the walls in the presence of high light. In addition, photooxidation of
chloroplasts occurs in intense light, whereas non-oxidation occurs in shaded areas. As a result of
the high concentration of chlorophyll in the leaves of plants kept in the shadow, they have dark
green leaves.

8. Figure shows the effect of light on the rate of photosynthesis. Based on the
graph, answer the following questions: (a) At which point/s (A, B or C) in the curve is light
a limiting factor? (b) What could be the limiting factor/s in region A? (c) What do C and D
represent on the curve?

a) Light is a limiting factor at A and 50% of B, which is owing to the increase in photosynthetic
rate as light intensity increases.
b) Light, CO2 and H2O could be the limiting factor/s in region A.
c) C denotes a point beyond which light is no longer a limiting factor, and D denotes the point
beyond which light intensity has no effect on photosynthetic rate.

9. Give comparison between the following:

(a) C3 and C4 pathways (b) Cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation

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(c) Anatomy of leaf in C3 and C4 plants

C3 pathways C4 pathways

The primary acceptor of CO2 is

The primary acceptor of CO2 is RUBP –
1. 1. phosphoenol pyruvate – a three-carbon
a six-carbon compound.
compound.

The first stable product is 3-

2. 2. The first stable product is oxaloacetic acid.
phosphoglycerate.

It occurs only in the mesophyll cells of It occurs in the mesophyll and bundle-
3. 3.
the leaves. sheath cells of the leaves.

It is a slower process of carbon fixation It is a faster process of carbon fixation and

4. 4.
and photo-respiratory losses are high. photo-respiratory losses are low.

(b) Cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylations

Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic photophosphorylation

1. It occurs only in photosystem I. It occurs in photosystems I and II.

It involves only the synthesis of

2. It involves the synthesis of ATP and NADPH2.
ATP.

In this process, photolysis of

In this process, photolysis of water takes place and
3. water does not occur. Therefore,
oxygen is liberated.
oxygen is not produced.

In this process, electrons move

4. In this process, electrons do not move in a closed circle.
in a closed circle.

(c) Anatomy of the leaves in C3 and C4 plants

C3 leaves C4 leaves

1. Bundle-sheath cells are absent Bundle-sheath cells are present

RuBisCo is present in the bundle-sheath

2. RuBisCo is present in the mesophyll cells.
cells.

The first stable compound produced is

The first stable compound produced is 3-
3. oxaloacetic acid – a four-carbon
phosphoglycerate –a three-carbon compound.
compound.

4. Photorespiration occurs Photorespiration does not occur

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