Overview of Lightning Effects and the parameters for LPS Materials

Preface :

Lightning is perhaps the worst natural phenomenon mankind has ever come across. These are
impressed currents either negative or positive downward discharges containing enormous amount of
energy. Most of the Lightning is of negative discharge in the form of train of pulses. It consists of Short
Strokes & Long Strokes. Four main parameters involved are as below;

1. The Peak value of Lightning Current

2. The Charge of Lightning Current QFLASH consisting of both QSHORT and QLONG .

[Link] Specific Energy W/R of Lightning Current.

[Link] Steepness or Slope di/dt of Lightning Current rise.

All above are depicted in below diagram;

Figure 1. Zoomed in and expanded plot of lightning current as well as its
derivative and amplitude spectrum.(Thanks- M.P. Perkins, M.M. Ong, C.G. Brown Jr., R.D.
SpeerLawrence Livermore National Laboratory)

As the thundercloud moves over the surface of the earth (which is considered as an infinitely conducting
grounded plane) an equal electric charge of opposite polarity is induced on the earth surface. The
oppositely charged create an electric field within the air between them. The greater the accumulation of
charges, higher will be the electric field. The electric field created due to lightning is a complex process
to comprehend, especially the remote observer sees the current of the return stroke channel form at an
earlier time.

Scientific Analysis of the Lightning Phenomena:

An effective method of determining the electric fields due to lightning is by the use of the concept of
retarded potential. The use of Jefimenko equations in the field of electromagnetism, describe the
behavior of the electric and magnetic fields in terms of the charge and current distribution at retarded
times. The electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields from Jefimenko equations due to the arbitrary charge or
current distribution of charge density (𝜌) and the current density (J) is given as follows ;

Where r’ is a point in the charge distribution, r is a point in space, and

tr = t - 𝑟−𝑟′ , is the retarded time.
𝑐

Figure 2: displacement for retarded potential.

( Thanks- International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research Volume 9, Issue 6, June-2018, ISSN 2229-5518 )
Whereas the lightning is three dimensional dynamic phenomena, the above equation is extrapolated
further; considering 3D nature as follows;

The sources 𝜌, volume charge density and J, volume current density generate the electric and
magnetic field. E(r, t) and B(r, t) are the electric and magnetic field intensity, µ° and ε° are
Permeability and permittivity of the medium.

The above equation explains us the complex nature of Lightning and the Electric as well as Magnetic
Field effects generated due to it.

Objective :

Our focus is to study the consequences of above when there is direct strike and how it can be
mitigated using a Protection Method/System comprising of Conductors, Air Termination System.
Below figure illustrates the peak E-fields and B-fields developed due to the lightning at the center of a
small facility that has a penetration which has been struck by lightning. The rebar of the facility,
modeled as PEC for this example, creates a lightning protection system. For the two figures on the left,
the penetration attaches to the right side of the facility and is not connected to the rebar where it
enters the facility. For the two figures on the right, the penetration is attached to the rebar structure
using a bond wire where
it enters the facility on the left and also attaches to the right side of the facility.
The fields in the structure were significantly reduced by adding the bond wire. This reduction in fields is
beneficial in lowering the coupling to electrical equipment inside the facility that may behave as small
monopole and loop type antennas

In order to accurately determine the fields inside a facility that has been struck by lightning, the
importance of the internal impedances of the conductors used in the lighting protection system must
first be determined. Because rebar is commonly made of materials that have non-linear B-H curves, such
as steel, computational techniques are needed in order to find the internal impedances. The problem is
further complicated due to the diffusion of the E- and B-fields into the conductors.
The voltage for a section of rebar or bond wire consists of time changing inductive and resistive
components.
The Lightning Current is Train of Pulses as mentioned earlier and can be depicted by a typical diagram as
follows;

(RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT TECHNICAL REPORT --CECOM-TR-93-1)

There are 4 major sections/components of a lightning wave as shown abov.

Component A–This is the high-current pulse. It is a direct current transient that has been recorded to
reach up to 260,000 amp. and last for a duration of up to 200 microseconds. On the average, it will
reach 20,000 amp. for a 50 microsecond [Link] above 200,000 amp. are considered rare.
Component B—This is a transition phase on the order of several thousand amperes.
Component C—This is a continuing current of approximately 300-500 amps that lasts up to . 75 second.
Component D—This is a restrike surge that is typically half that of component A in a given strike. 2 It
has generally the same duration as component A. Typically 3 or 4 restrikes will occur in one lightning
event but the maximum observed is 26 restrikes in one lightning event. Sources differ on the magnitude
of 'D'; some state all restrikes are one-half the magnitude of the A component and some sources imply
that the D component continually decreases by one-half (e.g., l/2A, l/4A, l/8A, etc.).Here, we consider
the first convention which is the worst of the two cases. Components A and D contribute to the
mechanical damage of the system. These components generate very strong magnetic forces (as
predicted by the Biot• Savart Law and derived by Jefimenko equations mentioned above ) which can
cause mechanical damage to systems. Since the duration of the A component is short, the total charge
passed throughout the conductor is comparatively small and does not time to heat up the conductor.
Components B and C are primarily responsible for heating the conductor. The duration and
magnitude of this component, approximately 1 second at 300 amperes, is enough to raise the
temperature of the wire a few hundred degrees.

Modes of Lightning Induced Damage

They are blast, explosive vaporization, Biot-Savart induced mechanical damage, and ohmic heating.

a) Blast—This is attributed to the nature of current propagation through the atmosphere, and is
thought to be the overpressure generated by a high• temperature plasma from passage of the lightning
stroke.3 It causes the noise we call thunder.

b) Explosive vaporization –It is the rapid heating of an item causing rapid expansion resulting in
explosion.
c) Induced Mechanical Damage—It is the predominant damaging effect in lightning protection
systems. This magnetic force can induce severe strain on any components that carry lightning
current. Calculations indicate that pressures of 20 MPa and quite possibly higher pressures can
exist within the down conductor of a lightning protection system subject to a maximal lightning
event. This is on the same order of magnitude as the yield stress of copper. Additionally, the steep
waveform of the A component may cause non• uniform inward pressure throughout the length of
the conductor resulting in ductile failure of the conductor. Test results suggest this, because the
conductors exhibit diameter reduction at points of failure and elongation. Also, there is an
apparent relationship between the tensile strength/yield stress and the survivability of the
conductor when exposed to lightning currents. This effect is readily observable, especially in
braided conductors because it causes the down conductor to "pinch." Constriction or apparent
diameter reduction is observed throughout the length of the wire (in natural and simulated
lightning), and might be the only indicator of a lightning strike.

d) Ohmic Heating –This is induced by the B and C components , however is not the primary means
of damage in lightning conductors, as was previously thought. A thermodynamic analysis can show
that the heating is not enough to melt a copper wire of 13.3 mm OR #6 gauge or more when
exposed to the B and C component. A more likely effect is that an arc from the conductor to
another path to earth will cause local heating resulting in damage to the conductor. It was observed
in an antenna system (AB-1373) that was struck by lightning.( Trip Report - Investigation of a Lightning
Accident involving an AB-1373 DAMP Antenna Mast, J u l y 1 9 9 2 ) Local arcing from the down conductor
to a steel guy wire caused the two to fuse together.

Another mode of heating damage is more subtle and deserves consideration. Diameter (cross-
sectional area) reduction can occur when a conductor is exposed to lightning from ductile yield of
the wire or from breakage of strands in a conductor. Since the relation for resistance is a function
of the resistivity of the material and cross-sectional area of the wire, diameter reduction can cause a
local point of high resistance. This point heats to a much greater temperature due to the higher
resistance, melting the wire. Local heating from this cause occurred several times during testing
resulting in conductor failure after the A component damaged a conductor by diameter reduction.
There are other damage effects from lightning, most notably electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and the
electrical current, which are mitigated by use of Surge Protection Devices. ( Not discussed here).
Whereas from our above experiment of Bond Wire ( tested for E& B Fields ) the actual temperature rise
measured for various metals in case of an event is as below;

Table 1. Approximate temperature rise at the surface of

the conductor when excited by a lightning pulse.
Cu Satu. Eff.µr Unsatu. Bond Wire
Heidler 0.6º C 6º C 6º C 90º C 100º C
Dbl. Exp. 0.4º C 3º C 4º C 70º C 60º C

Conductors made of copper, saturated and unsaturated steel, an effective permeability with the
conductivity of steel 1008, and the copper bond wire. It was found for the nonlinear steel 1008 rebar
that the impedances were approximated well after the current was appreciable by using 𝜇𝑟˜ 2. This is
refered to as Eff. 𝜇 in table 1.
We can see from the results in table 1 that the temperature change at the surface is negligible for
copper, saturated steel, and effective permeability. However , for the unsaturated steel and the bond
wire the temperature change is not negligible and would result in a small change in parameters that we
treated as constants with 𝑟 temperature, such as the conductivity.

Below figure shows the amount of damage ( Ohmic Heating ) happens to the materials such as Copper &
Steel due to direct strike.

The radius of the melted area depends on the kind of material. Sheets of soft and stain-
less steel show the largest melted areas (typ.8 cm), followed by aluminium sheets(typ.6 cm), brass and
copper (typ. 4 to 5 cm). The depth of those melted areas is Very small. It ranges from 0.1 to 0.2 oom, for
alu-minium up to 0.4 mm. The comparatively large melted areas result from th high specific energy
(which is equal to (ʃi2 dt) of the impulse current. This specific energy is responsible for the
electrodynamic forces. The melted areas found at the tests with long duration currents, which have
a considerably lower specific energy, .are remarkably smaller (typ.1..2 cm).

In a lightning discharge, the high specific energy phases of the lightning flash are too short in duration
for any heat generated in the structure to be dispersed significantly. The phenomenon is therefore to be
considered adiabatic.
The temperature of the conductors of the LPS can be evaluated as follows;

Equation (D.7),IEC 62305-1:2010.

Where,
Ɵ-Ɵ0 is the temperature rise of the conductors (K);
α is the temperature coefficient of the resistance (1/K);
W/R is the specific energy of the current impulse (J/Ω);
ρ0 is the specific ohmic resistance of the conductor at ambient temperature (Ωm);
q is the cross-sectional area of the conductor (m2)
Y is the material density (kg/m
Cw is the thermal capacity (J/kgK);
Cs is the latent heat of melting (J/kg);
Ɵs is the melting temperature (°C).

A theoretical description of the loss in volume as a function of charge and specific energy is given as

∆V = C1*QiC2.(W/R)C3,
with C1,C2 and C3 as parameters typical for the material, the impulse charge in C, the specific energy in
J/Ω and the volume ∆V in mm ³. This equation was developed for safety
gaps for overvoltage protection by TC81, but the experimental results with metal sheets show a
comparable relation. The experimental results allow also an extension of this equation. The loss
in volume decreases with increasing spacing of the counter electrode:
∆V ≈ (1 - C4. s).
This relation is verified for a spacing of 1 mm Up to 25 nun (resp. 1 mm and 45 mm for aluminium). The
complete equation for the description of the loss in volume can be written as
∆V = C1-Qic2*(W/R)c3.(1 – C4-s),
with the spacing s in m. The parameters C1 and C4 depend on the different materials and the used
electrode (table 1 and Z), whereas C3 and Cj are valid for all investigated materials:
c2 = 1,4
c3 = 0,45.
Using the long duration currents carrying a charge Q1 = 200 C , the diameter of the melted area is larger
for the steels and alaminium (typ. 2 cm) than for brass and copper (typ.1 cm) .

To summarize, the measurements concentrate on the investigation, which thickness of a metal sheet
can withstand the long duration current without being punctured. International and national standards
define minimum thicknesses of different materials, if direct lightning strikes are assumed. The CO paper
of IEC TC 81 1101 for instance fixes:
- Aluminium: 7 mm
- Copper: 5 mm
- Steel: 4 mm.

Additionally, IEC 62305-1:2010 (D & E) brings us the various parameters associated with the LPS
materials to be considered ;

Table D.2 - Physical characteristics of typical materials used in LPS components

Material
Quantity
Aluminium Mild steel Copper Stainless steel a

Po(Qm) 29 x 10-9 120 x 10-9 17,8 x 10-9 700 x 10-9

a (1/K) 4,0 x 10-3 6,5 x 10-3 3,92 x 10-3 0,8 x 10-3

r (kg/m3) 2 700 7 700 8 920 8 000

Ɵs (OC) 658 1 530 1 080 1 500

cs (J/kg) 397 x 103 272 x 103 209 x 103 -

Cw (J/kgK) 908 469 385 500

a- Austenitic non-magnetic.
IEC 62305-3, Table 3 provides minimum thickness requirements for LPS materials as below;

From aforesaid matter and explanation, it is evident that Lightning is complex , dynamic phenomena
where Electric & Magnetic Fields are present simultaneously and both are varying continuously. This
unique feature makes it challenging for designers to mitigate the risks with optimum engineering.

Electrical Conductivity is one of the parameters to be considered for LPS though other parameters
though other parameters as mentioned above are to be considered [Link] type of structure has to
be treated with due importance on technical and commercial feasibility for respective project while
designing LPS.

Abhijit Murar
Technical Support Manager

[Link] have not discussed Galvanic Corrosion developed when two dissimilar metals are joined in
Lightning Air Termination Path, however a separate article can be issued on the same.