Week 1: Types of Structures, Loads, and Supports

I. Introduction
A structure is defined as a system of bonded parts used to support a load. Some of the significant
examples associated with Civil Engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers. Components of
these structures are made up of different forms depending on their requirements.

In the process of designing a structure, the engineer must ensure that the structural components
conform to the requirements and specifications of the code of the local building code, and the
specifications as to where the structure is located, to guarantee its safety and serviceability.

The structure must be analyzed to make sure that it has met the required stiffness and strength.
Forces and displacements of the members are established using the theory of structural analysis,
and the loadings of the structure are determined from local codes and specifications. [1]

II. Objectives
After completion of the course the student should be able to:

1. Identify the role of structural analysis in the design and analysis of structures.
2. Differentiate the different kind of loads acting on structures.
3. Evaluate loads on structures using building codes provisions.
4. Identify the different types of support connections used in a coplanar structure
5. Evaluate and compute for tributary loadings

III. Classification of Structures

Engineers should be able to identify different types of elements composing a structure and
understand each of its functions as well.

Here are the different classifications of structures.

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS:

a) Tie Rods – also called bracing struts. These are structural members subjected to a tensile
force.

b) Beams – are primarily used to carry vertical loads and

designed to resist bending moment. They are often
classified by the way they are supported.

Picture source: Structural Analysis Eigth Edition by R.C. Hibbeler

 c) Columns – are generally vertical structural members that resist
axial compressive forces. Columns subjected to both bending
moment and axial load are referred to as beam columns.

TYPES OF STRUCTURES:

a) Trusses – consist of straight and slender members,

usually arranged in a triangular manner. In the
analysis of trusses, each member is assumed to be
connected by frictionless pins at the joints where the
loads are applied.

b) Cables and Arches – Cables, flexible material that carries their load in tension, are used in
constructing long-span structures including suspension bridges and roofs over large
buildings. An arch, in comparison with cables, carries their load in compression. An arch
must be rigid, but to maintain its shape, additional loadings involving shear and moment
must be considered in the design.

c) Frames – are structures that consist of

vertical and horizontal members. There are
two classifications of frames: sway and
non-sway. A sway frame allows movement
in the horizontal direction, while a non-
sway does not allow any lateral or sideway
movements.

Picture source: Structural Analysis Eigth Edition by R.C. Hibbeler

IV. Loads
The loads that commonly act on structures can be classified into three:

1. Dead loads
2. Live loads
3. Environmental loads

Dead loads – are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed locations that act permanently on
the building structure. It consists of the weights of the structural members that are permanently
attached to the structure. [2]

UNIT WEIGHTS OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Live loads – are loads that vary in both magnitude and locations. These loads are caused by the
weights of the objects that are temporarily placed on the structure, moving vehicles, or any other
natural forces. This also includes Environmental Loads; however, the probability of its occurrence
is different from the use of the building structure, which is why building codes use Live Load as the
term for the varying loads due to the use of the structure. [2] [3]

MINIMUM FLOOR LIVE LOADS FOR BUILDINGS

In computing dead loads and live loads, tributary area refers to the portion of the structure
being supported by the structural members.
Example 1.1
The floor system of a gymnasium consist of a 125 mm thick concrete slab resting on four steel
beams (A = 9100 𝑚𝑚2 each) that in turn are supported by two steel girders (A =25600 𝑚𝑚2 each)
as shown in the figure. Determine the dead and live load acting on beam BF and the reaction acting
on column D.

Solution:

Dead Load:

For beam BF or CG:

Weight of concrete slab:

Ws  bd c
Ws  0.125(6)( 23.6)

Ws  17.7kN / m

Weight of steel beam:

WsB  CrossSectionalArea( st )
9100
WsB  (77)
(1000) 2

WsB  0.7kN / m

Live Load:

WLL  ( LoadPerUnitArea )(TributaryWidth)

WLL  4.79(6)
WLL  28.74kN / m

Total Load on beam BF:

W  Ws  WsB  WLL
W  17.7  0.7  28.74
W  47.14kN / m
Dead Load:

For beam AE or DH:

Weight of concrete slab:

Ws  bd c
Ws  0.125(3)( 23.6)

Ws  8.85kN / m

Weight of steel beam:

WsB  CrossSectionalArea( st )
9100
WsB  (77)
(1000) 2

WsB  0.7kN / m

Live Load:

WLL  ( LoadPerUnitArea )(TributaryWidth)

WLL  4.79(6)

WLL  14.37kN / m

Total Load on beam AE:

W  Ws  WsB  WLL
W  8.85  0.7  14.37
W  23.92kN / m

Weight of Girder:

WG  (CrossSectionalArea)(WST )
25600
WG  (77)
(1000) 2

WLL  1.97kN / m
 For value of R: For value of Q:

F v 0 F v 0
R( 2)  (WBF )( Length) Q ( 2)  (W AE )( Length)
47.14(10) 23.92(10)
R Q
2 2
R  235.7kN Q  119.6kN

Reaction at Column A/D:

For value of C:

F v 0
C ( 2)  ( 2 R )( 2Q )(WeightOfGirder)( Length)
2( 235.7)  ( 2)(119.6)  (1.97)(18)
C
2
C  373.03kN

Learning Activity 1.1

1. The floor beam in fig. is used to support the 6-ft width of a
lightweight plain concrete slab having a thickness of 4 in. The slab
serves as a portion of the ceiling for the floor below, and therefore its
bottom is coated with plaster. Furthermore, an 8-ft-high, 12-in.-Thick
lightweight solid concrete block wall is directly over the top flange of
the beam. Determine the loading on the beam measured per foot of length of the beam. [1]

2. The floor of a building, shown in the figure, is

subjected to a uniformly distributed load of 3.5 kPa over
its surface area. Determine the loads acting on all the
members of the floor system.
V. Equilibrium and Support Reactions
External and Internal Reactions

External Forces are the action of another body on the structure under consideration.
Applied forces (dead load, live load, etc.) can move and are known in the analysis. Reactions forces
are the forces exerted by the supports and prevent the movement of the structure and keep it in
equilibrium.

Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a member or component by the rest
of the structure. These forces are developed within the structures and hold the members together.
They occur in equal but opposite pairs, therefore they do not materialize in the equations of
equilibrium of the structure. [2]

VI. Support Connections

SUPPORT CONNECTIONS

Structural members are combined in different ways depending on the purpose of the
designer. There are three types of joints most commonly used: pin connection, the roller support,
and the fixed joint. A pin-connected joint and roller support allows some freedom for slight rotary
motion; however, a fixed joint does not allow any rotation between the connected members.
Examples of these joints, fashioned in metal and concrete, are shown respectively. [1]

Table source: Structural Analysis Fourth Edition by Aslam Kassimali

TYPES OF SUPPORTS FOR COPLANAR STRUCTURES:
VII. Tributary Loadings
When flat surfaces are supported by a structural frame, it is essential to determine how the
load on these surfaces is transmitted to the supports of the structures. There are two ways in which
this can be done. The choice is made depending on the geometry of the structural system, the
material used, and the construction method.

One-way Slab - A slab or deck wherein it is supported such that it delivers its load to the
supporting members by one-way action.

L2
Two-way Slab - If, according to the ACI 318 concrete code of ratio ( )  2 ,the load is assumed
L1

Example 1.2
Example Computation for One-way Slab [1]

Solution:

For loads on member CD:

w  Load (TributaryWidth)
w  (100lb / ft 2 )(5 ft )
w  500lb / ft

For reaction on member CD:

F v 0
RCD ( 2)  (UniformLoad )( Length)
(500lb / ft )(10 ft )
RCD 
2
RCD  2500lb

For loads on members AB and EF:

w  Load (TributaryWidth)
w  (100lb / ft 2 )( 2.5 ft )
w  250lb / ft

Table source: Structural Analysis Eigth Edition by R.C. Hibbeler

 For reactions on members AB and EF:
F v 0
RAB ( 2)  (UniformLoad )( Length)
( 250lb / ft )(10 ft )
RAB 
2
RAB  1250lb  REF

Example 1.3
Example Computation for Two-way Slab

The flat roof of the steel-frame building shown in the photo is intended to support a total load of
over its surface. Determine the roof load within region ABCD that is transmitted to beam BC. The
dimensions are shown in the figure. [1]

Solution:

L2  5m
L1  4m
L2
Since,  1.25  2
L1

 Two-way Slab
Peak intensity of the load:

w  (2kN / m 2 )( 2m)
w  4kN / m

Distribution of load along BC:

Picture source: Structural Analysis Eigth Edition by R.C. Hibbeler

 Learning Activity 1.2
1. The concrete girders shown in the photo of the passenger car
parking garage span 30 ft and are 15 ft on center. If the floor slab is
5 in. thick and made of reinforced stone concrete, and the specified
live load is 50lb / ft 2 , determine the distributed load the floor
system transmits to each interior girder. [1]

VIII. Static Determinacy and Stability of Plane Structures

A determinate structure is achieved when the unknown external reaction or internal
members can be determined using the three equations for equilibrium. An indeterminate structure
is when the unknown forces can’t be solved simply by the conditions of static equilibrium alone
and will require more consideration of the compatibility conditions of different components of the
structure for its complete analysis. Moreover, structures must be stable to be able to serve their
desired functions. A structure is stable if it can maintain its geometrical shape when subjected to
external loads/forces.

As a rule, a statically determinate or statically indeterminate structure can be identified by

drawing free-body diagrams of all its members, or parts of its members, and then comparing the
total number of unknown forces and moment components with the total number of equations.

IX. Equations of Equilibrium

From statics, a structure or one of its members is in equilibrium when it maintains a
balance of force and moment. In general, it requires that the force and moment equations of
equilibrium be satisfied along three independent axes, [1]

Picture source: Structural Analysis Eigth Edition by R.C. Hibbeler

 However, the principal load-carrying portions of most structures lie in a single plane, and
since the loads are also coplanar, the above requirements for equilibrium reduced to

An internally stable structure can be considered as statically determinate externally if all its support
reactions can be determined using the equilibrium equations. The structure must be supported by a
minimum of three reactions that satisfies the three equilibrium equations. Also, since there are only three
equations of equilibrium, they cannot be used to determine more than three reactions. This explains that
a plane structure that is statically determinate externally must be supported by three reactions. [2]

Example 1.4
Examples of Externally Statically Determinate Plane Structures

Example 1.5

Picture source: Structural Analysis Fourth Edition by Aslam Kassimali

 Examples of Externally Statically Indeterminate Plane Structures

X. Reactions of Plane Structures

Reactions of plane structures are determined using the equations of equilibrium.

- The algebraic sums of the horizontal and vertical components of all the forces on the
structure are equal to zero.

- The algebraic sums of the moments acting on the structure are equal to zero.

General Procedure for Determining Reactions of Statically Determinate Plane

Structures

1. Draw the FBD or the Free Body Diagram of all forces known or unknown acting in the structures.
Assume directions of the unknown reactions.
2. Check if the structure is statically determinate. If the structure is statically indeterminate or
geometrically unstable, end the analysis.

3. Determine the unknown reactions using the static equilibrium equations and equations of
conditions (if applicable). Simultaneous equations should be avoided, prioritize the equation that
contains only one unknown. Positive values of the unknown shows that the assumed direction is
correct; negative values means that the direction is opposite that of the assumed direction.

Alternative equation that has not been used in the computation is applied to check the accuracy of the
solution.

Example 1.6
Determine the support reactions of the beam.
Solution

75Sin300  37.5kN
75Cos300  64.95kN
1
25(6)  75kN
2

M A 0
RBy (12)  75(10)  37.5( 4)  50( 2)  0
RBy  83.33kN 

F y 0
R A cos 450  RBy  50  37.5  75  0
R A cos 450  83.33  162.5  0
RA  111.96kN

F x 0

RBx  64.95  R A sin 450  0

RBx  64.95  111.96 sin 450  0

RBx  14.22kN

Example 1.7
Determine the support reactions of the beam.
Solution

F y 0
1
RA  70  30(4)  (30)2  0
2
RA  220kN 
M A 0
1  1 
M A  70(6)  50  30(4)2  30(2) 4  (2)  0
2  3 
M A  850kN .m
Example 1.8
Determine the support reactions of the beam.

Solution

1
RC  RD  ( 25)(6)
2
RC  RD  75kN 

M A 0
RB ( 4)  75(10)  50( 2)  25(6)(7)
RB  475kN 
F y 0
RA  RB  75  50  25(6)  0
RA  475kN  275  0
RA  200kN 

F y 0
RE  75  25(6)  0
RE  225kN 

M E 0
75(6)  25(6)3  M E  0
M E  900kN  m