Komar university

Of science and technology

Lecture 3: Cell Structure/Function

Nika Atta Qadir

MSc Infectious Diseases
 Learning objectives
• Recall the three main components of a cell.

• Identify the structure and function of the organelles in a eukaryotic cell.

• Explain the endosymbiotic theory.

 MITOCHONDRIA
• The mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound organelle found
almost in all eukaryotic organisms.

• Mitochondria generate most of the cell’s supply of adenosine

triphosphate (ATP) so it is known as the power house of the cell.

• Mitochondria have evolved to produce ATP, during a process

known as cellular respiration.

• The amount of mitochondria varies widely by organism, tissue,

and cell type.

- For instance, red blood cells have no mitochondria, whereas

liver cells (hepatocytes) have more than 2000.
 Structure of mitochondria
1. The outer mitochondrial membrane.
- Permeable to most small molecules.
- Both membranes are composed of phospholipid bilayers and proteins.
2. The intermembrane space.
- The space between the outer and inner membranes.
3. The inner mitochondrial membrane
- Forms cristae (by folding of the inner membrane).

- Cristae contains many enzymes and other protein molecules which are involved in synthesis of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).

- Selectively permeable and regulates the movement of materials into and out of the mitochondrion.

4. The matrix:

- Contains enzyme, DNA and ribosome.

- Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).

 chloroplasts
• Found within the cells of plants and green algae.

• The site of photosynthesis.

• Green colour given by the presence of a pigment

called chlorophyll.

- Function of the pigments is to absorb light

energy for the process of photosynthesis.
 Endosymbiotic theory
• An endosymbiont is one organism that lives inside of another one.

• The mitochondrion and the chloroplast are both organelles that were once free-living cells.

• They were prokaryotes that ended up inside of other cells (host cells).

• They may have joined the other cell by being eaten (a process called phagocytosis), or
perhaps they were parasites of that host cell.

• Rather than being digested by or killing the host cell, the inner cell survived and together
they developed.
 Endosymbiotic theory
• Mitochondria are similar in size to small bacteria, and both reproduce by dividing.

• The mitochondria contain their own DNA, with genes that resemble bacterial genes.

• They also contain their own ribosomes and translation factors that resemble those in bacteria.

• These and other similarities between mitochondria and present-day bacteria provide strong evidence
that mitochondria evolved from an aerobic bacterium that was captured by an anaerobic cell.

• Chloroplast are thought to have evolved from a symbiotic photosynthetic bacterium that was captured
by an ancient eukaryotic cell that already possessed mitochondria (perhaps through phagocytosis).

• Multiple membranes surround the organelles too. If we look at the molecules of those membranes, they
look like the membranes that surround modern day free-living prokaryotes.
Endosymbiotic theory
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• Endoplasmic reticulum is found in most eukaryotic cells.
• It forms an interconnected network of flattened,
membrane-enclosed sacs.
• The membranes of the ER are continuous with the
outer nuclear membrane.
• It plays a major role in the production, processing and
transport of proteins and lipids.
• The ER exists in three morphological forms:
- Cisternae
- Tubules
- Vesicles
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
• Different types of cells contain different ratios of the
two types of ER depending on the activities of the cell.
• The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell
and a cell’s function determines the size and structure
of the ER.
- For example, some cells do not have an ER of any
kind. The endoplasmic reticulum is not found in red
blood cells, or spermatozoa.
- Cells that synthesize and release a lot of proteins
would need a large amount of ER.
 Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
• The RER is characterized by the presence of membrane-bound ribosomes.

• The ribosomes are not a stable part of this organelle's structure as they are constantly being bound
and released from the membrane.

• The RER is morphologically distinguishable by its series of flattened-like membrane sheets called
cisternae.

• Polypeptides are synthesized, modified, folded into their correct 3-D shape and sorted towards an
organelle or marked for secretion.

• The rough endoplasmic reticulum is especially important in cells that are specialized to produce
secreted proteins.

- E.g. pancreatic cells (they produce digestive enzymes, which are transported to the intestine).
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
• The smooth ER is distinguished from the other parts of the endoplasmic reticulum by the absence of
membrane-bound ribosomes.

• This organelle is also morphologically distinct, often made of tubular structures.

• Main functions:

- The synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid hormones.

- The detoxification of harmful metabolites.

- The storage and metabolism of calcium ions within the muscle cell.

- It is involved in carbohydrate metabolism.

• Cells which secrete these products (such as those in the testes, ovaries and sebaceous glands) have a
large amount of smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
 ribosomes
• There are of two types of ribosomes, which are both similar in structure (70s and 80s).

• The 70s ribosomes are found in prokaryotic cells and in the mitochondria and
chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.

• The 80s ribosomes in eukaryotic cells:

1. Attached Ribosomes

- The ribosomes provide space and enzymes for the synthesis of proteins in the cell.

- The ribosomes bound to the ER membranes synthesize integral proteins for cellular
membranes, lysosomal proteins, secretary proteins for export as secretions.

2. Free Ribosomes

- Free in the cytoplasm that produce structural and enzymatic proteins for use in the
cell itself.

- These proteins include glycolytic enzymes and most extrinsic membrane proteins.
GOLGI APPARATUS
 GOLGI APPARATUS
• The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex/Golgi body, is
an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.

• Composed of a series of flattened sacs, located in

the cytoplasm next to the endoplasmic reticulum and near the
nucleus.

• Golgi Apparatus has three regions:

- Cis

- Medial

- Trans

• The cis face is adjacent to the ER, while the trans face points
towards the plasma membrane.
 Functions of the Golgi apparatus
• The Golgi apparatus is responsible for transporting, modifying (phosphorylation and glycosylation)
and packaging of:

- Proteins (secretory proteins and glycoproteins, cell membrane proteins, lysosomal proteins)

- Lipids (glycolipids )

1. The Golgi apparatus receives vesicles (containing proteins and lipids) from the ER in the cis region.

2. As the proteins and lipids travel through the Golgi, they undergo further modifications.

3. The modified and tagged proteins/lipids are packaged into vesicles that bud from the trans face for
delivery to targeted destinations.

4. Secretory vesicles, fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell.
 LYSOSOMES
• They are spherical vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes that
can break down many kinds of biomolecules.
- For example, large proteins into amino acids, or large
carbohydrates into simple sugars, or large lipids into single
fatty acids.
• Enzymes of the lysosomes are synthesised in the rough
endoplasmic reticulum and exported to the Golgi apparatus and
then they are transferred to lysosomes in small vesicles.
• These enzymes require an acidic environment for optimal activity.
• The lysosomal membrane protects the cytosol, and therefore the
rest of the cell, from the degradative enzymes within the
lysosome.
 Functions of lysosomes
1. Heterophagy

• Heterophagy is the lysosomal digestion of extracellular materials which are engulfed by the process of
endocytosis.

• There are two types of heterophagy:

- Phagocytosis is a cellular process for ingesting and eliminating particles larger than 0.5μm in
diameter (including microorganisms, foreign substances, and apoptotic cells).

- Pinocytosis is the ingestion of extracellular fluids (i.e. the fluid surrounding the cell, together with its
contents of small dissolved molecules).
 Functions of lysosomes
2. Autolysis

• The self-digestion (lysis) process by self-produced enzymes due to injury to the cell or dying tissue.

• Whole cells are degraded (occurs in necrotic tissue).

• Occurs when a lysosome allows the digestive enzymes out of its membranes.

3. Autophagy

• Occurs when the cell digests it’s own organelles or other substances produced by the cell.

• Degrades intracellular macromolecules, whole cells are never digested.

• The catabolic products can then be used by the cell for energy or to make other macromolecules.
 Functions of lysosomes
4. Fertilization

• During fertilization process, the lysosomal enzymes found in the acrosome of the sperm head are
released and rupture the surface of the egg cell (ovum).

5. Chromosomal damage

• Due to the presence of DNase enzyme, lysosome has the ability to attack chromosomes and cause
chromosomal breakages.

• These breakages can lead to diseases like cancer.

 PEROXISOMES
• Peroxisomes are membrane bound organelles, existing in the cytoplasm of almost all eukaryotic cells.
• They contain enzymes involved in a variety of metabolic reactions.

Main functions of peroxisomes :

1. Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions leading to the production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).

- Hydrogen peroxide is harmful to the cell so peroxisomes also contain the enzyme catalase, which
decomposes hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

2. A major function of peroxisomes is the breakdown of fatty acid molecules in a process called beta-
oxidation.

3. In plants, peroxisomes are required for photorespiration.

 CYTOSKELETON
• A cytoskeleton is present in all cells.

• It is a complex network of interlinking filaments and tubules that extend throughout the
cytoplasm.

• The cytoskeleton provides the cell with structure and shape.

• All three cytoskeletal filaments must work together to give a cell strength, shape and
ability to move.

• Cytoskeletal elements interact with cellular membranes.

 Cytoskeletal functions
• Support • Motility/Movement

- Maintain cell shape - Changes in cell location

- Organizing structure - Limited movements of parts

- Anchors organelles of the cell

- Provides flexibility - Interactions with motor

proteins
• Regulation

- Regulates biochemical
activities

- Cell signalling
 CYTOSKELETON
1. Microtubules

• Microtubules are cylindrical tubes made of the protein tubulin.

• Act as a scaffold to determine cell shape.

• Intracellular transport (associated with dyneins and kinesins, they

transport organelles like mitochondria or vesicles).

• Determine the positions of membrane-enclosed organelles.

• Cilia and flagella.

• Separates chromosomes during cell division (the mitotic spindle).

 CYTOSKELETON
2. Intermediate filaments

• Smaller than microtubules but thicker than microfilaments.

• Provide mechanical strength and resistance to shear stress.

• Intermediate filaments are composed of various proteins, depending on the type of cell in which
they are found:

- Keratins are found in epithelial cells, hair and nails.

- Neurofilaments strengthen the long axons of neurons.

- Lamin give structural support to the nuclear envelope (nuclear lamina).

 CYTOSKELETON
3. Microfilaments

• Fine, thread-like protein fibres.

• Microfilaments also known as actin filaments.

• They are composed mostly of a contractile polymers of actin (G-

actin proteins).

• Microfilament’s association with the protein myosin is responsible

for muscle contraction.

• Maintenance of eukaryotic cell shape (structural support).

• Cytokinesis.
Thank you