PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

JAISAKTHI EDUCATIONAL TRUST
CHENNAI-600 123

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PART A & B
I SEMESTER
23PH1101 - ENGINEERING PHYSICS
(ACADEMIC YEAR 2023-2024)

Prepared by Approved by

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

23PH1101-ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT-1
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. State Hooke’s Law.

According to this law, “Stress is directly proportional to the strain produced, within
the elastic limit”
Stress ∞ strain
Stress = E*strain
E = Stress / Strain Nm-2

where E is called as modulus of the elasticity.

2. What is Poisson’s ratio?

It is defined as the ratio between the lateral strain per unit stress (β) to the
longitudinal strain per unit stress (α) within the elastic limits.
Poisson’s ratio (σ) = 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛/𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖n
3. What do you infer from the Stress – strain diagram?
From the Stress-Strain diagram, We can infer
(i) The Stress is directly proportional to the Strain within the elastic limit.
(ii) It distinguishes the elastic and plastic limit of a material.

4. Define I- Shape girder.

The girder is the one in which the upper and lower sections are broadened and the
middle section is tapered so that it can withstand heavy loads over it. Since the girder
looks like letter I, it is called as I-Shaped girder.

5. Define yield point.

If the external stress applied is very large, then the body will lose its elastic property,
even after the removal of the stress. The point at which the body loses its elasticity is
called yield point.

6. Define Co-efficient of thermal conductivity.

The Co-efficient of thermal conductivity is defined as the amount of heat conducted
per second normally across the unit area of cross section, maintained at unit
temperature gradient.
𝐾 = 𝑄𝑥𝐴(𝜃1−𝜃2) / 𝑡𝑊𝑚−1𝐾 −1

7. Mention the properties of thermal insulating materials.

(i) The material should be fire proof.
(ii) It should have high volumetric specific heat.
(iii) It should have low thermal conductivity.
(iv) It should be a poor absorber of moisture.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

(v) It should withstand for any environmental conditions

8. What is a bimetallic strip?Give its applications.

Bimetallic strips are two thin metal strips with different co-efficient of thermal
expansion.
APPLICATIONS:
(i) Bimetallic strips are commonly used in water heaters as temperature
controller.
(ii) They are used as a switch to maintain the temperature of the liquid.
9. What is meant by thermal expansion in solids?
The expansion of metal, when subjected to heat is called thermal expansion.
10. What are the different modes of heat transfer?
(i) Conduction
(ii) Convection.
(iii) Radiation

PART B
1. Derive an expression for the torsionalcouple per unit angular twistwhen a
cylinder is twisted.
Let us consider a cylindrical wire of length ‘L’ and radius ‘r’ fixed at one end. It
is twisted through an angle θ by applying couple to its lower end. Now, the wire is
said to be under torsion.

Due to elastic property of the wire, an internal restoring couple is set up inside the
wire. It is equal and opposite to the external twisting couple (applied). The wire is
imagined to consist of a large number of thin hollow coaxial cylinders whose radii

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

varies from 0 to r.

Let us consider one such cylinder of radius x and thickness dx.

Due to twisting torque, the line AB which is initially parallel to the axis OO’ of
the cylinder is displaced to a position AB’ through an angle φ as shown in fig
1.11. The result of twisting the cylinder leads to shearing strain.

Shearing strain or Angle of shear = < BAB’ = φ

BB’ = xθ =Lφ
𝑥𝜃
(or) φ = -------- (1)
𝐿

Rigidity modulus η = Shearing stress / Angle of shear ( φ )

Shearing stress = η φ ----------(2)

Substituting (1) in (2) ,

𝜂𝑥𝜃
Shearing stress = ------- (3)
𝐿

We know shearing stress = shearing force / Area

Shearing Force = Shearing Stress X Area on which the shearing force is acting
𝜂𝑥𝜃
i.e. F = 2 π x dx -----------( 4)
𝐿

Moment of the force about the OO’ axis

of the cylinder = Shearing force X Distance
𝜂𝑥𝜃
= 2 π x dx X x
𝐿

2𝜋𝜂𝜃
= x3 dx ------------------- (5)
𝐿

Twisting Couple of the whole wire can be derived by integrating equation (5) within the
limits 0 to r since the radii varies from 0 to r.

𝑟 2𝜋𝜂𝜃
Twisting Couple on the wire C = ∫0 x3 dx
𝐿

2𝜋𝜂𝜃 𝑟 4
C = 𝐿 4

𝜋𝜂𝜃𝑟 4
C = 2𝐿

If twist θ is unity θ = 1 radian, then we can write

𝜂𝜋𝑟 4
Torque per unit twist, C = 2𝐿

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2. Derive an expression for internal bending moment of a beam in terms of radius

of curvature.

Let us consider a beam under the action of deforming forces. The beam bends into a
circular arc as shown in the figure. Let AB be the neutral axis of the beam. Here the
filaments above AB are elongated and the filaments below AB are compressed. The
filament AB remains unchanged.

Let PQ be the chosen from the neutral axis. If R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis
and θ is the angle subtended by it at its centre of curvature ’C’

Then we can write original length

PQ = Rθ ……………………………………………… 1

Let us consider a filament P’Q’ at a distance ‘X’ from the neutral axis.

We can write extended length

P’Q’=(R+x) θ …………………………………………2

From equations 1 and 2 we have,

Increase in length=P’Q’-PQ

On increase in its length = (R+x)θ-Rθ

Increase in length = xθ …………………………………….3

We know linear strain=increase in length\original length

Linear strain = xθ/Rθ = x/R ………………………………4

We know, the young’s modulus of the material

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Y = stress / linear strain

Or
Stress = y*linear strain …………………….5

Substituting 4 in 5, we have
Stress = Yx/ R

If δA is the area of cross section of the filament P’Q’, then,

The tensile force on the area δA = stress * Area
ie., Tensile force = (Yx/R ).δA

We know the moment of force = force * Perpendicular distance

𝑌𝑥 𝑌
Moment of the tensile force about the neutral axis AB or PQ = . 𝛿𝐴 . 𝑥 = . 𝛿𝐴 . 𝑥 2
𝑅 𝑅

The moment of force acting on both the upper and lower halves of the neutral axis can be
got by summing all the moments of tensile and compressive forces about the neutral axis

SPECIAL CASES

a) Rectangular Cross section

If ‘b’ is the breadth and ‘d’ is the thickness of the beam, them

b) Circular Cross Section

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3. What is torsional pendulum. Explain how it is used to determine the rigidity

modulus of the material of a thin wire.

Principle: When a disc is rotated in a horizontal plane, the disc executes simple harmonic
motion due to the restoring couple produced in the wire.
Description : A torsion pendulum consists of a wire with one end fixed to a split chuck and
the other end fixed to the centre of the circular disc of radius R as shown in figure. Let ‘ L’
be the distance between the chuck end to the disc and ‘r’ be the radius of the suspended wire.
Working : The circular disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so that the wireis twistedthrough
an angle ‘θ’. The various elements of the wire will undergo shearing strain and a restoring
couple is produced. Now if the disc isreleased, the disc will produce torsion oscillations.

The couple acting on the disc produces an angular acceleration in it which is proportional to
the angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean position.
Therefore, from the laws of conservation of energy the total energy of the system is
conserved.

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Total energy of the torsional pendulum = Potential energy ( P.E)

+ Kinetic energy (K.E) --------------- (1)
The potential energy confined to the wire is equal to the work done in twisting the disc,
therby creating a restoring couple ( C )

Restoring Couple (P.E) through an angle θ =  Moment of the couple X d
0


P.E =  C . d
0

C 2
= ----------------------------- (2)
2
Let ω be the angular velocity with which the disc oscillates, due to the restoring couple , then
1 2
The Kinetic energy confined to the rotating disc (Deflecting Couple) = I ---(3)
2
Here I is the moment of Inertia of the Circular disc

C 2 I 2
Total energy T =  = Constant ------------- (4)
2 2
Differentiating equation (4) with respect to time ‘t’ we get,

d d
C +I =0
dt dt

d d d 2 
Since the angular velocity   and the angular acceleration 
dt dt dt 2

d d d 2
We can write C I  0
dt dt dt 2

d  d 2 
C  I  0
dt  dt 2 

d d 2
Here  0  C  I 0
dt dt 2

d 2 C
Angular acceleration 2
 ------------------------------------(5)
dt I
The negative sign indicates that the couple tends to decrease the twist on the wire.
Period of oscillation :

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displacement
We know that the time period of oscillation T = 2 π
acceleration


Substituting from equn (5) we have T = 2 π
C
I

I
Time period of torsion oscillation T = 2 π --------------(6)
C
Rigidity modulus of the wire
If ‘r’ is the radius of the wire and ‘ L ‘ is the length of the wire suspended, then we know

 r 4
Torque per unit twist C = -------- (7)
2L

Substitute (7) in (6), we get

I 2L
T=2π
 r4

4 2 2 L I
T2 =
 r 4

8 I L
Rigidity modulus of the wire η = N m-2
T 2 r4

4. Derive an expression for the elevation produced when the beam is loaded at both
the ends. (uniform bending)
Let us consider a beam of negligible mass, supported symmetrically on the
two knife edges A and B as shown. Let the length between A and B is’l’. Let equal
weights W; be added to either end of the beam C and D.

Let CA=BD

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Due to load applied the beam bends from position F and e into an arc of a circle and
produces as elevation ‘x’ from position F and E. Let ‘W’ be the reaction produced at the
points A and B acts vertically upwards as shown in figure.

Consider a point ‘P’ on the cross section of the beam. Then the forces acting on the part PC
of the beam are

a) Force W at ‘C’ and

b) Reaction W at A as shown in the figure

Here the clockwise moment is taken as negative and anticlockwise moment is taken as
positive.
External bending moment about P can be written as

External bending moment = Internal bending moment

We can write Equation 1 = Equation 2

Since for a given load (W) Y, Ig and R are constant the bending is called Bending. Here it
is found that the elevation ‘x’ forms an arc of the circle of radius ‘R’, as shown in the
figure.

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EF X FG = CE X ED
EF [ 2R –EF] = ( CE ) 2
x (2R – x) = (l / 2) 2
2Rx - x2 = l2 / 4 ----------------- (4)

Since x is small, neglecting x2

2Rx = l2 / 4
x = l2 / 8R
R = l2 / 8x --------------- (5)

5. How will you determine the thermal conductivity of a poor conductor using
Lee’s disc method?
DESCRIPTION:
The given bad conductor (B) is shaped with the diameter as that of the
circular slab (or) disc 'D'. The bad conductor is placed in between the steam chamber
(S) and the disc (or) slab (D) in which thermometer is inserted to measure the
temperatures. The total arrangement is hanged over the stand as shown in fig.
WORKING:

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Steam is passed through the steam chamber till the steady state is reached (i.e.) the
thermometer show constant temperature.
Let the temperature of the steam chamber (hot end) and the disc or slab (cold end) be

1 and 2 respectively. The radius r of the Disc D and its thickness are also noted.

Thickness of the bad conductor = x meter

Radius of the bad conductor = r meter
Mass of the disc = m Kg
Steady state temperature of the slab = 𝜃1
Steady state temperature in the steam chamber = 𝜃2
Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor = K
𝐾𝐴(𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
Amount of heat conducted by the bad conductor per second = 𝑥
2
Since the Area of cross section = 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟
𝐾𝜋𝑟 2 (𝜃1 −𝜃2 )
Amount of heat conducted per second = -------> (1)
𝑥
Amount of heat lost by the slab per second = m x s x Rate of cool = msR c-------->(2)

Amount of heat conducted per second = Amount of heat lost by the slab per second

𝐾𝜋𝑟 2 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )
= 𝑚𝑠𝑅𝑐
𝑥
msxR
𝐾 = 2(𝜃 c ) -------->(3)
𝜋𝑟 1 −𝜃2

TO FIND THE RATE OF COOLING

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The bad conductor is removed and the steam chamber is directly placed over the slab
and heated. When the temperature of the slab attains 5 °C higher than𝜃2 , the steam
chamber is removed and the slab is allowed to cool.
A graph is plotted by taking time along X-axis and temperature along Y-axis.

𝑑𝜃
The rate of cooling of the slab alone = 𝑑𝑡
CASE (I):
The steam chamber and the bad conductor are placed over the slab, in which the
radiation takes place from the bottom surface of area of the slab 𝜋𝑟 2 and the sides of
the slab area.(2πrh).
𝑅𝑐 = 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 2ℎ) --------------- ˃ (4)
CASE (II):
The heat is radiated by the slab alone i.e. from the bottom and the top surface of the
slab and through the sides of the slab.

𝑑𝜃
( 𝑑𝑡 ) = 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ) ------------- ˃ (5)
𝜃2

From eqn. (4) and (5)

𝑅𝑐 𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + 2ℎ)
𝑑𝜃
=
( 𝑑𝑡 ) 2𝜋𝑟(𝑟 + ℎ)
𝜃2

Substituting eqn. (6) in eqn.(3)

𝑑𝜃
𝑚𝑠𝑥 ( ) . (𝑟 + 2ℎ)
𝑑𝑡 𝜃2
𝐾=
𝜋𝑟 2 (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )2(𝑟 + ℎ)

Thus, the thermal conductivity of the bad conductor can be calculated using the above
formula.

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UNIT II
SEMICONDUCTING AND MAGNETIC MATERIALS

1. What are the properties of semiconductors?

(1) The resistivity lies between 10 -4 to 0.5 ohm metre.
(2) At 0 K, they behave as insulators.
(3) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases both due to the
temperature and impurities.
(4) They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
(5) In semiconductors both the electrons and holes are charge carriers and
will take part in conduction.
2. What are elemental and compound semiconductors?
Elemental semiconductors. : Semiconductor elements of fourth group, which are doped
with pentavalent or trivalent impurities, in order to get n-type or p-type semiconductors are
called elemental semiconductors.
Compound semiconductors : Semiconductors formed by combining fifth and third group or
sixth and second group elements are called compound semiconductors.
3. Define Ohmic Contact.
An ohmic contact is a non-rectifying contact which obeys ohm’s law. The resistance of
the ohmic contact should always be low. i.e., conductivity should be large.

4. Why do we prefer silicon for transistors and GaAs for laser diodes?
Si is an indirect band gap semiconductor for which the life time of the charge carriers
is more and the current amplification is also very high, hence it is preferable for using it in
transistors. GaAs is a direct band gap semiconductor in which electrons and holes recombines
directly to produce photons and hence used in laser diodes.
5. What is meant by doping and doping level?
The process of adding impurities like Ga, In, P, As etc. to a pure or intrinsic
semiconductor is called doping.The maximum extent upto which the impurity can be added is
called doping level.
6. Define Bohr magneton.

The orbital and spin magnetic moment of an electron in atom can be expressed in terms of
atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton.
1 Bohr magneton = eh/2m = μB = 9.27 x 10-24 Am2.
7. What is meant by Curie-Weiss law? Give its importance.

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C
It is given by  
T 
C – Curie constant, T – Absolute temperature, θ – Curie temperature.
Importance : It predicts the susceptibility of magnetic materials in terms of
temperature.
8. What is meant by hysteresis and hysteresis loop?
The lagging of I and B behind H is called hysteresis.
A loop obtained when a material is taken through a cycle of magnetization is
called hysteresis loop.
9. Define retentivity and coercivity with its unit.
Retentivity : It is the residual magnetism of the specimen when the external magnetic field is
cut off.Its unit is Wbm-2
Coercivity : It is the strength of reverse magnetic field applied to remove residual
magnetism.Its unit is Ampere turn/ metre.
10. What is magnetic storage device? Give examples.
Ferro and ferri magnetic materials which are used to store the data in form of
zero and ones are are called magnetic storage devices.Eg..Floppy disk, magnetic tapes,etc.,
11. What is Curie temperature?
It is the temperature below which a material can behave as ferromagnetic
material and above it can behave as para magnetic material.
PART B

1. Derive an expression for Carrier Concentration in intrinsic Semiconductor

Carrier Concentration : Number of charge carriers per unit volume

a) Density of electrons in conduction band (ne):

𝐸=𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑒 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸. 𝐹(𝐸) ----- (1)

limits for conduction band ---- Ec to 


𝑛𝑒 = ∫𝐸𝑐 𝑍 (𝐸 )𝑑𝐸. 𝐹(𝐸) ----- (2)

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Density of states for an energy interval E and E+dE, the electron behaves as a free
particle, the mass is replaced by effective mass 𝑚𝑒∗

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𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ ⁄2 1⁄
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( ) 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 ----- (3)
2 ℎ2

Energy for an electron in conduction band becomes E = E-EC.

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𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ ⁄2 1⁄
𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( ) (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐) 2 𝑑𝐸 ----- (4)
2 ℎ2

W.K.T.
1
𝐹 (𝐸 ) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 ------------- (5)
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

At room temperature, the valence electron absorbs heat energy in the order of KBT
and goes to the conduction band by forming a free electron.

𝐸 − 𝐸𝐹 ≫ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≫1
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
Denominator of F(E) is 1 +𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
Since 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≫ 1 The term 'l' in the denominator is neglected.

1
∴ 𝐹 (𝐸 ) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝐹−𝐸
∴ 𝐹 (𝐸 ) = 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ----- (6)
∞ 3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 2
1
𝐸−𝐸
𝐹
𝑛𝑒 = ∫ ( 2 ) (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 𝑑𝐸. 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 ℎ
𝐸𝑐

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3⁄ ∞
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 2 1⁄ 𝐹 𝐸−𝐸
= ( 2 ) ∫ (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 2 𝑑𝐸. 𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇
2 ℎ
𝐸𝐶

By assumption let,

𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇 E=𝐸𝑐 , 𝐸𝑐 -𝐸𝑐 = 𝑥𝐾𝐵 T, x=0

𝐸 = 𝐸𝑐 + 𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇

dE = dx 𝐾𝐵 T E = ,  -𝐸𝑐 = 𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇, x = 

3⁄ ∞
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 2
1⁄
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝑥𝐾𝐵𝑇
𝑛𝑒 = ( 2 ) ∫ (𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇) 2 𝑑𝑥 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 ℎ
0

3⁄ ∞
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 2
3⁄ 1⁄
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 −𝑥𝐾𝐵𝑇
𝑛𝑒 = ( 2 ) (𝐾𝐵 𝑇) 2∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 ℎ
0

3⁄ ∞
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐
1⁄
𝑛𝑒 = ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ∫𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ℎ2
0

3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
√𝜋
𝑛𝑒 = ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 .
2 ℎ2 2
3⁄
1 8𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐
𝑛𝑒 = ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
4 ℎ2
3⁄
8 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐
𝑛𝑒 = ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
4 ℎ2
3⁄
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

b) Density of holes in the valence band (nh):

Probability of holes = 1 - Probability of electron

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

= 1- F(E)

Density of holes in the valence band (nh)

𝐸𝑣

𝑛ℎ = ∫ 𝑧(𝐸) . 𝑑𝐸. (1 − 𝐹(𝐸))

−∞

𝑍(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 - hole

free particle 𝑚ℎ∗

Density of states for an energy interval E & E+ dE, the electron behaves as a free
particle, the mass is replaced by effective mass 𝑚ℎ∗

3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 2
1⁄
𝑧(𝐸 )𝑑𝐸 = ( 2 ) 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ

E = EV - E
3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 2
1⁄
( )
∴ 𝑍 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = ( 2 ) (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 ) 2 . 𝑑𝐸
2 ℎ

1
1 − 𝐹 (𝐸 ) = 1 − 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1
= 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
= 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

At room temperature

E-𝐸𝐹 <<KBT

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≪1
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
 Denominator of 1-F(E) is 1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸−𝐸𝐹 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
exponential term is𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 is neglected(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≪ 1)

Denominator of 1-F(E) = 1
𝐸−𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸−𝐸𝐹
∴ 1 − 𝐹 (𝐸 ) = = 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
1
𝐸𝑣 3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 2
1⁄
𝐸−𝐸 𝐹
𝑛ℎ = ∫ ( 2 ) (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 ) 2 . 𝑑𝐸. 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
2 ℎ
−∞

3⁄ 𝐸𝑣
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 2
1⁄
𝐸−𝐸
𝐹
= ( 2 ) ∫ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸 ) 2 . 𝑑𝐸. 𝑒 𝐾𝐵𝑇
2 ℎ
−∞

𝐸𝑣 -E = x𝐾𝐵 T E=-; 𝐸𝑣 + = 𝑥𝐾𝐵 T x=

E = 𝐸𝑣 - 𝑥𝐾𝐵 T E=𝐸𝑣 ; 𝐸𝑣 -𝐸𝑣 = x𝐾𝐵 T x=0

dE = - 𝑑𝑥𝐾𝐵 T

3⁄ 0
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 2
1⁄
𝐸 −𝑥𝐾 𝑇−𝐸
( 𝑣 𝐾 𝐵𝑇 𝐹 )
𝑛ℎ = ( 2 ) ∫(𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇) 2 − 𝑑𝑥𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑒 𝐵
2 ℎ
∞

3⁄ 0
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
1⁄
𝑛ℎ = ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ∫𝑥 2 − 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑥
2 ℎ2
∞

 to neglect '-' sign change limit.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

3⁄ 
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
1⁄
𝑛ℎ = ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ∫𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 ℎ2
0

3⁄
𝜋 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
√𝜋
𝑛ℎ = ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 .
2 ℎ2 2
3⁄
1 8𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
4 ℎ2
3⁄
8 2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
4 ℎ2
3⁄
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
𝑛ℎ = 2 ( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni):

Law of mass action:

It states that for a given semiconducting material either extrinsic or intrinsic the
product of charge carrier concentration remains constant even if the doping is varying.

𝑛𝑒 . 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

3⁄ 3⁄
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝐶
2𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 . 2( ) 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖2
ℎ2 ℎ2

3⁄ 2
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
3⁄
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 +𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝐹
4 (( ) ) (𝑚𝑒∗ . 𝑚ℎ∗ ) 2. 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖2
ℎ2

2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3 ∗ ∗ 3⁄ 𝐸2𝐾 𝑣 −𝐸𝑐

4( ) (𝑚 . 𝑚 ) 2 𝑒 𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑛2
𝑒 ℎ 𝑖
ℎ2

Taking square root on both sides

3⁄
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
3⁄
𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑐
2( ) (𝑚𝑒∗ . 𝑚ℎ∗ ) 4. 𝑒 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖
ℎ2
3⁄
2𝜋𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
3⁄
−𝐸𝑔
2( ) (𝑚𝑒∗ . 𝑚ℎ∗ ) 4 . 𝑒 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑛𝑖
ℎ2

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

2. Derive an expression for Carrier Concentration in N-type Semiconductor

Let Nd be the donor concentration (donor atom / volume)

Ed be donor energy level

Number of electron in conduction band in intrinsic semiconductor

3⁄
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹−𝐸𝑐
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

If EF lies more than a few KBT, above Ed then,

Density of positively ionised donor atoms =

Density of donor atoms x Probability function for an electron absence in donor

energy level

𝑁𝑑+ = 𝑁𝑑 × (1 − 𝑓(Ed )) ---- (1)

1
𝐹 (Ed ) = Ed −𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

1
1 − 𝐹 (Ed ) = 1 − Ed −𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Ed −𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 −1
= Ed −𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Ed −𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
=> 1 − 𝐹(Ed ) = Ed −𝐸𝐹
1+𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Since Ed <𝐸𝐹 ,Ed - 𝐸𝐹 = '-'ve

Ed −𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≪1

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Exponential term is neglected

Ed −𝐸𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
1 − 𝐹 (Ed ) =
1

Ed −𝐸𝐹
1 − 𝐹 (Ed ) = 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 -----(2)
Ed −𝐸𝐹
𝑁𝑑+ = 𝑁𝑑 × 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

At room temperature, if one free electron is produced in the conduction band then one
positive ion in the donor atom will be present in donor energy level.

𝑛𝑒 = 𝑁𝑑+

3⁄
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐 Ed −𝐸𝐹
2( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑁𝑑 × 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ2

Taking log on both sides

3⁄
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 Ed − 𝐸𝐹
log (2 ( ) )+ = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑁𝑑 +
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

3⁄
𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 − Ed + 𝐸𝐹 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
= log 𝑁𝑑 − log (2 ( ) )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ℎ2

2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑐 − Ed 𝑁𝑑
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2( )
ℎ2

2𝐸𝐹 − (𝐸𝑐 + Ed ) 𝑁𝑑
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2( )
ℎ2

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

2𝐸𝐹 𝐸𝑐 + Ed 𝑁𝑑
= + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2( )
ℎ2

𝐸𝑐 + Ed 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )
2 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2( )
ℎ2

𝐴𝑡 𝑇 = 0,

𝐸𝑐 + Ed
𝐸𝐹 =
2

at Ok, the fermi energy level lies exactly lies in between the conduction band and
the donor energy level.

W.K.T
3⁄ 𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑐
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) .𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ----- (1 )
ℎ2

𝐸𝑐 +Ed 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝐸𝐹 = + + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3
∗ 𝐾 𝑇 ⁄2
)----- (2)
2 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐵 )
2( 2
ℎ

Substitute (2) in (1)

𝐸𝑐 +Ed 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ ) − 𝐸𝑐
3 2 2 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ⁄2 2(
ℎ 2 )
𝑛𝑒 = 2( ) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

[ ]

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

𝐸𝑑 −Ec 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
+ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )
3 2 2 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗𝐾 𝑇 2
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ⁄2 2(
ℎ2
𝐵 )

𝑛𝑒 = 2( ) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

[ ]

3⁄
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑑 − Ec 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑑
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )]
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2( )
ℎ2

3⁄ 1
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑑 − Ec 𝑁𝑑 (2)
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 1
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1 3⁄ (2)
(2) 2𝜋𝑚∗𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
2 [( ) ]
[ ( ℎ2 )]

3⁄ 1
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑑 − Ec 𝑁𝑑 (2)
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( 3⁄ )]
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1 ∗
(2) 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 4
2 ( 2
)
ℎ

3⁄ 1
2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑑 − Ec 𝑁𝑑 (2)
𝑛𝑒 = 2 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] [( 3⁄ )]
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1 ∗
(2) 2𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 4
2 ( )
ℎ2

3⁄
1
( ) 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 4 𝐸𝑑 − Ec
𝑛𝑒 = (2𝑁𝑑 ) 2 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇

ΔE = 𝐸𝑑 − Ec 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 energy of donors (i.e) ΔE represents the amount of

energy required to transfer an electron from donor energy level to conduction band.

Thus we can write

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

3⁄
1
(2 ) 2𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 4 −ΔE
𝑛𝑒 = (2𝑁𝑑 ) ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]
ℎ2 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇

From the above expression

𝑛𝑒 ∞ √𝑁𝑑

3. Derive an expression for Carrier Concentration in P-typeSemiconductor.

let Na be the acceptor concentration

Ea acceptor energy level

Density of holes in the valence band

2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2 𝐸𝑣𝐾−𝐸𝑇𝑓 −−−−(1)∗

𝑛ℎ = 2( ) 𝑒 𝐵
ℎ2

when T= OK, EF lies inbetween Ea and Ev. When the temperature is increased
valence electron absorbs heat energy and it moves to the acceptor level where the
acceptor atom after accepting the electron becomes negatively ionised.

Density of negatively Density of probability

ionsied acceptor = x
atoms (Na-) acceptor function for an
atoms(Na) electron present
in acceptor
energy level
(𝐹 (𝐸𝑎 ))
𝑁𝑎 − = 𝑁𝑎 × 𝐹 (𝐸𝑎 ) − − − −(2)

1
𝑓(𝐸𝑎 ) = 𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑓

1+ 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑓
′ ′
𝐸𝑎 > 𝐸𝐹 , 𝐸𝑎 − 𝐸𝐹 = + 𝑉𝑒 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≫1
𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑓

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓 (𝐸𝑎) = 1 + 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑓
≫1
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

1 is neglected
1
𝑓(𝐸𝑎 ) = 𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑓

𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑎
−−−−−(3).
𝑓(𝐸𝑎 ) = 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 (2)𝑖𝑛 (1)

𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑎
−
𝑁𝑎 = 𝑁𝑎 × 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − − − − − − − (4)

At room temperature, if one hole is produced in the valence band then one negatively
ionised acceptor atom will be present in the acceptor energy level.

𝑛ℎ = 𝑁𝑎 −

2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2 𝐸𝐾𝑣−𝐸𝑇𝑓 𝐸𝑓 −𝐸𝑎

2( 2
) 𝑒 𝐵 = 𝑁𝑎 × 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
ℎ

𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑓 +𝐸𝑎 −𝐸𝑓

𝑁𝑎
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 =
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2
2( )
ℎ2

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎 −2𝐸𝑓
𝑁𝑎
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 =
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2
2( )
ℎ2

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Taking log on both sides:

(𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 ) − 2𝐸𝐹 𝑁𝑎
= log ( )
𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2
(2 ( ) )
ℎ2

𝑁𝑎
(𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 ) − 2𝐸𝐹 = 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log ( )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2
(2 ( ) )
ℎ2

𝑁𝑎
2𝐸𝐹 = (𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑎 ) − 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 log ( )
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/2
(2 ( ) )
ℎ2

(𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎) 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = − log ( 3/2 )-------------(5)
2 2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵𝑇
(2( ) )
ℎ2

At T=OK

𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎
𝐸𝐹 = ------------(6)
2

At 0 k, the fermi energy level lies exactly in between the valence band and the
acceptor energy level.

Expression for Density of Holes in terms of 𝑵𝒂 :

Substituting (5) in (1)

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

(𝐸𝑣 +𝐸𝑎) 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑎
𝐸𝑣 − − log 3
2 2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
3 (2( ) )
ℎ2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 [ ( )]
𝑛ℎ = 2( ) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

{ }

(2𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑣 −𝐸𝑎 ) 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝑁𝑎

− log 3
2 2 2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2
3 (2( ) )
ℎ2
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 [ ( )]
𝑛ℎ = 2( ) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝
ℎ2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇

{ }

3 1
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑎 𝑁𝑎 (2)
𝑛ℎ = 2 ( 2
) . 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 log 3
ℎ 2𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 4
(2(2) ( ))
[ ℎ2
( )]

3 1
2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 2 [𝐸2𝐾
𝑣 −𝐸𝑎
] 𝑁𝑎 (2)
𝑛ℎ = 2( 2
) . 𝑒 𝐵𝑇 3
ℎ 1
( ) 2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 4
(2 2 ( ))
ℎ2
( )

2𝜋𝑚ℎ ∗ 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 3/4 [𝐸2𝐾

𝑣 −𝐸𝑎
]
𝑛ℎ = (2𝑁𝑎 )1/2 ( 2
) 𝑒 𝐵𝑇
ℎ

𝑛ℎ ∞ √𝑁𝑎 .

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

4. Explain domain theory and the energies involved in the formation of domain
structure in a ferro magnetic material.

This theory was proposed by Weiss in 1907. It explains the hysteresis and the properties of
ferromagnetic materials.
MagneticDomains
Aferromagneticmaterialisdividedintoalargenumberofsmallregioniscalleddomains.(0.1to1of
area),eachdirectionisspontaneouslymagnetized.Thedirectionofmagnetizationvariesfromdomainto
domainandthenetmagnetizationiszero,intheabsenceexternalmagneticfield.Theboundarylinewhich
separatestwodomainsis called domain wall or Block wall. When the magnetic field is applied to
theFerromagneticmaterial,themagnetizationisproducedbytwoways.
1. By the motion of domain walls.
2. By the rotation of domains.
ProcessofDomainmagnetization
Therearetwowaystoalignarandomdomainstructurebyapplyinganexternalmagneticfield.
1. Bythe motionofDomainwalls
Whenasmallamountofmagneticfieldisapplied,thedomainshavingdipolesparalleltotheapplie
dmagneticfieldincreasesinareabythemotionofdomainwalls.(Fig.(2)).
2. BytherotationofDomains
Iftheappliedmagneticfieldisfurtherincreased,thedomainsarerotatedparalleltothefielddirectio
nbytherotationofdomains.(fig.(3)).

Wecanunderstandtheoriginofdomainsfromthethermodynamicprinciplei.e.,inequilibrium,theto
talenergyofthesystemisminimum.
Thetotalinternalenergyofthedomainstructureinaferromagneticmaterialismadeupfromthefollo
wingcontributions.
1. Exchange energy (or) Magnetic field energy.
2. Crystalline energy (or) Anisotropy energy.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

3. Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy.

4. Magnetostriction energy
1. Exchange energy(or)Magnetic Field energy
“The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves” is the called
exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy.

The interaction energy makes the adjacent dipoles align themselves.

It arisesfrom interaction of electron spins.
It depends upon the inter atomic distance.
Theeenergyrequiredinassembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this work

done is stored as potentialenergy.

2. Anisotropy energy
The excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in particular direction over that
required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called the crystalline anisotropy energy.
In ferromagnetic materials there are two types of directions of magnetization namely,
a) Easy direction and
b) hard directions.
In easy direction of magnetization, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of magnetization,
strong field should be applied.

Crystalline anisotropy energy is energy of magnetization which is the function of crystal orientation.

As shown in figure magnetization curves for iron with the applied field along different
crystallographic direction crystallographic directions have been drawn. For example, in BCC iron the
easy direction is [100], the medium direction is [110], and the hard direction [111]. The energy
difference between hard and easy direction to magnetize the material is about. This energy is very
important in determining the characteristic domain boundaries

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

3. Domain wall energy or Bloch wall energy

Athinboundaryorregionthatseparatesadjacentdomainsmagnetizedindifferentdirectionsiscalled
domainwallorBlochwall.

In going from one domain to another domain, the electron spin changes gradually as shown in figure

4. Magnetostriction energy
When a material is magnetized, it is found that it suffers a change in dimensions. This phenomenon is
knownas Magnetostriction.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT III
MODERN OPTICS

1. Define population inversion and meta stable state.

 The state of achieving more number of atoms in the higher energy level than
that of lower energy level is called population inversion.
 Metastable state is the state which lies between the excited state and ground
state.
2. What are the conditions for laser action?
a) Population inversion must be achieved.
b) Stimulated emission should predominant over spontaneous emission.
3. Can a two level system be used for the population of laser? Why?
No, because for population inversion to be achieved, at least three levels are required.
4. Name the properties of laser which are making it suitable for industrial applications.
i) High penetrating power iii) Not absorbed by water
ii) Highly intense iv) Highly directional.
5. What are the characteristics of laser? (June 2011)
 Directionality
 Intensity
 Monochromatic
 Coherence
6. What are the conditions for total internal reflection?
(i) Light should travel from denser to rarer medium
(ii) Angle of incidence should be greater than critical angle, Φ i>Φc
(iii) Refractive index of core should be greater than refractive index of cladding,
n1> n2
7. Define attenuation in optical fibre and mention its unit.
Attenuation is the ratio of optical power output from a fiber of length ‘L’ to
power input.
−𝟏𝟎 𝑷(𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕)
𝜶= 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒅𝑩/𝑲𝒎
𝑳 𝑷(𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕)

8. Write four major advantages of fiber optic communication over other

communication systems.
(i) It is possible without electricity.
(ii) Not affected by lightening
(iii) Suitable to any environment
(iv) Easy maintenance, long life & economical.
9. What is dispersion in optical fiber.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

When an optical signal is sent into the fiber, the pulse spreads / broadens as it
propagates through the fiber.

10. Calculate the total number of guided modes propagating in the multimode step
index fiber having a diameter of 60 m and NA of 0.25 operating at a wavelength of
2.7 m

The no. of modes for a step index fiber

2
 d  NA 
4.9 
N=   
 60 106  0.25 
 6

= 4.9  2.7  10 

= 151.23

N step = 151 modes.

PART B

1. For atomic transitions, derive Einstein relations and hence deduce the expressions
for the ratio of spontaneous emission rate to the stimulated emission rate.

Let us consider an atom that has only two energy levels E 1 and E2. When the
atom is exposed to (light) photons of energy E 2 – E1 = hυ.

Three distinct processes takes place.

 Stimulated Absorption
 Spontaneous emission
 Stimulated emission
Stimulated Absorption:
An atom in the ground state with energy E 1absorbs a photon of energy
hυ and goes to the excited state (Higher state) with energy E 2 as shown in fig.
This process is called Stimulated Absorption.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

The rate of absorption (N12) is proportional to the following.

(i.e) N12 α Energy density of incident radiation (Q)

α No of atoms in the ground state (N1)

N12 α Q N1

(Or) N12 = B12 Q N1 ---------- (1)

Where B12 is a constant which gives the probability of absorption transition per unit time.

Spontaneous emission:
The atoms in the excited state returns to the ground state by emitting a photon of energy E =
(E2 - E1) = hυ, spontaneously without any external triggering as shown in fig. This process is
known as Spontaneous emission.

The rate of spontaneous emission is

N21 (SP) α N2
N21 (SP) = A21 N2 ---------- (2)

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Where A21 is a constant which gives the probability of spontaneous emission transitions
per unit time.

Stimulated emission:
The excited state can also return to the ground state by external triggering (or)
inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon of energy equal to the energy of the
incident photon, known as stimulated emission. Thus results in two photons of same
energy, phase difference and of same directionality as shown in Fig.

The rate of stimulated emission is given by

N21 (ST) α Q N2

N21 (ST) = B21Q N2 ----------- (3)

where B21 is a constant which gives the probability of stimulated emission transitions per unit
time.

EINSTEIN’S THEORY:
Einstein’s theory of absorption and emission of light by an atom is based on Planck’s theory
of radiation. Also under thermal equilibrium, the populations of energy levels obey the

Boltzmann’s distribution law,

(i.e.) under thermal equilibrium,

The rate of absorption = the rate of emission

(i.e.) Eqn. (1) = Eqn. (2) + Eqn. (3)

B12Q N1 = A21 N2 + B21Q N2

Q[B12N1- B21N2] = A21 N2

𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑄=
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

𝐴21 𝑁2 /𝐵21 𝑁2
𝑄=
𝐵12 𝑁1 /𝐵21 𝑁2 − 𝐵21 𝑁2 /𝐵21 𝑁2

𝐴21 1
𝑄=
𝐵21 ( 12 ) 𝑁1 − 1
𝐵
𝐵21 𝑁2
𝑁1 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇
On substituting 𝑁 = 𝑒 (from Boltzmann distribution equation)
2

𝐴21 1
𝑄= 𝐵
𝐵21 ( 12 ) 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇 − 1
𝐵21
We know that Planck’s black body radiation formula for energy distribution
is
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝑄= 3 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇
𝑐 𝑒 −1
Comparing the above two equations, we get
𝐵12
=1
𝐵21
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3
=
𝐵21 𝑐3

Taking A21 = A and B12 = B21 = B

The constants A and B are called as Einstein’s coefficients.

2. Describe the principle, construction and working of Homojunction and

Heterojunction Semiconductor Diode laser

HOMOJUNCTION SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

Type : It is a homojunction semiconductor laser

Active medium : PN junction diode.
Pumping method : Direct conversion method

Power output : The power output of laser beam is 10mW

Nature of the Output : Pulsed or Continuous wave form

Wavelength of the output : Nearly 8400 A0 - 8600 A0

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Definition:
It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light
when it is forward biased.

Principle:
When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and
the holes from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other.

During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released

from a certain specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light
radiation is known as recombination radiation.
The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes
to recombine. As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.

Construction:
Figure shows the basic construction of semiconductor laser. The active
medium is a p-n junction diode made from the single crystal of gallium arsenide. This
crystal is cut in the form of a platter having thickness of 0.5μmm.

The platelet consists of two parts having an electron conductivity (n-type) and hole
conductivity (p-type).

The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN junction (in order of few
microns). The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal through the electrode fixed on the
upper surface.
The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each other. They act as
an optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Working:
Figure shows the energy level diagram of semiconductor laser.

When the PN junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the electrons and holes
are injected into junction region in considerable concentration
The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the conduction band
and a large amount of holes in the valence band.

If the population density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved. The

electrons and holes recombine with each other and this recombination’s produce radiation in
the form of light.
When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted
and the light production instantly becomes stronger. These photons will trigger a chain of
stimulated recombination resulting in the release of photons in phase.
The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection between
two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength.

After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength 8400o A . The
wavelength of laser light is given by

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Advantages:

1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.

2. It exhibits high efficiency.

Disadvantages:

1. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of laser.

2. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large
divergence.

HETEROJUNCTION SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

Type : It is a heterojunction semiconductor laser

Active medium : PN junctions made from different layers.
Pumping method : Direct conversion method
Power output : The power output of laser beam is 1 mW
Nature of the Output : Continuous wave form
Wavelength of the output : Nearly 8000 A0

A pn junction made up of the different materials in two regions ie., n type and p type is
known as heterojunction.
Principle:
When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from the n region and holes
from the p region recombine with each other at the junction. During recombination
process, light is released from certain specified direct band gap semiconductors.

Construction:
This laser consists of five layers as shown in the figure.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

A layer of Ga-As p – type (3rd layer) will act as the active region. This layer is sand
witched between two layers having wider band gap viz GaAlAs-p – type (2nd layer)
and GaAlAs-n-type (4th layer).

The end faces of the junctions of 3rd and 4th layer are well polished and parallel to each
other. They act as an optical resonator.
Working:
When the PN junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected
into the junction region. The region around the junction contains large amount of
electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band.

Thus the population inversion is achieved. At this stage, some of the injected charge
carriers recombines and produce radiation in the form of light.

When the forward biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted
and the light intensity is more. These photons can trigger a chain of stimulated
recombination’s resulting in the release of photons in phase.

The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection
between two sides and grow its strength. A coherent beam of laser having wavelength
nearly 8000 Å emerge out from the junction region.
Advantages:

1. It produces continuous wave output.

2. The power output is very high.

Disadvantages:

1. It is very difficult to grow different layers of PN junction.

2. The cost is very high.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

3. Derive an expression for numerical aperture and angle of acceptance of fibre in

terms of refractive index of the core and cladding of the fibre.

Let us consider an optical fiber into which the light is injected. The light
ray travels along
AO and enter into the core at an angle θo to the axis of the fiber.

If θ is greater than the critical angle at the core cladding interface, the light
ray get total internally reflected and propagates through the fiber i.e., the light will
stay inside the fiber.

The light ray is refracted along OB at an angle θr in the core. It further

proceeds to fall at critical angle of incidence θ = (90- θr) on the interface between core
and cladding at B.

CONDITION FOR PROPAGATION:

n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and cladding, no is the refractive index
of the surrounding.
Now applying Snell’s law of refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO into the
core, we have,

𝑛𝑜 sin 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝑟 -------(1)

𝑛1
sin 𝜃𝑜 = sin 𝜃𝑟
𝑛𝑜
𝑛
sin 𝜃𝑜 = 𝑛1 √〖1−𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃𝑟 〗------(2)
𝑜

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

At point B on the interface of core and cladding, angle of incidence 𝜃𝑖 = 90 − 𝜃𝑟

bySnell’slaw,
𝑛1 sin( 𝜃𝑖 ) = 𝑛2 sin( 𝜃𝑟 )

𝑛1 sin( 90 − 𝜃𝑟 ) = 𝑛2 sin( 90)

𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑛2
𝑛2
cos 𝜃𝑟 =
𝑛1

Substituting the value ofcos 𝜃𝑟 in (2), we get,

𝑛1 𝑛22
sin 𝜃𝑜 = √1 − 2
𝑛𝑜 𝑛1

𝑛1 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝜃𝑜 = √
𝑛𝑜 𝑛12

𝑛1
sin 𝜃𝑜 = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝑛𝑜 𝑛1

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
sin 𝜃𝑜 =
𝑛𝑜

√𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜃𝑜 = sin−1
𝑛𝑜
For air no = 1,

𝜃𝑜 = sin−1 √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

𝜃𝑜 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.

Numerical aperture is sine of acceptance angle.

NA = sin 𝜃𝑜

𝑛12−𝑛22
NA = √ 𝑛𝑜

For air no = 1,

NA = √𝑛12 − 𝑛22

Acceptance angle: It is the maximum angle at or below which the light

suffers total internal reflection.
Numerical aperture: It is the sine of acceptance angle.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

4. Explain pressure-temperature sensor and displacement sensor .

They are two types of Fiber optic sensors.

 Intrinsic fiber optic sensors (Pressure - temperature sensor)

 Extrinsic Fiber optic sensors (displacement sensor).
Intrinsic Fiber optic sensors:
The quantity to be measured directly takes place on the fiber itself

Extrinsic sensors or Passive sensors:

The interaction between the light and quantity to be measured takes place
outside the fiber.

PRESSURE - TEMPERATURE SENSORS:

Principle:

It is based on the principle of Interference between the beams emerging out from the
reference fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring environment.

It consists of a laser source to emit light. A beam splitter, made of glass plate is
inclined to an angle of 45o with respect to the direction of the laser beam.

 Reference fiber which is isolated from the environment.

 Test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed.
WORKING:

 A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

 The beam splitter kept at 45o inclination divides the beam emerging from the
laser source into two beams (I) Main beam and (II) Splitted beam
 The main beam passes through the lens L1and is focused onto the reference
fiber which is isolated from the environment to be sensed. The beam after
passing through the reference fiber then falls on the lens L2.
 The splitted beam passes through the lens L3 and is focused onto the test fiber
kept in the environment to be sensed.
 The splitted beam after passing through the test fiber is made to fall on the
lens L2. The two beams after passing through the fibers, produces a path
difference due to the change in parameters such as pressure, temperature etc.,
in the environment.
 Therefore a path difference is produced between the two beams, causing the
interference as shown in fig.
 Thus the change in temperature can be accurately measured with the help of
the interference pattern obtained.

DISPLACEMENT SENSORS:

PRINCIPLE:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving
target. The reflected light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to
intensity of light reflected from it the displacement of the target is measured.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

It consists of a bundle of transmitting fiber coupled to the laser source

and a bundle of receiving fiber coupled to the detector.

WORKING:

 Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made
to fall on the moving target.
 The light reflected from the target is made to pass through the receiving fiber
and the same is detected by the detector.
 Based on the intensity of the light received, the displacement of the target can
be measured.
 If the received intensity is more, then we can say that the target is moving
towards the sensor and if the intensity is less, we can say that the target is
moving away from the sensor.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

UNIT IV

QUANTUM PHYSICS AND NANOSCIENCE

1. Mention the physical significance of wave function.

1) The probability of finding a particle in space at any given instant of time
characterized by a function ψ(x,y,z) called wave function.
2) It relates the particle and the wave statistically.
3) It gives the information about the particle behaviour.
4) It is a complex quantity.
5) /ψ/2 represents the probability density of the particle, which is real and
positive.
2. Calculate the de-broglie wavelength of an electron moving with velocity of 𝟏𝟎𝟕
m/s (June2010)
h
de Broglie wavelength, λ=
mv
6.625  10 34
= = 0.727 Ao
9.11  10 31  10 7
3. Define Black Body and Black body radiation?
A perfect black body is the one which absorbs and also emits the radiation
completely. Black body is said to be a perfect absorber, since it absorbs all the
wavelength of the incident radiation. The black body is a perfect radiator, because it
radiates all the wavelength absorbed by it. This phenomenon is called black body
radiation.

4. Why should the wave function of a particle be normalized?

The wave function of a particle is to be normalized in order to find the particle within the
given limit.
5. An electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 2kV. Calculate the
debroglie’s wavelength of matter wave associated with it.(June 2010)
h
de Broglie wavelength  
2mev

6.625  10 34
λ = = 0.2744 x 10-10m
31 19
2  9.11  10  1.6  10  2  10 3

λ = 0.2744 Ao
6. What is Rayleigh Jeans law of radiation.
It is defined as “The energy is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature and inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength”.
ie., E T/4 (or) E= 8KBT/4
where KB = Boltzmann Constant

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Limitation : It holds good only for longer wavelength

7. State Wein’s displacement law of black body radiation.
It is defined as, “The product of the wavelength (λm) of maximum energy emitted and the
absolute temperature (T) is a constant”.
ie., λmT = constant
Limitation : It holds good only for shorter wavelength.
8. What are nano materials?
Nano materials are the materials in which the atoms/ grain size is in the order of 1 to
100 nm and these atoms will not move away from each other.
9. List out applications of nano materials.
Nano-MEMS are used in ICs, optical switches, pressure sensors, nano robots,
computers, etc.
NEMs are used in nano-nozzles, nano accelerators, atomic force microscopes,
etc.
10. Mention the properties of nano materials.
1.High strength,hardness,toughness.
2.Magnetic moment of nano particles can be increased by decreasing the particle size.
PART B
1. Derive Planck’s radiation law.
To derive the Planck’s radiation law, let us consider ‘N’ Number of oscillators with their total
energy as 𝐸𝑇.
𝐸
Then, the average of an oscillator is given by 𝐸̅ = 𝑁𝑇 .------------------------- (1)

If 𝑁0 ,𝑁1 ,𝑁2 , 𝑁3 ,…𝑁𝑟 are the oscillators of energy 0,1E,2E,3E,… rE respectively then
we can write (i) The total number of oscillators 𝑁 = 𝑁0 + 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3 + ⋯ + 𝑁𝑟 -------
(2)

and (ii) Total energy of oscillators 𝐸𝑇 = 0𝑁0 + 𝐸 𝑁1 + 2𝐸 𝑁2 + 3𝐸𝑁3 + ⋯ + 𝑟𝐸𝑁𝑟 ----(3)

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According to Maxwell’s distribution formula, the number of oscillator having an energy rE

is given by 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑟𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ---------------------------------------(4)

Where 𝐾𝐵 is called Boltzmann constant and r = 0, 1, 2, 3,…

The number of oscillators 𝑁0 ,𝑁1 ,𝑁2 , 𝑁3 ,…𝑁𝑟 can be got as follows:

(i) For 𝑟 = 0; 𝑁0 = 𝑁0 𝑒 0
(ii) For 𝑟 = 1; 𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −1𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
(iii) For 𝑟 = 2; 𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −2𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
(iv) For 𝑟 = 3; 𝑁3 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −3𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Similarly for 𝑟 = 𝑟 ; 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑟𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇

The total number of oscillators can be got by substituting the values of 𝑁0 ,𝑁1 ,𝑁2 , 𝑁3 ,…𝑁𝑟 in
eqn. (2).

N = 𝑁0 𝑒 0 +𝑁0 𝑒 −1𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 +𝑁0 𝑒 −2𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 +𝑁0 𝑒 −3𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 +……….+𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑟𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇

N = 𝑁0 [1 + 𝑒 −1𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 −2𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑒 −3𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + ⋯ + 𝑒 −𝑟𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ]…………(5)

1
We know, 1 + x + x2 + x3 +………=1−𝑥 . therefore we can write eqn.(5) as

1
The total number of oscillators, N= 𝑁0 [1−𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵𝑇 ]…………(6)

Similarly by substituting the values of 𝑁0 ,𝑁1 ,𝑁2 , 𝑁3 ,…𝑁𝑟 in eqn. (3), the total energy can be
written as

𝐸𝑇 = 0𝑁0 𝑒 0 + 𝐸 𝑁0 𝑒 −1𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 2𝐸 𝑁0 𝑒 −2𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 3𝐸𝑁0 𝑒 −3𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + ⋯

+ 𝑟𝐸𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑟𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝑇 = 𝑁0 𝐸𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 [0 + 1 + 2𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + 3𝑒 −2𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 + ⋯ … … … + 𝑟𝑒 −(𝑟−1)𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ]…..(7)

1
We know,1 +2 x + 3x2 + ………= (1−𝑥)2

Equation (7) becomes

1
The total energy of oscillators, 𝐸𝑇 = 𝑁0 𝐸𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 𝐸 2 ……….(8)
−
(1−𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
[ ]

Substituting the values of equation (6) and (8) in equation (1) we get
The average energy of the oscillator,

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𝐸 𝐸𝑁0 𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 1
𝐸̅ = 𝑁𝑇 = 𝐸 2
−
(1−𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
1 [ ]
𝑁0
𝐸
−
(1−𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇 )
[ ]

𝐸𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾 𝑇
𝐵
𝐸̅ =1−𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵𝑇

𝐸
𝐸̅ =
1−𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇
( )
𝑒 −𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸
𝐸̅ = ………….(9)
𝑒 𝐸/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 −1

Substituting the value of E = h𝛾 in eqn (9), we get

h𝛾
𝐸̅ = 𝑒 h𝛾/𝐾𝐵 𝑇−1 ………….(10)

The eqn. (10) represents the average energy of the oscillator.

The number of oscillators per unit volume within the range of wavelength λ and λ + dλ is
given by

8𝜋𝑑𝜆
N= ……..(11)
𝜆4

Energy density, 𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ∗

𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Energy density,𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = 𝑁𝐸̅

8𝜋𝑑𝜆 h𝛾
𝐸𝜆 d𝜆 = …………(13)
𝜆4 𝑒 h𝛾/𝐾𝐵 𝑇 −1

𝐸 8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1 ………….(14)
𝜆= [ ]
𝜆5 𝑒h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇 −1

Equation (14) represents Planck’s radiation law in terms of wavelength.

The Planck’s radiation law in terms of frequency is,

8𝜋ℎ𝛾 3
E 𝛾 = 𝑐 3 (𝑒 h𝛾/𝐾𝐵 𝑇−1)

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Wien’s Displacement law

This law holds good only at shorter wavelength
1
λ is small, 𝜆 will be greater
𝑒 h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇 ≫ 1
𝑒 h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇 − 1 = 𝑒 h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸 8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝜆= [ ]
𝜆5 𝑒h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇

This is Wien’s Displacement law

Rayleigh Jean’s law
This law holds good only at longer wavelength
1
λ is large, 𝜆 will be Lesser
h𝑐 1 h𝑐
𝑒 h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 1 + 𝜆𝐾 + ( )2 +……
𝐵𝑇 2 𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇

Neglecting higher terms

h𝑐
𝑒 h𝑐/𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇 = 1 +
𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸𝜆 = 8𝜋ℎ𝑐
h𝑐
𝜆5 (1+ − 1)
𝜆𝐾𝐵 𝑇

𝐸𝜆 =8𝜋𝐾𝐵𝑇
𝜆4

This is Rayleigh Jean's law

2. Derive Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
The equation which describes the wave nature of the particle in mathematical form is
known as Schrodinger wave equation. Let us consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a
velocity, v

Classical differential equation + De Broglie wavelength = Schrodinger wave equation

The Classical differential equation is given by
𝜕2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 1 𝜕 2𝜓
+ + = ………(1)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

𝜓 - wave function of particle.

The solution of eqn. (1) is given by

𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ………….(2)

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𝜓0 - Amplitude of the wave.

Differentiating twice eqn.(2) w.r.to t,
𝜕𝜓
= −𝑖𝜔𝜓0 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡
𝜕2𝜓
= (−𝑖𝜔)2 𝜓0 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2

𝜕2𝜓
= −𝜔2 𝜓 ………(3)
𝜕𝑡 2

Substitute (3) in (1)

𝜕2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 𝜕 2𝜓 1
+ + = (−𝜔2 𝜓)
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑣2

𝜔2
∇2 𝜓 = − 𝑣 2 𝜓 ……….(4)

We know that 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝛾

𝑣
𝜔 = 2𝜋 𝜆 ……….(5)

Substitute (5) in (4)

2
4𝜋 2
∇ 𝜓= − 2 𝜓
𝜆
4𝜋2
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓 = 0 ………(6)
𝜆2

𝘩
Now introducing the wave nature of the particle λ= in eqn.(6)
𝑚𝑣

4𝜋2 𝑚 2 𝑣 2
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓 = 0 ……….(7)
ℎ2

We know that, Total energy E = P.E + K.E

1
E = 2mv2 + V

2 (E – V) = mv2
Multiply by m on both sides
2m (E – V) = m2 v2 ……….(8)

Substitute eqn. (8) in (7)

2
4𝜋 2 ∗ 2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
∇ 𝜓+ 𝜓=0
ℎ2

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2
8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
∇ 𝜓+ 𝜓=0
ℎ2
ℎ
We know that, ℏ = 2𝜋

8𝜋 2 𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0
4𝜋 2 ℏ2
2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓 = 0 ……..(9)
ℏ2

Eqn. (9) is Schrodinger time independent wave equation

3. Derive Schrodinger time dependent wave equation.

𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 𝜕2𝜓 1 𝜕2𝜓

+ + =
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝑣 2 𝜕𝑡 2

The solution of above eqn. is given by

𝜓 = 𝜓0 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡

Differentiating w.r.to t,
𝜕𝜓
= −𝑖𝜔𝜓0 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 = −𝑖𝜔𝜓
𝜕𝑡

We know that 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝛾 , E = h𝛾

2𝜋𝐸
𝜔=
ℎ
𝜕𝜓 −2𝜋𝐸𝑖
∴ = 𝜓
𝜕𝑡 𝘩
𝜕𝜓 −𝑖𝐸 ℎ
= 𝜓 (ℏ = )
𝜕𝑡 ℏ 2𝜋

Multiply and divide by i on RHS,we get

𝜕𝜓 𝐸
= 𝜓
𝜕𝑡 𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝜓
𝐸𝜓 = 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑡

E - Energy operator

We know that Schrodinger time independent wave equation is

2𝑚(𝐸 − 𝑉)
∇2 𝜓 + 𝜓=0
ℏ2

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Substitute 𝐸𝜓 in above equation

𝜕𝜓
2𝑚(𝑖ℏ − 𝑉𝜓)
2 𝜕𝑡
∇ 𝜓 + =0
ℏ2
−2𝑚 𝜕𝜓
∇2 𝜓 = (𝑖ℏ - 𝑉𝜓)
ℏ2 𝜕𝑡

−ℏ2 2 𝜕𝜓
( ∇ 𝜓 + 𝑉𝜓) = 𝑖ℏ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑡

𝐻𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓

This isSchrodinger time dependent wave equation.

H – Hamiltonian operator

E – Energy operator
4. Explain Bottom-up and Top-down fabrication with examples.

Materials will be fabricated by using any one of the following approaches.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Bottom up: Materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble
chemically using principles of molecular recognition.(Refers to build up Nano material
from bottom i.e. atom by atom, cluster by cluster)

Example: Sol-Gel process

Sol-Gel process:

This is an example for Bottom-Up approach comes under chemical method.

In solutions, molecules of Nanometer size are dispersed and move randomly, hence the
solutions are clear.

In colloids, the molecules of size ranging from 20µm to 100µm are suspended in a solvent.
When mixed with a liquid, colloids look cloudy or even milky. A colloid that suspended in
a liquid is called a “Sol”. Suspensions that keeps its shape is called a “Gel”.Thus “Sol-
Gel”s are suspensions of colloids in liquids that keep their shape.

“Sol-Gel” formation occurs in different stages like a) Hydrolysis b) condensation

c) Growth of particles d) Agglomeration of particles.
The rate of hydrolysis and condensation reactions are depends on various factors such as
pH, temperature, molar reaction, catalyst and process of drying.
Under proper conditions, fine Nano particles are produced.

Top down: Nano objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic level control.
(Refers to slicing or successive cutting of Bulk material in to Nano sized particles.)

Example: Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD):

This is an example for Top-Down approach comes under Physical method.

In this method, Nano particles are deposited from gas phase. Materials are heated to form
a gas and then allowed to deposit on a solid surface, usually under vaccum condition.

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PANIMALAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE I SEM - ENGINEERING PHYSICS

This deposition may be either physical/chemical.

In deposition by chemical reaction new product is formed. Production of pure metal

powders is also possible using this method.

CVD can also be used to grow surfaces. The object to be coated is placed inside the
chemical vapour and may react with substrate atoms.
Then the atoms or molecules grow on the surface of the substrate depends on alignment of
atoms or molecules of the substrates.

 Under these two approaches any one of the three following methods will be
employed for material fabrication.
1. Chemical Methods:
 Sol-gel processes
 Chemical combustion
 Spray pyrolysis
2. Mechanical Methods:
 Grinding
 Milling
 Mechanical alloying
3. Physical Methods:
 Electrical wire explosion method
 Chemical vapour deposition
 Laser ablation

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UNIT V

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

1. What is meant by divergence of a vector

The divergence of a vector ‘F’ at a point ‘p’ is defined as the change of vector per unit
volume as volume shrinks to zero about ‘p’.
2. What do you mean by curl of a vector?
The curl of a vector at a point is defined as the amount of twisting per unit area
around that point.
3. State Gauss divergence theorem.
It states that, the volume integral of divergence of a vector ‘A’ is equal to that
vector ‘A’ spreads out through the surface which covers the volume.

∭(∇. 𝐴)𝑑𝑣 = ∬ 𝐴. 𝑛 𝑑𝑠

4. State Stoke’s theorem

It states, the line integral of a vector F around a closed contour is equal to the
surface integral of curl over the region which bounded by the contour.
∫ 𝐹 . 𝑑𝑙 = ∬ ∇ × 𝐹. 𝑛 𝑑𝑠
5. What do mean by equation of continuity.
Law of conservation of charge states that the total charge of an isolated system
remains constant. The differential form of mathematical representation of law of conservation
of charge is called equation of continuity.
𝜕𝜌
∇. 𝐽 + =0
𝜕𝑡
6. Write any two properties of electromagnetic waves.
(i) Accelerated charged particles produce electromagnetic
waves.
(ii) They can propagate without the help of any material
medium.
7. State Gauss law.
It states that, the total flux through any closed surface is equal to 1/ℇ0 times of the
total charge enclosed in the surface.

PART B
1. Derive Maxwell’s equations.
2. Explain the production of electromagnetic waves.

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