MECHATRONICS

INTRODUCTION
PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK
MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

1
Introduction

• Introduction to mechatronics and mechatronics approach

• Measurement system
• Control systems
• Microprocessor based controllers

2
Sensors and Transducers

• Performance terminology
• Photoelectric transducers
• Flow transducers
• Optical sensors and transducers
• Semiconductor lasers
• Selection of sensors
• Mechanical/electrical switches, inputting data by switches

3
Actuators and Mechanisms

• Actuation systems
• Pneumatic and hydraulic systems
• Process control valves
• Rotary actuators
• Mechanical actuation systems
• Electrical actuation systems

4
Signal conditioning

• Signal conditioning
• Filtering digital signals
• Multiplexers
• Data acquisition
• Digital signal processing
• Pulse modulation
• Data presentation systems

5
Microprocessors and Microcontrollers:

• Control
• Microcomputer structure
• Microcontrollers applications
• Programmable logic controllers.

6
Modeling & System Response

• Mathematical models
• Mechanical
• Electrical
• Hydraulic
• Thermal Systems
• Dynamic response of systems
• Transfer function and frequency response
• Closed loop controllers
• MATLAB as development tool
7
Design and Mechatronics

• Input/output system
• Computer based modular design
• System validation
• Remote monitoring and control
• Designing
• Possible design solutions
• Case studies

8
Books

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical

and Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson, 2015
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to
Mechatronics, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2012.
• Shetty Dedas, Kolk and Richard, Mechatronic system Design;
Cengage Learning, Inc; 2nd ed. Edition, 2010
• Bishop, Mechatronic handbook, CRC press, 2002.
• R. Merzouki, A. K. Samantaray, P. M. Pathak, B. Ould Bouamama,
Intelligent Mechatronic Systems: Modeling, Control and Diagnosis,
ISBN 978-1-4471-4627-8, 2013, Springer, London
9
Mechatronics Definition

• Yasakawa Electric Company, In trademark application

documents, Yasakawa defined mechatronics as
– The word, mechatronics, is composed of “mecha” from
mechanism and the “tronics” from electronics.
• In other words, technologies and developed products will be
incorporating electronics more and more into mechanisms,
intimately and organically, and making it impossible to tell
where one ends and the other begins.

10
• Harashima, Tomizuka, and Fukada in 1996
– the synergistic (working together) integration of
mechanical engineering, with electronics and intelligent
computer control in the design and manufacturing of
industrial products and processes.
• Auslander and Kempf, 1996
– Mechatronics is the application of complex decision
making to the operation of physical systems.

11
• Shetty and Kolk in 1997
– Mechatronics is a methodology used for the optimal
design of electromechanical products.
• W. Bolton
– A mechatronic system is not just a marriage of electrical
and mechanical systems and is more than just a control
system; it is a complete integration of all of them.

12
• Mechatronics is generally
– recognized worldwide as a vibrant area of study.
– Undergraduate and graduate programs in mechatronic
engineering are now offered in many universities.
– Refereed journals are being published and dedicated
conferences are being organized and are generally highly
attended.

13
Mechatronics?

• Implementing electronics control in a mechanical system.

• Enhancing existing mechanical design with intelligent control.
• Replacing mechanical component with a electronic solution.

14
Real life applications: House hold thermostat

15
16
Thermostat components: Conversion to Mechatronic
Design

17
Finished Design

18
Classification of Mechatronics Products
• In the late 1970s, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Machine Industry
(JSPMI) classified mechatronic products into
• Class I:
– Primarily mechanical products with electronics incorporated to
enhance functionality.
– Examples include numerically controlled machine tools and variable
speed drives in manufacturing machines.
• Class II:
– Traditional mechanical systems with significantly updated internal
devices incorporating electronics. The external user interfaces are
unaltered.
– Examples include the modern sewing machine and automated
manufacturing systems.

19
• Class III:
– Systems that retain the functionality of the traditional
mechanical system, but the internal mechanisms are
replaced by electronics.
– An example is the digital watch.
• Class IV:
– Products designed with mechanical and electronic
technologies through synergistic integration.
– Examples include photocopiers, intelligent washers and
dryers, and automatic ovens.
20
• The enabling technologies for each mechatronic product class illustrate
the progression of electromechanical products in stride with
developments in control theory, computation technologies, and
microprocessors.
• Class I products were enabled by servo technology, power electronics, and
control theory.
• Class II products were enabled by the availability of early computational
and memory devices and custom circuit design capabilities.
• Class III products relied heavily on the microprocessor and integrated
circuits to replace mechanical systems.
• Class IV products marked the beginning of true mechatronic systems,
through integration of mechanical systems and electronics.
21
• It was not until the 1970s with the development of the
microprocessor by the Intel Corporation that integration of
computational systems with mechanical systems became
practical.
• The electronic ignition system was one of the first
mechatronic systems to be introduced in the automobile in
the late 1970s.

22
23
Benefits of Mechatronics
• More features
• Higher precession
• User friendly
• More flexible
• Lower cost, Efficient
• Environment friendly
• Smaller geometry
• More reliable
• Safer
24
 Mechatronic system components
ACTUATORS SENSORS
▪ Solenoids, voice coils ▪switches
INPUT SIGNAL
▪ DC motors ▪Potentiometer, Thermocouple CONDITIONING AND
▪ Stepper motors ▪Photoelectrics, Accelerometer INTERFACING
▪ Servo motors ▪Digital encoder ▪ Discrete circuits ▪ Filters
▪Hydraulics, Pneumatics ▪Strain gauge, MEMs ▪ Amplifiers ▪ A/D, D/D

OUTPUT SIGNAL
DIGITAL CONTROL ARCHITECTURES
GRAPHICAL CONDITIONING &
DISPLAYS ▪Logic circuits ▪Control algorithms
INTERFACING
▪LEDs, LCD, CRT ▪Microcontroller ▪communication
▪D/A, D/D ▪Power transistors
▪Digital display ▪Sequencing & Timing ▪SBC, PLC
▪Amplifiers ▪Power op amps
▪Logic & Arithmetic ▪A/D, D/D
▪PWM

25
System

• System can be thought of as a box which has an input and an

output and where we are not concerned with what goes on
inside the box but only the relationship between the output
and the input.

26
Measurement System

• A black box used for making measurements.

• It has the input the quantity being measured and output the
value of the quantity.
• Example: temperature measurement system

27
An Example of Measurement System

Sensor signal conditioner display

28
A control system

Output
Input
Central Heating System Temperat
Required ure of the
temperature set value

29
Control System

• Open loop systems

• Closed loop systems

30
Open Loop System

Input Output
Switch Electric fire
Decision Electric Temper
to power ature
switch change
on or off

31
 Elements of a closed loop system
Comparison element
Input + Output
Switch Electric fire
Requir - Electric A
ed Deviation power constant
tempe signal tempera
rature ture
Feedback of
temperature signal Measuring
device
32
 Comparison element
+
Correction
Control unit Process
unit
Refer - Controlled
ence Error variable
value signal

Measured value Measuring

device
33
Shaft Speed Control (Closed loop system)

34
References

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and

Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson, 2015
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to Mechatronics, Tata
Mc Graw Hill, 2012.
• Shetty Dedas, Kolk and Richard, Mechatronic system Design; Cengage
Learning, Inc; 2nd ed. Edition, 2010
• Bishop, Mechatronic handbook, CRC press, 2002.
• R. Merzouki, A. K. Samantaray, P. M. Pathak, B. Ould Bouamama,
Intelligent Mechatronic Systems: Modeling, Control and Diagnosis, ISBN
978-1-4471-4627-8, 2013, Springer, London

35
Thank You

36
 MECHATRONICS
MECHATRONIC SYSTEM EXAMPLES

PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK

MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

1
Mechatronic System Examples

• Four Stroke Engine

• Copy Machine
• LEGO NXT
• Toddler-Walking Robot

2
Four Stroke Sequence

• Intake stroke
• Compression stroke
• Power stroke
• Exhaust stroke

3
4
 Spark timing
Engine speed
Crankshaft position
Micro
Spark timing feedback processor
Air Fuel Mixture Solenoid
Engine temperature
Throttle position
Fuel injection valve
Mass air flow

5
• Power and speed of engine are controlled by varying the ignition
timing and air fuel mixture.
• For spark timing
• Crankshaft drives a distributor
• Distributor makes electrical contact for each sparkplug and a timing
wheel
• Timing wheel generates pulses to indicate crankshaft position.
• Microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high voltage pulses
are sent to the distributor so they occur at right moment of time.

6
• Air fuel ratio control
• Microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is
activated to open the intake valve on the basis of input
received about the engine temperature and throttle position.
• Fuel injection
• Amount of fuel to be injected into air stream is determined by
an input from a sensor of the mass rate of air flow or
computed from other measurements

7
Copy Machine

• It has Analogue and

digital circuits
• Sensors
• Actuators, and
• Microprocessors.

8
Working

• User places an original in a loading bin and pushes a

button to start the process.
• The original is transported to the platen glass
• A high intensity light source scans the original and
transfers the corresponding image as a charge distribution
to a drum.
• Blank piece of paper is retrieved from loading cartridge,

9
• Image is transferred onto the paper with an electrostatic
deposition of ink toner powder that is heated to bond to the
paper.
• A sorting mechanism then delivers the copy to an appropriate
bin.

10
Control

• Analogue circuits control the lamp, heater, and other

power circuit.
• Digital circuit controls digital display, indicator lights,
buttons, switches forming the user interface.
• Other digital circuits include logic circuits and
microprocessor that coordinates all the functions of the
machine.

11
Sensors
• Optical sensors and microswitches detect the
• presence on absence of paper,
• its proper positioning, and
• whether or not door and latches are in proper position.
• Encoders used to track motor rotation.

12
Actuators

• (servo/stepper) motors are used to

• load and transport the paper
• turn the drum and
• index the drum.

13
LEGO NXT

• Robot kit from

Lego

14
LEGO Sensors

• Touch sensor
• Sound sensor
• Light sensor
• Ultrasonic
sensor

15
LEGO Actuators

• Servo motors

16
Lego Controller

• NXT Brick

17
Toddler-Walking Robot

18
• Actuators
– Servo Motors
• Sensors
– IR Sensor for obstruction detection
– Bumper Sensor for obstruction detection
– Compass, for orientation detection
– Accelerometer, for tilt detection
– Ultrasonic sensor, for range detection.
• Micro Controller
– BASIC Stamp 2 module
19
Stepper Motor Position and Speed Control

• Actuator: stepper
motor
• Sensor: Switches,
potentiometer
• Microcontroller:
PIC

20
DC motor position and speed controller-H bridge driver
and PWM speed control
• Actuator: DC motor
• Sensor: encoder, switch
• Microcontroller: PIC

21
Future of Mechatronics

• Growth in mechatronic systems will be fueled by the

growth in the constituent areas.
• Advancements in traditional disciplines fuel the growth
of mechatronics systems by providing “enabling
technologies.”
• For example, the invention of the microprocessor had a
profound effect on the redesign of mechanical systems
and design of new mechatronics systems.

22
• We should expect continued advancements in
– cost-effective microprocessors and microcontrollers,
– sensor and actuator development enabled by
advancements in applications of MEMS,
– adaptive control methodologies and real-time
programming methods,
– networking and wireless technologies,
– mature CAE technologies for advanced system modeling,
virtual prototyping, and testing.

23
• The continued rapid development in these areas will only accelerate
the pace of smart product development.
• The Internet is a technology that, when utilized in combination with
wireless technology, may also lead to new mechatronic products.
• While developments in automotive provide vivid examples of
mechatronics development, there are numerous examples of
intelligent systems in all walks of life, including smart home appliances
such as dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, microwaves, and wireless
network enabled devices.

24
• In the area of “human-friendly machines” we can expect
advances in robot-assisted surgery, and implantable
sensors and actuators.
• Other areas that will benefit from mechatronic advances
may include robotics, manufacturing, space technology,
and transportation.
• The future of mechatronics is wide open.
25
Why Mechatronics system Simulation?

• Mechatronic system designs are complex by nature, and are

becoming more complex day by day.
• As the system design grow in overall size to accommodate
ever increasing demands for functionality and performance,
these design must integrate analog and digital hardware, as
well as the software that controls them.
• Mechatronic system’s behaviour is determined by
interdependencies between different components.

26
• Therefore, an integrated and interdisciplinary engineering
approach is necessary.
• For this reason, engineers must be assisted by tools which
allow a systems analysis with respect to capabilities,
capacities and behaviour without really constructing the
system.
• This necessitates an appropriate modelling and simulation
tool for mechatronic systems.

27
References

• Mechatronics: Bolton, W., Longman

• Introduction to Mechatronics: D.G. Alciatore & Michael B.
Histand; Tata Mc Graw Hill
• Mechatronic system Design; Shetty Dedas, Kolk and Richard
• Mechatronic handbook: Bishop; CRC press
• Intelligent Mechatronic Systems: Modeling, Control and
Diagnosis, R. Merzouki, A. K. Samantaray, P. M. Pathak, B. Ould
Bouamama, Springer, London

28
Thank You

29
 MECHATRONICS
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND COMPONENTS

PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK

MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

1
Introduction

• Electric circuits and components are important in design of

discrete circuits for signal conditioning and interfacing.
• Electron moves and produce electric current. Useful jobs can
be done by energized electrons.
• Electron moves because we impose an electric field that
imparts energy by doing work on the electrons.
• A measure of electric field potential is voltage.
• Voltage is also referred as electromotive force or emf.
2
Electric Circuit Terminology

• Current is time rate of flow of charge

𝑑𝑞
• 𝐼(𝑡) = (q=charge)
𝑑𝑡
• DC Circuit: Voltage and current in a circuit are constant
(independent of time)
• AC Circuit: Voltage and current vary with time usually
sinusoidally

3
4
• Voltage source adds energy to electron.
• Anode: Electrons are attracted.
• Cathode: Electrons are released
• Electron flow from cathode to anode through the circuit. But
standard convention is in opposite direction.
• Load: Network of circuit elements that may store (I,C) or
dissipate electrical energy (R)
• Ground: Indicates a reference point in circuit where the
voltage is assumed to be zero.
5
Basic Electronic
components
Electrical
Elements
Passive Active
components components

Resistance (R) Solid state (semi

Inductance (L) Tube devices conductor
Capacitance (C) devices)

Diodes
Vacuum Tubes Gas Tubes
Transistors

6
Resistor Capacitor Inductor Current Source
Voltage
(R) (C) (L) (I)
Source (V)

7
• Passive electrical elements: R, L, C
• Passive elements require no additional power supply, unlike
active devices such as integrated circuits.
• These elements are defined by voltage current relationship.
• Two types of energy sources
• Voltage source (V)
• Current sources (I)
• Ideal source contains no internal resistance, inductance or
capacitance.
8
Resistor
𝜌𝐿
R=
• Dissipative element 𝐴

that converts 𝜌 is resistivity of material

electrical energy
into heat.
• Ohms law define V-I
characteristics
(V=IR)

9
Resistor Packaging

10
Wire Lead Resistor Color Bands

Resistor value & tolerance are expressed as

R = ab×10c± tolerance(%)
a band: ten digit
b band: one digit
c band: power

11
• Variable Resistor
• Provide range of values controlled by mechanical screws
knobs or linear slide
• Most common type is potentiometer or pot

Potentiometer schematic symbol

12
Capacitor

• Passive element that stores

energy in the form of an electric
field.
• The filed is the result of
separation of charges.
• Dielectric material is an insulator
that increases the capacitance as
Parallel Plate Capacitor
a result of permanent or induced
electric dipoles in the material.

13
• Strictly DC current does not flow through the capacitor
• Charges are displaced through circuit.
• Displacement current
1 𝑡 𝑄(𝑡) 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝑡 = න 𝐼 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐼 𝑡 =𝐶
𝐶 0 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

• Capacitance is a property of the dielectric material, plate geometry

and plate separation.
• Values of typical capacitors range from 1 pF to 1000 µF

14
Inductor
d
• A passive element V (t ) =
that stores energy in dt
the form of a  = LI
magnetic field.
dI
• Energy storing V (t ) = L
element that stores dt
energy in the form of t
1
magnetic field. I (t ) =  V ( )d
• Characteristics are L0
from Faradays law of
induction 𝜆 is total magnetic flux through
coil winding due to current. It is
measured in webers(Wb)
15
• Current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously
because it is integral of voltage.
• Motors have large inductance, so it is difficult to start and
stop motors instantaneously
• Unit of measurement of inductance is Henry
• Typical inductance range from 1µH to 100mH

16
Kirchhoff’s Laws

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• Sum of the voltages around
a closed loop or path is 0.

෍ 𝑉𝑖 = 0
𝑖=1
−𝑉1 − 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 +. . . −𝑉𝑁 = 0 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

17
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• Sum of the currents

flowing into a closed 𝐼1 𝐼2
surface or node is 0. 𝐼1 𝐼3

Node Surface
𝐼2
I1 + I 2 − I 3 = 0
N
𝐼3
 Ii = 0
i =1
𝐼𝑁 …

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

18
Series Resistance Circuit
Using KVL
− Vs + VR1 + VR2 = 0
Req = R1 + R2
C1C2
Ceq =
C1 + C2
Leq = L1 + L2

19
Voltage Dividers

R1
VR1 = Vs
R1 + R2
R2
VR2 = Vs
R1 + R2
Series Resistance Circuit

20
Parallel Resistance Circuit
Using KCL
I − I1 − I 2 = 0
R1 R2
Req =
R1 + R2
Ceq = C1 + C2
L1 L2
Leq =
L1 + L2

21
Voltage & Current Sources and Meters

• An ideal voltage source: has zero output resistance and

can supply infinite current
• An ideal current source has infinite output resistance and
can supply infinite voltage
• An ideal voltmeter has infinite input resistance and draws
no current.
• An ideal ammeter has zero input resistance and no
voltage drops across it.

22
Real Voltage Source with Output Impedance

Rout is small

23
Real Current Source with Output Impedance

Rout of commercially available

current source is high. So as to
minimise current division effect

24
Real Ammeter with Input Impedance

Rin of commercially available ammeter is small

minimizing the voltage drop VR in the circuit.

25
Real Voltmeter with Input Impedance

Rin in commercially available voltmeter (an

oscilloscope or multimeter) is very large (1
to 10 MΩ.)
26
27
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

• To simplify the analysis of complex circuits we wish to replace

voltage sources and resistance networks with an equivalent voltage
source and series resistor.
• Thevenin theorem states that given a pair of terminal in a linear
network , the network may be replaced by an ideal voltage source
Voc in series with a ressitance RTH.
• Voc is equal to the open circuit voltage across the terminals, and RTH
is the equivalent resistance across the terminals when independent
voltage sources are shorted and independent current sources are
replaced with open circuits. .

28
 Thevenin equivalent circuit

R2
VOC = Vs
R1 + R2
R1 R2
RTH =
R1 + R2
29
Norton Equivalent Circuit

• Here the linear network is replaced by an

ideal current source ISC and the Thevenin
resistance RTH in parallel with this source.
• ISC is found by calculating the current that
would flow through the terminals if they
were shorted together having removed the Norton equivalent circuit
remaining load circuit.
• It can be shown that the current ISC flowing
through RTH produces the Thevenin voltage.

30
AC Circuit Analysis

• Sinusoidal Waveform

31
• Time shift between the
 =  t
signal and reference.
• +ve phase angle-leading
waveform. 1 
f = =
• -ve phase angle lagging T 2
waveform.
• Frequency of signal

32
AC Circuit Analysis

33
References

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical

and Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson, 2015
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to
Mechatronics, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2012.
• Mechatronic System Design; Shetty Dedas, Kolk and Richard
• Mechatronic Handbook: Bishop; CRC press
• R. Merzouki, A. K. Samantaray, P. M. Pathak, B. Ould Bouamama,
Intelligent Mechatronic Systems: Modeling, Control and Diagnosis,
ISBN 978-1-4471-4627-8, 2013, Springer, London
34
Thank You

35
 MECHATRONICS
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK

MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

1
Introduction

• One needs to understand the physical characteristics of

semiconductors, used in electronic circuits.
• We will see the physics of semiconductors, and learn how
electronic components are designed using different types of
semiconductor materials.
• We also learn the circuit schematic symbols for different
semiconductor diodes and transistors, and use the devices in
circuit design.

2
Energy bands in conductor, insulator, semiconductors

• In materials there are three bands.

• Valence band and conduction
band are separated by forbidden
band.
• In metals large number of weakly
bound electrons in conduction
band are there.
• When voltage is applied to metals,
the electrons migrate freely
producing a current.

3
 Valence and Conduction Bands of Materials
• In conductors, valence
electrons are loosely
bound.
• In insulators valence
electrons are tightly
bound.
• Class of materials,
elements in group IV of
the periodic table, have
properties between
conductors and insulators.
• They are called
semiconductors.

4
• Elements of group IV of periodic table are silicon and
germanium.
• The properties of pure semiconductor crystals can be
significantly changed by inserting small quantities of elements
from group III or group V of the periodic table into the crystal
lattice of the semiconductor.
• These elements, known as dopants.

5
• Silicon has four valence electrons.
• If Arsenic or phosphorous of group V is added to the
crystal lattice, one of the five valence electrons in each
dopant atom remains freer to move around.
• The dopant is called a donor.
• The resulting semiconductor is called n-type silicon due
to the electrons available in the crystal lattice as charge
carriers.
6
• If the silicon is doped with boron or gallium from group III,
holes form due to missing electrons in the lattice where
acceptor dopant atoms have replaced silicon atoms.
• This is because the dopant atom only has three valence
electrons.
• A hole can jump from atom to atom, producing a positive
current.
• This type semi conductor is called p-type.

7
pn Junction Characteristics
0.6–0.7 V

8
• In forward bias as the applied voltage approaches the value of the contact
potential (0.6–0.7 V for silicon), the current increases exponentially
𝑞𝑉𝐷
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1
• where ID is the current through the junction,
• I0 is the reverse saturation current,
• q is the charge of one electron (1.60×10-19 C),
• k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.381×10-23 J/K),
• VD is the forward bias voltage across the junction,
• T is the absolute temperature of the junction in Kelvin
• In case of reverse bias a reverse saturation current (I0 ) does flow, but it is
very small ( of the order of 10-9 to 10-15 A).

9
Silicon Diode

• A pn junction passes
current in only one
direction.
• It is known as a silicon
diode and is sometimes
referred to as a rectifier.

10
Examples of Common Diodes

Introduction to Mechatronics: D.G. Alciatore &

Michael B. Histand; Tata Mc Graw Hill, 4th Edition
11
12
Ideal, Approximate and Real Diode Curves

13
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit Assuming an Ideal Diode

• When Vi is +ve diode is

reverse bias so behaves as
open circuit thus no current
flows through resistance so
Vo=Vi
• When Vi is –ve, diode is
forward bias equivalent to
short circuit thus no voltage
drops across diode so Vo =0

14
Ac-to-dc Converter With Full-bridge Rectifier

15
Full-bridge Rectifier Action

16
Diode Bridges

17
▪ The cylindrical device on the right in the photograph has a
current limit of 1A. Physically, it is 7 mm high, and 10 mm in
diameter.
▪ The flat device on the left has a current limit of 4A. It is has a
thickness of 6 mm, is 16 mm in height, and 19 mm in width.
▪ photograph on the right shows a large, high-power diode
bridge.
▪ It has a current capacity of 15A. The peak reverse-bias voltage
is 400V.
18
Zener Diode (avalanche, or voltage-regulator diodes)
• Most diode breakdown voltage is 50 V.
• These have steep breakdown curves with well defined
breakdown voltage.
• Thus maintains nearly constant voltage over a wide range of
currents.
• Thus they are good voltage regulators.
• To properly use the zener diode in a circuit, the zener should
be reverse biased with a voltage kept in excess of its
breakdown or zener voltage Vz .

19
20
Zener as voltage regulator
Using KVL
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑧
𝐼𝑧 =
𝑅

∆𝑉𝑖 − ∆𝑉𝑧
∆𝐼𝑧 =
𝑅

• This tells how change in current is related to change in voltage.

• The zener diode is a nonlinear circuit element, and therefore Vz is not
directly proportional to Iz

21
• However, it is useful to define a dynamic resistance Rd that is
the slope of the zener characteristic curve at a particular
operating point.
∆𝑉𝑧
∆𝐼𝑧 =
𝑅𝑑
So on substitution we can get
𝑅𝑑
∆𝑉𝑜 = ∆𝑉𝑧 = ∆𝑉𝑖
𝑅𝑑 +𝑅

22
Light Emitting Diode

• LED are diodes that

emit photons when
forward bias

23
Photodiode

• These are designed to detect

photons and can be used in
a circuit to sense light.

24
Transistors

• Bipolar Junction Transistor

• Field Effect Transistors

25
Bipolar Junction Transistor

• A bipolar junction transistor (BJT), consists of three adjacent

regions of doped silicon, each of which is connected to an
external lead.
• There are two types of BJTs: npn and pnp transistors
• It consists of a thin region or layer of p-type silicon
sandwiched between two layers of n-type silicon.
• Three leads are connected to the three regions, and they are
called the collector, base, and emitter.

26
npn Bipolar Junction Transistor
• The n-type
silicon in the
emitter is more
heavily doped
than the
collector
• So the collector
and emitter are
not
interchangeable.

27
• VCE is the voltage between the collector and emitter,
• VBE is the voltage between the base and emitter.
𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐸
𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐸
𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
• Normally VC>VB>VE so BE jn forward bias; BC jn is reverse bias
• IB controls IC, acts as current amplifier.
• 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
• Transistor connections are common base, common emitter and
common collector.
28
References

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in

Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson,
2015
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to
Mechatronics, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2012.

29
Thank You

30
 MECHATRONICS
APPLICATION OF TRANSISTORS

PUSHPARAJ MANI PATHAK

MECHANICAL & INDUSTRIAL ENGINEEING, IIT ROORKEE

1
Introduction

• Because of the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) base-collector

current characteristics, it can be used to
– amplify current
– simply switch current on and off.
• Transistor as a switch is basis for most digital computers
because it allows easy implementation of a two state binary
representation.
• We focus on switch design in our mechatronic applications
2
Transistor Connections

• Common base connection

• Common emitter connection
• Common collector connection

3
Common Emitter Connection

• Input current IB
• Output current IC
• Base current amplification
∆𝐼𝐶
factor = =𝛽
∆𝐼𝐵
• ∆𝐼𝐵 < 5% ∆𝐼𝐸
• 𝛽 > 20 (IC ≈ IE)
• 𝛽 ≈ 100

4
• If a BJT’s emitter is grounded
and we apply an input voltage
to the base, we get the
common emitter circuit.
• Input characteristics IB VCE=1V
• VBE v/s IB for VCE=constant

VBE

5
Output Characteristic

• VCE v/s IC for constant base

current (IB)
• As IB increases, base to emitter
conducts when VBE = 0.6V,
IC= 𝛽IB
• As IB is further increased, VBE
slowly increases to 0.7V, IC
rises exponentially.

6
• As IC increases, voltage
drop across RC increases,
so VCE drops towards
ground.
• Transistor is said to go to
saturation i.e., collector
current is determined by
RC and linear relation
between IC and IB no
longer holds.
7
• When designing a transistor switch, we need to guarantee
that the transistor is in fully saturation condition.
• VCE minimum is about 0.2 V for BJT.
• Power dissipated is smallest= IC VCE for given collector current
when it is fully saturated.
• If transistor is not fully saturated it gets hot faster and can fail.

8
Bipolar Transistor Switch

• If VBE<0.7V, BE junction is not

forward bias, so IC=0, IB=0

Off

9
• If VBE=0.7V, BE junction is
forward biased. Current
passes through CE circuit
• Vo is close to ground
potential (0.2V) for
saturated BJT.

ON

10
• RB required to limit base current
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝐼𝐵 =
𝑅𝐵
• When Vi < 0.7 V, IB = 0 and VBE=Vi
• Transistors used for power application are called power
transistor.

11
Bipolar Transistor Packages

Signal transistor Power transistor Used in Printed

Circuit Boards
12
13
Darlington Transistor

• Pair of transistors
• Current gain is product of
two individual transistor
gains.
• Can be of the order of
10000
• Used in power circuit of
mechatronic system.

14
Phototransistor

• A special class of transistor whose junction between base and

emitter acts as photo diode are phototransistor.
• LED’s and Phototransistor are used in pairs, where the LED is
used to create the light, and this light in turn biases the
phototransistor.
• The pair can be used to detect the presence of an object that
may partially or completely interrupt the light beam between
the LED and phototransistor.

15
Optoisolator

• Comprised of a LED and a phototransistor

separated by a small gap.
• The light emitted by LED causes the current
to flow in the phototransistor circuit.
• Output circuit for different ground reference
and supply voltage VS can be chosen to
establish a desired output voltage range.
• The opto isolator creates a start of electrical
isolation between the input and output
circuit by transmitting the signal optically.

16
Angular Position of a Robotic Scanner

• Problem statement
• In design of autonomous robot,
include a laser scanning device to
sweep the environment to detect the
obstacles. Head of the scanner is
rotated through 360˚ by a DC motor.
Find
– Angular position of scan head.
– What should be done, if on board
computer to use this scanned
value.

17
• Solution
• Design a sensor that provides digital output.
• Use LED-photo transistor pair called photo-interrupter.
• The device produce a light that can be broken or
interrupted.
• Provide a disk attached to motor passing through slot.
• Each slot will provide digital pulse as it interrupts the
light beam during rotation.
18
• R1- current limiting resistor
• R2- pull up resistor to provide
output.
• As slotted disk rotates
• When light passes, transistor
conducts – 0 o/p.
• Slot interrupted, 5V o/p returned.
• No of pulses is measure of rotation.
• If 360 slots, 1 pulse = 1˚

19
Field Effect Transistors

• Drawback of bipolar transistors

– Low input impedance due to forward bias emitter junction.
– Considerable noise level.
• In FET: current conduction is by one type of carrier i.e, electrons or
holes.
• With a FET, the electric field produced by a voltage on one electrode
controls the availability of charge carriers in a narrow region, called a
channel, through which a current can be made to flow.
• Therefore, a FET the output current is controlled by an input voltage.

20
 Construction Details
Drain(D) Drain(D)
• A p-type or n type silicon
bar containing two pn
n p
junctions at the sides.
p p n
• Bar forms the conducting Gate(G) n
Gate(G)
channel for the charges n p
carriers.
• If bar is n type, it is called
n channel FET and if it is p Source(S) Source(S)
type it is p channel FET. n-Channel FET p-Channel FET

21
 Drain(D)
• The two pn junctions forming
diodes are connected internally
and common terminal is called
n
Gate.
p p
• Thus FET has three terminals Gate(G)
i.e., Gate (G), Source (S) and n
Drain (D).

Source(S)
n-Channel FET
22
FET Polarities
Drain(D)
• Voltage between
Gate and Source is
such that it is reverse n
biased. p p
Gate(G) VDS
• Drain and Source n
terminals are VGS
interchangeable.
Source(S)

n-Channel FET
23
Working principle of FET
Drain(D)
• (i) As VDS>0, VGS=0
• pn junction establishes
depletion layer.
n
• Electrons flow from
source to drain through p p
Gate(G) VDS
channel between
n
depletion layer. VGS
• Size of layer determines
width of channel and
current through the bar. Source(S)

n-Channel FET
24
 Drain(D)
• Reverse voltage at VGS
• Width of depletion layer
increases
n
• Width of conducting
channel decreases p p
Gate(G) VDS
• Resistance increases of n n
type bar VGS
• Current flow decreases.
• Current can be controlled
Source(S)
by reverse voltage.
n-Channel FET
25
Schematic Symbol

D D

G G

S S
n-Channel FET p-Channel FET

26
Difference between FET and Bipolar Transistor
Bipolar FET
• Both n and p type carrier • Unipolar(either n or p type carrier)
• Low input impedance • High input impedance (isolation
possible)
• Current driven device • Voltage driven device
• Characterise by current • Characterise by transconductance
gain (ratio of change in o/p current to
i/p (gate) voltage.

27
Output Characteristic of FET
𝐼𝐷
• Keep VGS at some
constant value
• ID rapidly increases, as 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 1𝑉
VDB increases. 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 2𝑉
• After pinch off voltage, 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = 3𝑉
channel width becomes
𝑉𝐷𝑆
narrow so constant O A
current is obtained.

28
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET)

• The input impedance of MOSFET is much more than that of a

FET because of very small gate leakage current.
• The same equations apply as used for FET

29
MOSFET Construction Details
Drain(D)
• Only a single p region Oxide layer D
• A thin layer of metal oxide
(usually silicon dioxide) is n
deposited over the left side Subtrate Subtrate
of the channel. p G
Gate(G)
• A metallic gate is deposited n
over the oxide layer.
• As silicon dioxide is an S
insulator , so gate is
insulated from channel Source(S)
n-Channel FET

30
Working of MOSFET

• Here gate is formed as capacitor Drain(D)

• One plate of capacitor is gate, other is channel
Oxide layer
and metal oxide is dielectric.
• When negative voltage is applied at gate, n
electrons accumulated on it. Subtrate
p
• These electrons repel the conduction band Gate(G)
electrons in the n channel. n
• So less no of electrons are available for
conduction through channel.
• If gate is given positive voltage , more electrons
Source(S)
are made available in the n channel. So current
from source to drain increases.
31
References

• W. Bolton, Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in

Mechanical and Electrical Engineering (6th Edition), Pearson,
2015
• D.G. Alciatore and Michael B. Histand, Introduction to
Mechatronics, Tata Mc Graw Hill, 2012.

32
Thank You

33