CIE Geography A-level

9: Hazardous Environments
Detailed Notes

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 Tectonic Hazards
Global Distribution of Tectonic Hazards
Tectonic hazards are hazards caused by the movement of tectonic plates. These hazards
usually occur on plate boundaries, which is where two tectonic plates meet each other.
The global pattern of tectonic hazards are very clear on tectonic plate maps.

(Source:www.geologyin.com)

Global Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes

(Source: www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/activities/2515_vesuvius.html)

It can be seen that, on average, volcanoes and earthquakes occur on plate boundaries.
Volcanoes occur on convergent boundaries (aside from when two continental plates move
towards each other) and divergent boundaries. Earthquakes occur on all types of boundaries
(divergent, convergent, or conservative).

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Plates do not perfectly fit into each other, meaning they do not move in fluid motions. At all
boundaries, plates can become stuck due to the friction between plates.

You can try this by moving one palm of your hand against the other, and it is clear that at some
points there is more friction between irregularities and bumps, causing the hands to become stuck
slightly.

When the plates are stuck, the convection currents in the asthenosphere continue to push, which
builds the pressure. It builds so much that it cannot be sustained and the plates eventually give
way. All of this pressure is released in a sudden movement, causing a jolting motion in the plates
This jolt is responsible for seismic movement spreading throughout the ground in the form of
seismic waves (or shock waves).

The focus is the point underground where the earthquake originates from. The epicentre is the
area above ground that is directly above the focus.

Magnitude Seismicity is measures using the logarithmic Richter Scale which is a

measure of the strength of seismic waves.

The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is also used, which is a rate of the
destruction caused (originally the Mercalli scale when developed in 1884, but the
name was changed after 1931 when it was modified). Unlike the Richter scale,

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 the Mercalli scale has a definite end at 12 (XII as it is in roman numerals). The
Mercalli scale is subjective, meaning sometimes it is disputed as it is dependent
on human development being present rather than the strength of the seismic
waves.

(Source: https://missnickles.wordpress.com/earth-science/)
The magnitude of the earthquake is also dependent on the depth of focus.
Conservative boundaries have the shallowest boundaries, meaning they are
closer to the epicentre and the seismic waves are stronger. convergent
boundaries usually have deeper focuses, meaning the seismic waves are spread
over a larger area before they reach the epicentre. This is dependent on the
earthquake.

Frequency Earthquakes are frequent around the world and occur every day at boundaries.
Hundreds of smaller magnitude earthquakes that cannot be felt by humans occur
every day, whereas the larger earthquakes are less frequent.

Regularity Earthquakes follow no pattern and are random so there is irregularity between
events.

Predictability Earthquakes are almost impossible to predict. Microquakes may give some
indication but the magnitude cannot be predicted as how strong they are is
random.

Hazards caused by earthquakes:

● Shockwaves (seismic waves) - When two plates move side by side, friction builds up and
pressure increases; this pressure is stored as potential energy, it cannot move so it just
builds up. When the pressure becomes too much, the plates eventually move.

All of the energy that has been built up must go somewhere, so it is transferred into kinetic
energy, which is released and vibrates throughout the ground. The further away from the
focus, the weaker the shockwaves, as the energy is transferred into the surroundings.

This shaking alone causes many hazards, such as buildings and infrastructure collapsing.

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 ● Tsunamis

When an oceanic crust is jolted during an

earthquake, all of the water above this
plate is displaced.

The water travels fast but with a low

amplitude (height).

As it gets closer to the coast, the water

becomes shallower, forcing the waves to
become compressed into a smaller
area.
This causes the waves to slow down
and gain height, creating a wall of water
that is on average 10 feet high, but can
reach 100 feet.

● Liquefaction - When soil is saturated, the

vibrations of an earthquake cause it to act like
a liquid. Soil becomes weaker and more likely
to subside when it has large weight on it.

Image: Liquefaction in Christchurch, New Zealand.

Source:Stuff.co.nz

● Landslides and avalanches - Movement in

soil or snow will cause it to become
unstable. This can cause huge areas to give
way, sending large amounts of debris or
snow to tumble downhill. This can damage
infrastructure and buildings, damage the
environment, and poses a huge threat to
life.

(Source: blogs.agu.org/landslideblog)

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 TYPE OF SEISMIC HAZARD
EFFECT Environmental Economic Social Political

Primary - Earthquake can - Businesses - Buildings - Government

cause fault lines destroyed collapse, buildings
which destroy the - Immediate killing/injuring destroyed
environment payout for people and
- Liquefaction response trapping them
- Homes destroyed

Secondary - Radioactive - Economic - Gas pipes - Political unrest

materials and decline as rupture, starting from food
other dangerous businesses are fires which can kill shortages or
substances destroyed (tax - Water supplies are water shortages
leaked from breaks etc.) contaminated as - Borrowing
power plants - High cost of pipes burst, money for
- Saltwater from rebuilding and spreading disease international aid
tsunamis flood insurance and causing floods - Can be initial
freshwater payout - Tsunamis which chaos and
ecosystems - Sources of lead to damaging ‘lawlessness’
- Soil salinisation income lost flooding e.g. looting

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Volcanoes occur on plate boundaries where plates melt and lava erupts through a plate.
Alternatively, they may occur on hotspots too.

Volcanoes on convergent plate boundaries

Volcanic eruptions on convergent plate boundaries are usually explosive due to the high
pressure the magma is under. Composite volcanoes, made from ash and lava, are formed from
these eruptions. These volcanoes form in different ways dependent on the type of plate
boundary:

Continental and Oceanic

● Denser oceanic plate subducts below the continental.
● The plate subducting leaves a deep ocean trench.
● Fold mountains occur when sediment is pushed upwards during subduction.
● The oceanic crust is melted as it subducts into the asthenosphere.
● The extra magma created causes pressure to build up.
● Pressurised magma forces through weak areas in the continental plate.
● Explosive, high pressure volcanoes erupt through the continental plate, known as
composite volcanoes.

Oceanic and Oceanic:

● Heavier plate subducts leaving an ocean trench. Fold mountains will also occur.
● Built up pressure causes underwater volcanoes bursting through oceanic plate.
● Lava cools and creates new land called island arcs.

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Volcanoes on divergent plate boundaries
Volcanic eruptions on divergent plate boundaries are usually effusive as the magma is under
less pressure, so the lava flows more freely. Shield volcanoes, made from mainly lava, are
formed from these eruptions. These volcanoes form in different ways dependent on the type of
plate boundary:

Oceanic and oceanic:

● Magma rises in between the gap left by the two plates
separating, forming new land when it cools.
● Less explosive underwater volcanoes formed as magma
rises.
● New land forming on the ocean floor by lava filling the
gaps is known as sea floor spreading (as the floor
spreads and gets wider).

Continental to continental:
● Any land in the middle of the separation is forced apart,
causing a rift valley.
● Volcanoes form where the magma rises.
● Eventually the gap will most likely fill with water and
separate completely from the main island.
● The lifted areas of rocks are known as horsts whereas
the valley itself is known as a graben.

Volcanoes on Hotspots
Hotspots are areas of volcanic activity that are not related to plate boundaries. Hot magma
plumes from the mantle rise and burn through weaker parts of the crust. This can create
volcanoes and islands. The plume stays in the same place but the plates continue to move,
which sometimes causes a chain of islands (such as Hawaii).

Hazards caused by volcanoes:

● Lava flows - lava can flow quickly or slowly depending on its viscosity. Silica makes lava
viscous and slow, which is common in explosive eruptions.

● Lahars - caused by a number of reasons, usually by

melting ice at high latitudes

Image: Lahar in the Tambour River, Guatemala. Courtesy of

@ConredGuatemala / twitter

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 ● Mudflows - different to lahars, which are volcanic material, mudflows may be triggered by
the violent shaking that an eruption brings, or meltwater from the volcanic heat.

● Glacial floods (jökulhlaups) - when temperatures are high from lava, glaciers or ice sheets
at high temperatures quickly melt and a large amount of water is discharged

● Tephra - any type of rock that is ejected by a volcano

● Toxic gases - released during some eruptions, even CO₂ can be toxic as it can replace
oxygen as it is heavier

● Acid rain - caused when gases such as sulfur dioxide are released into the atmosphere

● Volcanic landslides - High velocity flows of debris

caused when the energy from the eruption blows
apart rocks and other material, sending it down the
volcanic slope

● Nuées ardentes/pyroclastic flows - clouds of

burning hot ash and gas that collapses down a
volcano at high speeds. Average speeds of
around 60 mph but can reach 430 mph.

Magnitude Vulcanicity is measured using the Volcanic Explosivity

Index(VEI). The more powerful, the more explosive.
The scale is logarithmic from VEI 2 and onwards. Multiple
features are considered when calculating the VEI, including
how much tephra is erupted, how long it lasts, how high the
tephra is ejected etc.
Intense high magnitude eruptions are explosive whereas
calmer, lower magnitude eruptions are effusive.

(Source: https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/glossary/vei.html)

Frequency Frequency of eruptions varies per volcano. Volcanoes are classed as either
active, dormant or extinct. An estimated 50-60 volcanoes erupt each month,
meaning volcanic eruptions are always frequent (and some volcanoes erupt
constantly). Usually, a higher frequency eruption means the eruptions are
effusive whereas low frequency means the eruptions are explosive.

Regularity Volcanic eruptions are regular in that the eruptions on each type of boundary
are similar (e.g. eruptions on convergent boundaries will regularly be explosive)
Sometimes eruptions may be irregular and not fit patterns.

Predictability Regularity of eruptions can help estimate when eruptions will take place (i.e.
every 10 years). Seismic activity, gases releasing, elevation etc. can all indicate
an imminent eruption, but there is no definite predictions to a volcanic eruption.

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 TYPE OF VOLCANIC HAZARD

EFFECT Environmental Economic Social Political

- Ecosystems - Businesses and - People killed - Government

damaged through industries - Homes buildings and
Primary various volcanic destroyed or destroyed from other important
hazards disrupted lava/pyroclastic areas destroyed
or disrupted
- Wildlife killed flows

- Water acidified - Jobs lost - Fires can start - Conflicts

by acid rain - Profit from which puts lives at concerning
Secondary - Volcanic gases tourism industry risk government
contribute to - Mudflows or response, food
greenhouse floods shortages,
effect (global - Trauma insurance etc.
warming) - Homelessness

Hazards can be responded to by preventing them directly, being prepared for the next hazard,
mitigating the effects, or completely adapting your lifestyle to limit the hazard’s effects.

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 Mass Movement Hazards
Mass movement is the large scale movement of materials on a hillslope, caused when the stress
exerted exceeds the internal strength of the hillslope, causing instability.
Mass movement on a slope will always be downhill due to the force of gravity. These movements
can happen over a range of timescales, and also depend on the moisture in the hillslope
material, which is shown in the diagram below:

Causes Mass movement processes occur due to slope instability, causing the slope to
give way.
Slope instability is generally caused by either (or a combination of both): an
increase in external stress on the slope, or a decrease in the internal
strength of a slope.
For example:
● The slope may become too saturated, causing the material to give way,
e.g. mudslides.
● Weathering and erosion can weaken the internal strength until it can no
longer bear the load on the slope, e.g. freeze-thaw processes can cause
large rocks to fall off a slope (rockfalls).
● Seismic waves may cause mass movement processes, triggering
rockslides, landslides, mudflows and other processes.
● Multiple human activities can add stress to a slope or remove its
strength (e.g. deforestation can remove tree roots, which causes soil to
be less cohesive and therefore at risk of mass movement).

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Predictability Mass movement processes can be predicted and monitored through different
technologies.
● Precipitation levels can be measured through a rain gauge or
precipitation radars, which can show the risk of a mass movement
processes that are triggered by heavy rainfall.
● Soil moisture content can be measured through different technologies
(such as a time-domain reflectometer).
● Changes in the surface of a slope can be detected using radar
technology, and other systems such as an inclinometer, which
measures the incline of a slope.
● Seismometers measure seismic waves going through the ground, which
can indicate whether there is a risk of a mass movement process being
triggered.
Using past data, predetermined indicators, and other means, scientists can
predict whether or not there is a possibility of a mass movement event through
these technologies.

TYPE OF MASS MOVEMENT HAZARD

EFFECT Environmental Economic Social Political

- Ecosystems - Businesses and - People killed or - Government

damaged through industries injured buildings and
Primary destroyed slope destroyed or - Homes other important
- Wildlife killed disrupted destroyed areas destroyed
- Damage to or disrupted
- Roads blocked
environment - Infrastructure
destroyed

- Debris and mud - Jobs lost - Power outages, - Conflicts or

can block - Money needed gas leaks etc. disagreements
Secondary waterways and to rebuild and caused by broken concerning
cause other clean up infrastructure. government
environmental - Investments - Blocked roads response
issues into slope stability - Trauma
- Homelessness

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 Atmospheric Hazards

Large Scale Tropical Disturbances

A tropical storm is a low pressure, spinning storm with high winds and torrential rain.

Hurricane Florence from the International Space Station

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There are certain conditions for a tropical storm to form and develop:

● Temperature: Ocean temperatures ● Rotation: Tropical storms only form

must be around 26 - 27°C and at least around the equator, but no less than 5°
50 metres deep. Warm water provides on either side. The Coriolis Effect is
the storm with energy. the effect of the Earth’s rotation on
weather events. The storm spins
● Air pressure: Must be in areas of because the Earth is spinning; but there
unstable air pressure - usually where is no Coriolis Effect at the equator,
areas of high pressure and low pressure hence why these storms will only form a
meet (convergence) - so that warm air certain distance away from it.
rises more readily and clouds can form
(this air must also be humid for cloud ● A trigger: a pre-existing thunderstorm, a
formation). Warm air rises because it is spot of very high sea surface
less dense than cold air. temperature, an area of low pressure and
many other factors can act as a trigger
● Wind shear: Winds must be present for for a storm to develop, which will only
the swirling motion to form, but not too further develop when the other
strong or the storm system will be ripped conditions are present.
apart in the early stages.

Formation
1. Warm, moist air rises, leaving an area of low pressure below. This causes warm air from
surrounding areas of higher pressure to move into this low pressure area and rise too.
Overall, warm air is constantly rising and accumulating in the atmosphere.

2. When the warm air rises, it cools, condensing into thunderstorm clouds.

3. The whole system is spinning due to the Coriolis effect. In the southern hemisphere, the
storms spin clockwise; in the northern, anticlockwise.

4. The constant additions of energy from the warm air causes the storm to spin faster and
generate higher wind speeds.Furthermore, the difference in pressure between the low
pressure centre and the higher pressure surroundings causes air to be sucked in
towards the centre, enhancing the high winds. At 39 mph the storm can be classed as a
tropical storm.

5. The eye of the storm is in the centre. This is an area spanning around 30 miles wide that is
of extremely low pressure (can be 15% lower pressure than areas outside of the storm).
Cool, dry air (cool from the higher altitudes and the moisture has been transferred into the
system) descends in the eye, causing the weather to be relatively calm and cloud free.
The more intense the storm, the clearer the eye.

6. Surrounding the eye is the eyewall, the most intense and powerful area of the storm.
Warm, moist air rapidly rises here, with extremely high winds and torrential rain. When
winds reach 74 mph, it becomes a hurricane/cyclone/typhoon.

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 A cross section of a tropical storm is thought to look something like this:

7. When the tropical storm reaches a coast, the low pressure and high winds will cause a
large amount of sea water to be taken into the system and then released as a high wave
called a storm surge.
8. When the storm reaches land, it no longer has a supply of energy (warm, moist air from
the sea) and the eye eventually collapses. Heavy rain can persist for days.

Spatial
Distribution

Magnitude Measured on the Saffir-Simpson Scale (A scale of 1-5) based on wind speed
and thus power of the storm.

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Frequency Tropical storms form in the Northern Hemisphere from June-November, and the
Southern Hemisphere from November-April. The majority of tropical storms do
not develop into strong storms and do not reach land. Tropical storms that are
higher magnitude and reaching land are thought to be increasing in frequency.

Regularity Tropical storms are irregular because although they occur in the same areas,
their path does not follow a set route - the route taken is dependent on the
storm and the climatic conditions.

Predictability Tropical storms form away from land meaning satellite tracking of cloud
formations and movement can be tracked and the general route can be
predicted. These projected path of Hurricane Florence estimates to the hour
when the hurricane will hit. The first picture tracks 5 days in advance, the second
picture is the day after. Note how the tracking changes within 24 hours.

The closer the hurricane gets, the easier it is to predict. Storm surges can also
be predicted based on the pressure and intensity of the storm.

From past storms and climatic trends, the probability of a storm hitting an area
can also be predicted. Scientists have predicted how many years it will take for a
tropical storm to hit certain areas.

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Hazards caused by tropical storms:
● High winds - over 300km/h and therefore very strong. Hurricane winds are strong enough
to blow a house down, and also blow heavy debris at high speeds, which can obviously
cause damage and injure anyone who comes into contact.
● Flooding - coastal/river flooding from storm surges and heavy rain. River flooding also
sends more floodwater to other places, which can cause areas outside of the tropical
storm’s path to flood also.
● Landslides - due to soil becoming heavy when wet with high levels of rain
● Storm surges - Large rise in sea levels caused by low pressure and high winds, pushing
water towards the coast
TYPE OF STORM HAZARD

EFFECT Environmental Economic Social Political

Primary - Beaches eroded - Businesses - Drowning - Government

-Sand displaced destroyed - Debris carried buildings
- Coastal habitats - Agricultural land by high winds destroyed
such as coral reefs damaged can injure or kill
are destroyed - Buildings
destroyed

Secondary - River flooding/ salt - Rebuilding and - - Issues paying

water contamination insurance payout Homelessness back international
- Animals displaced - Sources of - Polluted aid
from flooding e.g. income lost water supplies - Pressure for
alligators - Economic decline spread disease government to do
-Water sources from sources of - Food more about
changing course income destroyed shortages from global warming
from blockages damaged land

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Small Scale Atmospheric Disturbances

A tornado is a violently rotating moving vortex of air.

Tornadoes are found in many areas across the world, especially within the middle latitudes.
Tornadoes occur most frequently in the USA, and these tornadoes are usually the most violent.

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When the sun heats the ground, the hot air rises and then
condenses into clouds. There must be an environment where
higher winds are stronger and faster than the winds lower
down for the formation to continue.

The stronger, faster wind may start to roll underneath the

weaker wind, which creates a rolling horizontal cylinder of wind.

As the powerful, hot updraughts of air continue to rise, they

can cause the horizontal cylinder to be forced upwards into a
rotating vertical column of air. At this point, the storm is known
as a supercell.

Cool, dry downdraughts of air pull the rotating air downwards,

causing the spinning vortex to spin faster and become tighter.

If the rotating vortex of air reaches the ground, it is then classed

as a tornado. Although the majority of tornadoes are small and
short, some can be extremely strong and violent. Winds can
exceed 200mph, destroying the majority of things in its path until
it eventually loses energy.

This video from the Met Office provides an overview of the formation with helpful illustrations.

Magnitude The Enhanced Fujita Scale is used in

some countries to rate the intensity of a
tornado based on the damage it
causes. EF0 is the lowest rating,
whereas EF5 is the highest rating.
The EF scale contains 28 damage
indicators, which are used to make a
judgement on the level of damage.

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 Frequency Tornadoes occur most frequently in the USA; there are an average of 1200
tornadoes each year in the US, compared to 100 in Canada, and 300 in Europe.
They are most frequent in spring, and rare in winter.

Predictability Although predicting tornadoes is not 100% accurate, there are ways to monitor
tornadoes and spot warning signs.
● Favourable conditions for a tornado to develop can be monitored, e.g.
intense thunderstorms.
● Warning signs may be sighted, such as funnel clouds, or a rear flank
downdraft (the movement of cold air downwards).
● Radars and weather systems can spot signs of a tornado forming, or if a
tornado is already on the ground. A Doppler Radar detects a large
rotating updraft (called a mesocyclone) in a supercell based on its
shape.

Hazards caused by tornadoes:

● High winds - over 200km/h and therefore very strong. Tornado winds are strong enough to
blow a house down, pick up automobiles, and also blow heavy debris at high speeds, which
can obviously cause damage and injure anyone who comes into contact.
● Precipitation - flooding due to extremely heavy rain. This can lead to other issues, such
as landslides. Hail often develops in a supercell, which can grow to be large enough to
smash windows and cause serious injury. Hail developed in supercells can be ¾ of an
inch or larger in diameter.
● Pressure imbalance - there is a huge pressure imbalance between inside the tornado
(very low pressure) and its surroundings. If a tornado is passing through a house, the
difference in pressure inside the house compared to outside alone is enough to rip off a
roof and much worse.

TYPE OF TORNADO HAZARD

EFFECT Environmental Economic Social Political

Primary - Destruction of - Businesses - Debris carried - Government

habitats from high destroyed by high winds buildings
winds and rain - Agricultural can injure or kill destroyed
- Wildlife killed or land damaged - Homes and
injured other buildings
destroyed

Secondary - Flooding from heavy - Rebuilding and - Widespread - Issues paying

rain insurance payout power failure back
- Landslides or other - Sources of - Psychological international aid
natural structural income lost trauma as a - Pressure on
failures due to - Economic decline result government to
tornado and its storm from sources of - Homelessness provide aid etc.
- Animals displaced income destroyed - Risk of injury
due to destroyed due to destroyed
habitats house (e.g.
electrical injury)

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Hazard Perception
People have different viewpoints of how dangerous hazards are and what risk they pose. These
perceptions are dependent on lifestyle factors which include economic and cultural elements.
Note that these are the economic and cultural factors of individual people rather than an entire
population’s views.

Wealth - The financial situation of a person will affect how they perceive hazards. Wealthier
people may perceive a hazard to be smaller as they are less vulnerable (e.g. they have the ability
to evacuate with transport access, build stronger houses etc.). However, wealthier people may also
view a risk as greater as there is more risk of property damage and financial loss than someone
less wealthy. This is, of course, dependent on the person.

Experience - Someone who has experienced more hazards may be more likely to understand
the full effects of a hazard. There are also studies suggesting that people who have experienced
hazards are likely to have an optimistic and unrealistic outlook on future hazards, almost like a
‘lightning never strikes the same place twice’ mentality. R. Kates describes this in his journal:
Natural Hazard in Human Ecological Perspective: Hypotheses and Models, 1971.

Education - A person who is more educated about hazards may understand their full effects on
people and how devastating they can be and have been in the past. Those who are less educated
may not understand the full extent of a hazard and may not evacuate etc.

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Religion and beliefs - Some may view hazards as put there by God for a reason, or being part of
the natural cycle of life etc. so may not perceive them to be negative. In contrast, those who
believe strongly in environmental conservation may perceive hazards to be a huge risk to the
natural environment, especially hazards that are becoming more frequent due to global warming.

Mobility - Those who have limited access to escape a hazard may perceive hazards to be
greater threats than they are. Whether they are in a secluded location, or if they are impaired with
a disability or illness, those who cannot easily leave an area quickly may feel more at risk.

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