Flyback Converter

Project report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of

Bachelor of Technology
By,
Anurag Gupta
120070029
Guide: Professor Mukul C. Chandorkar

Department of Electrical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
April, 2016
Table of Contents

Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... 2

1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 Buck-Boost converter .................................................................................................. 4
1.1.1 Principle of operation .......................................................................................... 5
1.2 Flyback converter ........................................................................................................ 5
1.2.1 Principle of operation .......................................................................................... 5
2 Flyback converter for Modular Multilevel converter ........................................................ 6
2.1 Rating........................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 TNY279 Functional description ................................................................................... 7
2.3 TNY279 Operation ....................................................................................................... 8
2.4 Feedback circuit .......................................................................................................... 9
2.5 Current limit state machine ...................................................................................... 10
2.6 Schematic .................................................................................................................. 11
2.7 PCB layout ................................................................................................................. 13
2.8 Testing ....................................................................................................................... 14
2.9 Application ................................................................................................................ 17
2.9.1 Pre-charging of module capacitors .................................................................... 18
2.9.2 Design modification ........................................................................................... 20
2.9.3 Challenges .......................................................................................................... 21
3 Flyback converter for powering Nixie tubes .................................................................... 22
3.1 Nixie tubes ................................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Rating......................................................................................................................... 22
3.3 Multi-output flyback converter ................................................................................. 22
3.3.1 Motivation.......................................................................................................... 22
3.3.2 Design specification ........................................................................................... 22
3.3.3 Transformer design ............................................................................................ 25
3.3.4 Results ................................................................................................................ 27
3.4 USB powered flyback converter ................................................................................ 28
3.4.1 Design................................................................................................................. 29
3.4.2 Transformer design ............................................................................................ 29
 3.4.3 Results ................................................................................................................ 30
3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 32
4 Reference ......................................................................................................................... 33
1 Introduction
Flyback converter (Figure 1) is a dc-dc converter topology derived from buck-boost converter
(Figure 2) with inductor split up to form a transformer for galvanic isolation between input
and output. Section 1.1 describes the working of buck-boost converter followed by
description of flyback converter in Section 1.2.

Figure 1: Flyback converter

Figure 2: Buck-Boost converter

1.1 Buck-Boost converter

A buck-boost converter has an output voltage that is either greater than or less than input
voltage depending on duty cycle of switching pulse. Its voltage gain expression is given by
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝐷
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 : 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 : 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑉1
𝐷: 𝑑𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒
1.1.1 Principle of operation
Let us assume that buck-boost converter is operating in continuous conduction mode (CCM)
for analysis. During steady state, voltage Vout appears across the capacitor (C1) and a non-zero
average current flows through the inductor (L1). The basic operation of buck-boost converter
can be understood by analyzing the two states of switch (Q1).
When the switch (Q1) turns ON, input voltage is directly connected to inductor L1, ignoring
the on state resistance of switch, and diode D1 gets reverse biased. This leads to rise in current
through inductor governed by expression
𝑑𝑖
𝑉 =𝐿∗( )
𝑑𝑡
𝑉: 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿: 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑖: 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
When the switch (Q1) turns OFF, current through inductor cannot immediately die down to
zero, hence, diode (D1) starts conducting due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
providing a path for inductor (L1) to charge the output capacitor (C1).
To derive voltage gain expression, we can use the condition that average voltage across
inductor should be equal to zero (or else the inductor will burn). During ON state, 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
and during OFF state, 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 . Applying average voltage criteria, we get

𝑉𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝑇 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ (1 − 𝐷) ∗ 𝑇 = 0
𝑇: 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑤𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐷
⇒ =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1−𝐷

1.2 Flyback converter

As explained earlier, flyback converter is obtained by replacing inductor with transformer in
a buck-boost converter. Corresponding voltage gain expression for flyback converter is
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑁2 𝐷
= ∗
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑁1 1 − 𝐷
𝑁1 : 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
𝑁2 : 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟

1.2.1 Principle of operation

We can analyze the two states of switch (Q1) for deriving the voltage gain expression in a
manner similar to buck-boost converter.
When the switch Q1 turns ON, input voltage appears across the primary side of transformer,
thereby, increasing the energy stored in magnetizing inductance 𝐿𝑚 of transformer. Because
of the shown dot polarities in Figure 1, negative voltage appears across the diode D1 and it
does not conducts. During this state, capacitor (C1) satiates the current demand of load.
When the switch Q1 turns OFF, current stored in Lm cannot instantaneously die down to zero.
Hence, diode (D1) starts conducting because of the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and transfer of energy from inductor to output capacitor (C1) takes place.
Figure 3 illustrates the voltage and current waveform for ON and OFF state of switch (Q1). 𝐼𝑝
in the plot represents peak value of current through primary side of transformer (T1).

Figure 3: Primary voltage, primary current, secondary current and output voltage waveform for
PWM switching of flyback converter

To derive voltage gain expression, we can apply average voltage criteria on the primary side
of transformer (T1) to get
𝑁1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝑇 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ ∗ (1 − 𝐷) ∗ 𝑇 = 0
𝑁2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑁2 𝐷
⇒ = ∗
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑁1 1 − 𝐷

2 Flyback converter for Modular Multilevel converter

During first part of the project, a flyback converter which takes rectified input from an AC
power supply and produces a regulated output voltage was designed as shown in Figure 4. A
full bridge rectifier followed by a smoothing capacitor was used to obtain unregulated DC
supply for the flyback converter. Further, a transformer with turn ratio of 10:1, designed by
Wurth Electronik, and TNY279 switch plus controller IC from Power Integration was used for
galvanic isolation and output regulation respectively. Section 2.1 specifies the rating of flyback
converter followed by functional description and operation of TNY279 in Section 2.2 and
Section 2.3 respectively. Design of feedback loop is discussed in Section 2.4 followed by terse
description of current limit state machine feature of TNY279 switch in Section 2.5. Toward
the end, Section 2.6 and 2.7 covers the schematic of implemented design and its PCB layout
in Eagle.

Figure 4: Flyback converter with TNY279 controller IC

2.1 Rating
Input: 85-265 VAC, 3.15 A.
Output: 15 V, 1 A.

2.2 TNY279 Functional description

Figure 5 and Figure 6 shows the package and functional block diagram of TNY279 controller
IC used for the design of flyback converter. Pin EN/UV, BP/M, D and S represents
enable/under-voltage, bypass/multifunction, drain and source respectively.

Figure 5: TNY279 package (Source: Power Integrations)

 Figure 6: TNY279 functional block diagram (Source: Power Integrations)

During ON state, current flows from D to S. BP/M is used to decouple internal power supply
and to decide global limiting value of current from drain to source by appropriate choice of
capacitor between BP/M and S. An internal current limit state machine adaptively adjusts the
local current limit for different loads. EN/UV pin decides the state of switch based on feedback
from the output voltage. It can also be used to detect under-voltage on the input side and
shut down the MOSFET.

2.3 TNY279 Operation

During normal operation, input circuitry at EN/UV consists of a low impedance source
follower set at 1.2 V. If current through this terminal exceeds the threshold value of 115 µA,
a logic 1 is generated at the output of this circuitry otherwise a logic 0 is generated. Based on
the output of this logic, generated at the rising edge of internally generated 132 kHz signal,
state of the switch is controlled. If logic 1 is sampled on the rising edge, MOSFET is turned off
otherwise it’s turned on. During the cycle when MOSFET is turned on, drain current keeps
increasing and MOSFET is turned off as soon as this currents reaches the drain-source current
limit as shown in Figure 7. Note that this current limit is updated by current limit state
machine based on previous cycles and is explained later.
 Figure 7: TNY279 switching waveform (Source: Power Integrations)

2.4 Feedback circuit

Unlike PWM mode, TNY279 uses on/off method to regulate output voltage using external
feedback circuitry. In a typical implementation, reverse breakdown voltage of zener
connected in series with optocoupler LED decides the regulated output voltage as shown in
Figure 8. When output voltage exceeds the target regulated value, LED starts to conduct and
optocoupler pulls the EN/UV pin to zero leading to turning off of switch. To set a regulated
output voltage of 15 V, zener diode (ZD1) with reverse breakdown voltage of 15 V was chosen
for the design. Resistance (R3) precludes damage to optocoupler by circumscribing the
current flowing through LED.

Figure 8: Feedback circuit for TNY279

2.5 Current limit state machine
The current limit state machine reduces the current limit – for comparison with drain current
when MOSFET is in on state – when output is connected to light load. This increases the
frequency of switching and allays the associated audible noise due to magnetostriction
phenomenon in transformer. The state machines observes the past switching cycles of
MOSFET to determine the load condition and updates current limit in discrete steps. Figure 9
and Figure 10 represents the state machine adaptation to different load conditions.

Figure 9: Variation in drain current limit for moderately heavy load (Source: Power Integrations)

Figure 10: Variation in drain current limit for very light load (Source: Power Integrations)
2.6 Schematic
Eagle 7.3 was used to design schematic (Fig. 8) for designed flyback converter.

Figure 11: Eagle schematic layout for flyback converter

Overall schematic can be understood by understanding its subparts as illustrated in Figure 12:
Full bridge rectifier followed by pi filter - Figure 14. Subpart corresponding to Figure 12
represents a full bridge rectifier followed by pi filter to generate unregulated DC supply. F1, a
fuse of rating 3.15 𝐴, breaks supply to circuit in the event of a fault. LED1 is meant to indicate
on/off state of input. IN4007, with rating of 700 V RMS voltage, was chosen for AC rectification
keeping in mind the maximum voltage across diodes.

Figure 12: Full bridge rectifier followed by pi filter

Figure 13 represents the snubber circuit on the primary side of transformer to prevent voltage
spike, during transition of states. Use of zener clamp and parallel RC optimizes both EMI and
energy efficiency.

Figure 13: Snubber circuit for primary winding

Remaining subpart of the schematic represents a DC-DC flyback converter topology as shown
in Figure 14. Additional circuitry like 3.6 MΩ resistance facilitates under voltage protection;
additional bias winding on transformer provides overvoltage protection in the event of open
feedback loop faults; indicator LED indicates the state of output.

Figure 14: DC-DC flyback converter

In this project, transformer ratio of 10:1 is used for designing a flyback converter with 15 V
regulated output and 1 𝐴 current rating. Therefore, reverse breakdown voltage of zener
diode (in this case 15 V), connected between optocoupler input and output voltage, plus the
optocoupler LED forward drop should be such that when the output exceeds 15 V, current
should flow in the LED of optocoupler. This would result in current greater than 115 µA to
sink from EN/UV pin of TNY279 switch, turning the MOSFET off. Note that transformer ratio
of 10:1 was chosen in accordance with zener clamping circuit. As per design criteria of zener
clamping circuit, if clamping voltage of zener diode is around 150 V, output voltage of 12 V
when reflected on primary would be close to but less than 150 V.

2.7 PCB layout

Eagle 7.3 was used for designing PCB layout as shown in Fig. 12. Basic considerations while
designing the layout show in Figure 15 were as follows:

 Minimizing distance between positive and negative terminals of AC source to reduce

stray inductance.
 Minimum separation of 2 cm between ground plane of input and output.
 Large distance between input and output connector for safety.

Figure 15: Board layout of the flyback converter

2.8 Testing
In order to characterize output voltage regulation, input voltage sweep from 0 - 230 V (r.m.s)
was carried out using variac for resistive load of 16 Ω, 25 Ω, 40 Ω, 55 Ω, 80 Ω, 148 Ω, 200 Ω
and no load. Multimeter was used to record input r.m.s voltage and output dc voltage. Error
in regulated output voltage is 2% which is within acceptable limit for the application of IGBT
gate driver. Figure 16 - Figure 23 shows the plot of output voltage for input voltage sweep
with different load conditions.

Figure 16: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (No load)

Figure 17: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 200 Ω)

Figure 18: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 148 Ω)

Figure 19: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 80 Ω)

Figure 20: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 55 Ω)

Figure 21: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 40 Ω)

 Figure 22: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 25 Ω)

Figure 23: Voltage sweep of flyback converter (Rload = 16 Ω)

2.9 Application
Flyback converter, in this section, was designed for the purpose of driving IGBT gate from
output of module capacitor voltage in Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC). A MMC is a
power electronic device which can generate as many level of output voltage as the number
of modules in one leg. Functional diagram of a three phase MMC is illustrated in Figure 24.

Figure 24: Three phase Modular Multilevel Converter (Source: Modular Multilevel Converter,
Modulation and Control, Sreejith M.R.)

2.9.1 Pre-charging of module capacitors

One of the challenge associated with MMC is that of pre-charging its module capacitors. Use
of auxiliary power supply makes the process cumbersome and expensive. Therefore, active
research is undergoing in an attempt to pre-charge module capacitor from main power supply
itself. It is achieved in two stage: in the beginning, an uncontrolled pre-charging of module
capacitors is initiated through diodes of MOSFET present in series with capacitor (ref. Figure
25 and Figure 26). After a certain threshold voltage is achieved, flyback converters attached
at the output of module capacitors are employed for controlled pre-charging using sorting
algorithm. Flyback converter was chosen for this low power application because of its
requirement for less no. of components.
Figure 25: Half bridge cell of a MMC (Source: Modular Multilevel Converter, Modulation and Control,
Sreejith M.R.)

Figure 26: Full bridge cell of a MMC (Source: Modular Multilevel Converter, Modulation and Control,
Sreejith M.R.)

The problem with abovementioned technique for controlling gate drives is unstable voltage
imbalance across module output due to negative resistance characteristics of flyback
converter. Say, a small voltage imbalance of Δ𝑉 takes place across module 1 and module 2 of
limb 1. This creates a voltage 𝑉 + Δ𝑉 and 𝑉 − Δ𝑉 at the output of module 1 and module 2
respectively. Because of this small perturbation, more current will be drawn by flyback
converter from module 1 (negative resistance characteristics of flyback converter) and lesser
current will be drawn from module 2. This leads to further deterioration of voltage difference.
One way to circumnavigate the problem is by producing unregulated output in the range of
30-40 V from flyback converter followed by a linear regulator such as 7815. Section 2.9.2
discusses two possible types of modification in the existing flyback converter for
accommodating this feature.

2.9.2 Design modification

A crude way to generate desired deregulation at output is to add a P-MOSFET in series with
TNY279 switch and an N-MOSFET in parallel to this configuration as shown in Figure 27.
Reverse breakdown voltage of feedback zener diode (ZD1) is increased to 35 V. During starting
phase, P-MOSFET (Q1) remains ON providing a path for TNY279 to bring up the output voltage
to 35 V. An external logic immediately turns off the P-MOSFET at this instant and the N-
MOSFET (Q2) starts to regulate output voltage in the range of 30 – 40 V using hysteresis
control. Logics for MOSFET Q1 and Q2 are not shown in figure for the sake of clarity.

Figure 27: Modified version 1 of flyback converter feedback control

The only drawback of this technique is increase in the number of components leading to high
cost of setup.
A second technique is proposed herein which eliminates the need of a P-MOSFET, a major
contributor to the total cost of previous setup. BP/M pin of TNY279 IC which provides the
utility of overvoltage protection is exploited here. When the required output of 35 V is
achieved, BP/M is shorted to pin S by use of an external N-MOSFET, thereby, shutting down
the IC. From then on, an external logic based on output voltage feedback, roughly regulates
the output in the range of 30 – 40 V. Although total number of components for the setup
remains the same, total cost reduces significantly because of replacement of P-MOSFET with
N-MOSFET which is lot cheaper. Figure 28 illustrates the schematic of second idea.
 Figure 28: Modification version 2 of flyback converter feedback control

2.9.3 Challenges
Although design modifications in previous subsection eliminates the problem of instability, it
is inefficient due to use of linear regulator for high power application. Therefore, steps are
being undertaken to utilize a modified version of sorting algorithm for control.
3 Flyback converter for powering Nixie tubes
3.1 Nixie tubes
A nixie tube, or cold cathode display, is an electronic device for displaying numerals or other
information using glow discharge. It operates on 180 𝑉, 0.001 – 0.002 𝐴 input power source.
Here, in this section, we will design various dc-dc converter for powering nixie tube and
discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

3.2 Rating
𝑉𝑖𝑛 : 180 𝑉
𝐼𝑖𝑛 : 2 𝑚𝐴

3.3 Multi-output flyback converter

3.3.1 Motivation
A flyback converter with multi-output terminals is proposed which takes input from 220 VAC
power supply and generates output of 180 V and 5 V at its two output terminal. 180 V is used
to power nixie tube whereas 5 V supplies power to micro-controller. In order to regulate
output, 5 V output terminal is fed back to control circuit as nixie tubes are more tolerable to
ripples in voltage than micro-controller. Figure 29 represents the topology for multi-output
flyback converter.

Figure 29: Multi-output flyback converter

3.3.2 Design specification

𝑉𝑖𝑛 : 220 𝑉𝐴𝐶
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡1 : 180 𝑉, 2 𝑚𝐴 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡2 : 5 𝑉, 2 𝐴 (𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝑓𝑠 : 100 𝑘𝐻𝑧

3.3.2.1 Continuous conduction mode

To begin with the design of flyback converter let’s assume N1 : N2 = 320 : 181 (because
capacitor voltage on primary side of transformer = 220 ∗ √2 = 320 and we have assumed 1
V diode drop on secondary side), N1 : N3 = 320 : 6 and D = 0.5 as a rule of thumb for CCM.
Peak value of secondary current comes out to be 0.008 A (refer waveform in Figure 30) using
law of energy conservation for one cycle,

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟) = 𝑃(𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒) + 𝑃(𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑)

𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
⇒ (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 1) ∗ ∗ (1 − 𝐷) = 𝑉𝐷 ∗ ∗ (1 − 𝐷) + 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ∗ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
2 2
𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
⇒ 181 ∗ ∗ 0.5 = 1 ∗ ∗ 0.5 + 180 ∗ 0.002
2 2
⇒ 𝐼𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.008 𝐴

Let us consider 10 % current ripple in magnetizing inductance. From this we can obtain that
value of inductance reflected on secondary side of transformer,
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 1 10
∗ (1 − 𝐷) ∗ 𝑇 = ∗ 0.008
𝐿 100
⇒ 𝐿 = 1.13 𝐻
1.13 H of inductance will make the size of converter bulky, hence, we cannot proceed with
our design in CCM.

Figure 30: Voltage and current waveform for flyback converter in CCM

3.3.2.2 Discontinuous conduction mode

Given the infeasible value of magnetizing inductance obtained in CCM, let’s start with 1 mH
as suitable value for magnetizing inductance in DCM. Assuming, as before, turn ratio 𝑁1 : 𝑁2 =
320: 181 and 𝑁1 : 𝑁3 = 320: 6 (keeping in mind 1 V drop across output diode). From
𝑑𝑖
equation 𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 we obtain,

𝑉𝑝
∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝑇 = 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐿𝑝

𝑉𝑝 : 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝐿𝑝 : 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 : 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐷: 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
And from law of conservation of energy we get,
𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝑉𝑝 ∗ ∗ 𝐷 = 181 ∗ 0.002 + 6 ∗ 2
2

Dividing above two equations we obtain value of peak secondary current,

𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ≈ 0.5 𝐴

Substituting 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 in any of the two equations we get,

𝐷 = 0.15625
Note that obtained value of duty cycle is applicable for full load condition only. Therefore, a
closed loop control is mandatory for variable load. Figure 31 represents typical waveforms for
DCM operation at steady state. Similarly, capacitance values can be obtained by satisfying the
specification of 1% ripple in voltage.

Figure 31: Voltage and current waveform for flyback converter in DCM
3.3.3 Transformer design
Now that basic parameters for the design have been derived, we can focus on the design of
transformer. One of the popular method in literature for the design of high frequency
transformer is area product approach. We will use the same procedure for our design. We
know that
𝑑𝜙 Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝑐
𝑉1 = 𝑁1 ∗ ≈ 𝑁1 ∗
𝑑𝑡 𝐷∗𝑇
𝐷∗𝑇
⇒ 𝑁1 = 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗
ΔB ∗ Ac
Δ𝐵: 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (0.3 𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒)
Similarly,
𝐷1 ∗ 𝑇
𝑁2 = 𝑉2𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗
Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝑐
𝐷1 ∗ 𝑇
𝑁3 = 𝑉3𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗
Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝑐
𝐷1 : 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒
In order to get a successful design, our windings should fit in the given window area.
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑤 = 𝑁1 ∗ 𝑎1 + 𝑁2 ∗ 𝑎2 + 𝑁3 ∗ 𝑎3 = 𝑁1 ∗ + 𝑁2 ∗ + 𝑁3 ∗
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
𝐾𝑤 : 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (0.4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛)
𝐼1 : 𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑆. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼2 : 𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑆. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐼3 : 𝑅. 𝑀. 𝑆. 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐽: 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (3 𝐴⁄𝑚𝑚2 )
𝐴𝑤 : 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
Substituting value of N1, N2 and N3 from previous equation, we get

𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑤 ∗ 𝐽 ∗ Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 ∗ 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝐼1 + 𝑉2𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐷1 ∗ 𝐼2 + 𝑉3𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐷1 ∗ 𝐼3

Divide and multiply R.H.S. with average current of each term

⇒ 𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑤 ∗ 𝐽 ∗ Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝐴𝑐 ∗ 𝑓𝑠
𝐼1𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝐼1 𝐼2𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝐼2 𝐼3𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∗ 𝐼3
= 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐷 ∗ + 𝑉2𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐷1 ∗ + 𝑉3𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝐷1 ∗
𝐼1𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐼2𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐼3𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3
⇒ 𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑝 ∗ 𝐽 ∗ Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝑓𝑆 = 𝑃𝑜1 ∗ + 𝑃𝑜2 ∗ + 𝑃𝑜3 ∗
𝐼1𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐼2𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐼3𝑎𝑣𝑔

𝐴𝑝 : 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 (𝐴𝑐 ∗ 𝐴𝑤 )

𝑃𝑜𝑖 : 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 (∀ 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3)
For DCM operation mode, we can substitute the value on RHS to obtain

1 4∗𝐷 4 ∗ (1 − 𝐷)
𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑝 ∗ 𝐽 ∗ Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝑓𝑠 = (𝑃𝑜2 + 𝑃𝑜3 ) ( ∗ √ +√ )
𝜂 3 3
𝜂: 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑟 (≈ 90 %)
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 4∗𝐷
=√ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐷𝐶𝑀 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 3
On substituting values in equation above, we get 𝐴𝑝 = 538 𝑚𝑚4 . Standard table for
magnetic characteristics of ferrite core recommends use of EE20/10/5 core with 𝐴𝑝 =
1490 𝑚𝑚4 , 𝐴𝑤 = 47.8 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝐴𝑐 = 31 𝑚𝑚2. Now, we need to calculate R.M.S. values for
current waveforms.

𝐷𝑇 2
1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼1 = √∫ ( ∗ 𝑡) = 0.117 𝐴
𝑇 0 𝐿𝑝

𝑁1
𝐼2 = ∗ 𝐼 = 0.207 𝐴
𝑁2 1
𝑁1
𝐼3 = ∗ 𝐼 = 6.24
𝑁3 1
Using R.M.S. value obtained in previous step, we can re-verify that our winding fits in the
window area.
𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑁1 ∗ + 𝑁2 ∗ + 𝑁3 ∗ ≤ 𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑤 = 0.4 ∗ 47.8 = 19.12
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
𝐷∗𝑇 320 ∗ 0.16525 ∗ 10−5
𝑁1 = 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ = ≈ 57
ΔB ∗ Ac 0.3 ∗ 31 ∗ 10−6
181
𝑁2 = ∗ 57 ≈ 32
320
6
𝑁3 = ∗ 32 ≈ 1
181
0.117 0.207 6.24
∴ 57 ∗ + 32 ∗ +1∗ = 10.927
3 3 3
As 10.927 < 19.12, winding will comfortably fit into available window area. We now need
to find air gap required to achieve required inductance using
𝐴𝑐
𝑙𝑔 = 𝜇0 ∗ 𝑁 2 ∗
𝐿𝑝
⇒ 𝑙𝑔 = 0.12 𝑚𝑚

𝑙𝑔 : 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

The last step is to find standard wire gauge for each winding and then the design process is
complete.
𝐼1
𝑎1 = = 0.039 𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝑆𝑊𝐺 = 34
3
𝐼2
𝑎2 = = 0.069 𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝑆𝑊𝐺 = 31
3
𝐼3
𝑎3 = = 2.08 𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝑆𝑊𝐺 = 15
3
3.3.4 Results
Flyback converter designed in this section was simulated for full load in Simulink. Figure 32
depicts the Simulink model for the multi-output flyback converter. Rectified 220 VAC input
was fed to the input of converter and a closed loop control was implemented using PI
controller block with 5 V as the reference voltage. Parameters 𝐾𝑝 and 𝐾𝐼 were set to 1 and 15
respectively after successive trial and error method. Output error was given to a PWM
generator block for generating switching pulses for MOSFET. Resulting voltage waveforms for
two output terminals are shown in Figure 33 and Figure 34 and input current waveform at
steady state is shown in Figure 35. Peak value of 5 A input current during steady state
indicates that our design was correct.

Figure 32: Simulink model for multi-output closed-loop flyback converter

 Figure 33: Simulation waveform for 5 V output terminal

Figure 34: Simulation waveform for 180 V output terminal

Figure 35: Input current waveform for DCM operation at steady state

3.4 USB powered flyback converter

In the early part of this project, idea of using USB port (5 V, 0.5 A power supply) to power nixie
tube was proposed using multi stage converter. If we were to use a single stage boost
converter, it would require 97.2 % duty cycle (D) for its steady state operation. Practically it is
not advisable to go beyond 90 % duty cycle, hence, a multi-stage design using boost converter
was proposed. It consisted of two cascaded boost converter: first stage boosts the input
voltage from 5 V to 30 V followed by second stage which boosts it to 180 V. It had its own
demerits in terms of high input current and absence of galvanic isolation between its input
and output. Further, operation in continuous mode required large inductance value. In order
to tackle these problem, a flyback converter design operating is proposed. Again the problem
of high inductance value exists if we were to operate in CCM, so, operational design in DCM
is made in following section. Added advantage of powering

3.4.1 Design
Based on the design principle followed in Section 3.3.2.2, we can apply law of energy
conservation to obtain,
𝐷
𝑉𝑝 ∗ 𝑉𝑝 ∗ ∗ 𝐷 = 181 ∗ 0.002
2 ∗ 𝐿𝑝
⇒ 𝐷2 = 𝐿𝑝 ∗ 2896

To obtain 𝐿𝑝 , use the maximum input current limitation. Let’s keep 𝐼𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 0.3 𝐴 to be on
safer side i.e. to avoid current overshoot to exceed 0.5 A during transient. More on this will
be discussed in results section. Therefore,
𝑉𝑝
∗ 𝐷 ∗ 𝑇 = 0.3
𝐿𝑝
⇒ 𝐷 = 6000 ∗ 𝐿𝑝

Dividing above two equations, we obtain

2896
𝐷= = 0.483 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿𝑝 = 80.5 𝜇𝐻
6000
3.4.2 Transformer design
Refer to Section 3.3.3 for detailed derivation of transformer design. We can use the result
obtained to get area product for transformer using

1 4∗𝐷 4 ∗ (1 − 𝐷)
𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑝 ∗ 𝐽 ∗ Δ𝐵 ∗ 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑃𝑜2 ∗ ( ∗ √ +√ )
𝜂 3 3
0.623
⇒ 𝐴𝑝 = = 17.3 𝑚𝑚4
36000
Standard table for magnetic characteristics of ferrite core recommends use of EE20/10/5 core
with 𝐴𝑝 = 1490 𝑚𝑚4 , 𝐴𝑤 = 47.8 𝑚𝑚2 , 𝐴𝑐 = 31 𝑚𝑚2. Now, we need to calculate R.M.S.
values for current waveforms.

𝐷𝑇 2
1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐼1 = √∫ ( ∗ 𝑡) = 0.21 𝐴
𝑇 0 𝐿𝑝

𝑁1
𝐼2 = ∗ 𝐼 = 5.81 𝑚𝐴
𝑁2 1
Using R.M.S. value obtained in previous step, we can re-verify that our winding fits in the
window area.
 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑁1 ∗ + 𝑁2 ∗ + 𝑁3 ∗ ≤ 𝐾𝑤 ∗ 𝐴𝑤 = 0.4 ∗ 47.8 = 19.12
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
𝐷∗𝑇 5 ∗ 0.483 ∗ 10−5
𝑁1 = 𝑉1𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ = ≈3
ΔB ∗ Ac 0.3 ∗ 31 ∗ 10−6
181
𝑁2 = ∗ 3 ≈ 109
5
0.21 0.00581
∴3∗ + 109 ∗ = .421
3 3
As 0.421 < 19.12, winding will comfortably fit into available window area. We now need to
calculated air gap required to achieve given inductance using
𝐴𝑐
𝑙𝑔 = 𝜇0 ∗ 𝑁 2 ∗
𝐿𝑝
⇒ 𝑙𝑔 = 4.35 ∗ 10−3 𝑚𝑚

𝑙𝑔 : 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑝 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

The last step is to find standard wire gauge for each winding and then the design process is
complete.
𝐼1
𝑎1 = = 0.07 𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝑆𝑊𝐺 = 30
3
𝐼2
𝑎2 = = 0.00194 𝑚𝑚2 ∴ 𝑆𝑊𝐺 = 45
3
3.4.3 Results
Flyback converter designed was simulated for full load in Simulink. Figure 36 depicts the
Simulink model for the designed flyback converter. 5 V input was fed from a dc source and a
closed loop control was implemented using PI controller block parameters 𝐾𝑝 and 𝐾𝐼 set to
.0001 and 0.1 respectively after successive trial and error method. Output error was given to
a PWM generator block for generating switching pulses for MOSFET. Small value of 𝐾𝑝 was
chosen to avoid large input current overshoot as output capacitor is uncharged at start. Plot
of output voltage and input current are shown in Figure 38 and Figure 40 respectively. With
chosen parameter values for PID block, input current is always less than maximum current
rating of USB port. Recapitulate that initial current is due to uncharged output capacitor which
causes secondary current even in the ON state of switch.
 Figure 36: Simulink model of the closed-loop flyback converter

Figure 37: Output voltage waveform of the open loop flyback converter

Figure 38: Output voltage waveform of the closed-loop flyback converter

 Figure 39: Input current waveform the closed loop flyback converter

Figure 40: Input current waveform of the closed-loop flyback converter

3.5 Conclusion
For dc-dc converter with low output power requirement, as was in our case of Nixie tube
power supply, design in continuous conduction mode leads to high inductance value
requirement. Hence, it is advisable to design them in discontinuous conduction mode so as
to reduce inductance and make the hardware compact and economical. Further, DCM
operation results in lower input current requirement allowing use of thin wire for inductor
winding. Small input current also leads to increased efficiency of converter.
4 Reference
[1] https://www.power.com/sites/default/files/product-docs/tny274-280.pdf
[2] Modular Multilevel Converter: Modulation and control, Sreejith M.R.
[3] Pre-charging of Module Capacitors of MMC When the Module Switches are Driven by a
Source Derived from the Module Capacitor, Shamkant D. Joshi, M.C. Chandorkar, A. Shukla
[4] First course on Power Electronics and Drives, Ned Mohan