ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE

NETWORK THEORY
CONTENTS
⮚ Basic Concepts of Network Theory
⮚ Circuit Law
⮚ Network Theorems
⮚ A.C. Fundamentals
⮚ Magnetic Circuits
⮚ Two Port network

BASIC CONCEPTS OF NETWORKS THEORY

Basic Electrical terms
Terms Expression Unit
Charge Q = ne Coulomb (C)

Current 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) Ampere (A)

𝑖 (𝑡) = or 𝑞(𝑡) = 𝐼 (𝑜 ) +
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
∫𝑜 𝐼 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡

Electromotive force (EMF) 𝑑𝑊 Volt(V)

𝑉=
𝑑𝑞
Power 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑞 Watt(W)
𝑃= = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
𝑉2
Or P = VI or P = I2R or 𝑃 = 𝑅

Instantaneous power P(t) = v(t)i(t) Watt(W)

Energy W = ∫Pdt Joule (J)

Resistivity or specific resistance 𝑅𝐴 Ohm – m (Ω−m)

𝜌=
𝑙

Conductance 1 mho or Siemens

𝐺=
𝑅
Conductivity 1 1
or Siemens/m
𝜎= 𝛺−𝑚
𝜌
Inductance 𝑁𝜙 𝑊𝑏
or Henry (H)
𝐿= 𝐴
𝑖

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 Inductance of Solenoid 𝜇𝑁 2 𝐴 Henry (H)
𝐿=
𝑙
Capacitance 𝜖𝐴 𝑄 Farad
𝐶= 𝑑
or 𝐶 = 𝑉

Elastence ‘S’ (Reciprocal of 1 DARAF

𝑆=
capacitance) 𝐶
Current density 𝐼 A/m2
𝐽=
𝐴

● Conventional current’s direction is opposite to the flow of electron direction.

● Direction of voltage is always taken from (-)ve to (+)ve.

● Sign convention for power calculation:

● 1 hp = 746 W
● R2 = R1 [1 + α Δ T]
Where,
R2 = Resistance at temperature T 2
R1= Resistance at temperature T1

T R α
Conductor ↑ ↑ (+)ve temperature
coefficient
Semiconductor ↑ ↓ (-)ve temperature coefficient

1
● Energy stored in inductor is 𝑤(𝑡) = 2 𝐿 𝑖 2 (𝑡) J
1
● Energy stored in capacitor is 𝑤(𝑡) = 2 𝐶𝑉 2 (𝑡)

● Ohm’s law –
At constant temperature, J ∝ E Or J = σ E
At constant temperature, I ∝ V
𝑉 𝑉
or, {𝐼 = 𝑅} or {𝑅 = 𝐼 }

● Division Rule

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 Voltage Division Rule Current Division Rule
(For Series connected elements only) (For Parallel connected elements only)

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1
[𝑅] 𝑉𝑅1 = 𝑉 ( ) , 𝑉𝑅2 = 𝑉 ( ) [𝑅] 𝐼𝑅1 = 𝐼 ( ) , 𝐼𝑅2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿1
[𝐿] 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉 ( ) , 𝑉𝐿1 = 𝑉 ( ) [𝐿] 𝐼𝐿1 = 𝐼 ( ) , 𝐼𝐿2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝐿1 + 𝐿2

𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶2
[𝐶] 𝑉𝐶1 = 𝑉 ( ) , 𝑉𝐶2 = 𝑉 ( ) [𝐶] 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝐼 ( ) , 𝐼𝐶2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

𝐺2 𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2
[𝐺] 𝑉𝐺1 = 𝑉 ( ) , 𝑉𝐺2 = 𝑉 ( ) [𝐺] 𝐼𝐺1 = 𝐼 ( ) , 𝐼𝐺2 = 𝐼 ( )
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝐺1 + 𝐺2

Delta to Star & Star to Delta

DELTA to STAR STAR to DELTA

[𝑅]
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑐 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 = , 𝑅𝑎 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 +
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐 𝑅3
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑏 = 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 +
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑏 𝑅1
𝑅2 = , 𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐
𝑅𝑐 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 +
𝑅2
𝑅𝑐 𝑅𝑏
𝑅3 =
𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅𝑏 + 𝑅𝑐

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 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑐 𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑏 𝐿1 𝐿2
[𝐿] 𝐿1 = , 𝐿2 = [𝐿] 𝐿𝑎 = 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 +
𝐿𝑎 + 𝐿𝑏 + 𝐿𝑐 𝐿𝑎 + 𝐿𝑏 + 𝐿𝑐 𝐿3

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 . 1 . 1 1 1 .
𝐶𝑎 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑎 𝑐𝑏 𝐶1 𝐶2
[𝐶] = , = [𝐶] = + +
𝑐1 1 1 1 𝐶2 1 1 1 𝐶𝑎 𝐶1 𝐶2 1
𝐶𝑎 + 𝐶𝑏 + 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑎 + 𝑐𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐 𝐶3

1 1 1 1 1 1
1 . 1 . 1 1 1 .
𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑏 𝐺1 𝐺2
[𝐺] = , = [𝐺] = + +
𝐺1 1 1 1 𝐺2 1 1 1 𝐺𝑎 𝐺1 𝐺2 1
+ +
𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑏 𝐺𝑐 𝐺𝑎 + 𝐺𝑏 + 𝐺𝑎 𝐺3

Source Transformation

CIRCUIT LAW
Kirchhoff’s Laws
KCL KVL
Algebraic sum of currents at any node is Zero i.e., Algebraic sum of voltages in any closed

path is zero i.e.,

It expressed as conservation of charge It expressed as conservation of energy

KCL does not depend on the nature of the element KVL also does not depend on the nature of the
element
KCL is not applicable for distributed networks KVL is also not applicable for distributed
networks

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Simplification techniques
Nodal Analysis
Applicable to both planar & Non-planar networks.
No. of equation =n-1
Mesh Analysis
Applicable only to planar network
No. of independent loop (l) = b – n + 1.
Here, b = branches & n = Nodes.

NETWORK THEOREMS
Superposition Theorem
● It is stated that in any linear, active, bilateral network, a circuit with multiple voltage and current sources is equal
to the sum of simplified circuits using just one of the sources at a time.
Voltage Source → short
Current source → open
● Do not disturb the dependent source present in the network.
● If different frequency operating on the circuit, then total power (P)
P=P1+P2
● If two sinusoidal source are of same frequency but phase difference is 90° operating on the Network, then total
power is given by
P=P1+P2
● If D.C. Network excited by voltage source & current source, then total power in the Network is equal to the SUM
of power generated by voltage source alone & current source alone.
i.e., P=Pv+Pi

● If Any D.C. Network composed of several resistances, i.e. R Ω & two constant D.C. sources.
Let,
P1 = Power consumed by resistance due to first source only.
P2 = Power consumed by resistance due to second source only.
Now, if both the sources are acting simultaneously then,
2
Maximum & minimum Power are given as 𝑃 = (√𝑃1 ± √𝑃2 )
Here,
{+ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
● For three sources:
2
𝑃 = (√𝑃1 ± √𝑃2 ± √𝑃3 )

Thevenin’s Theorem

● Any linear circuit across a load can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source Vth in
series with a resistor Rth as shown:

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 VTh = Open circuit Voltage at a – b (by removing the load)
RTh = Thevenin’s Resistance or Equivalent resistance b/w a and b
● For A.C. circuits:

ZTh = Equivalent impedance b/w X and Y.

Calculation of RTh

Circuit with both dependent & Independent source Circuit with dependent sources only
Method 1 - In this method, set all independent In this case,
sources equal to zero. V =0
Th

𝑉 & I =0A
𝑅𝑇ℎ =
sc

𝐼 R = Input resistance looking b/w terminals X & Y with

Th

turning off all independent sources.

Method 2- Using short circuit current:
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝑇ℎ =
𝐼𝑠𝑐

Norton’s Theorem
● It states that a two-terminal linear bilateral Network can be replaced by equivalent circuit consisting of a
current source (Isc) in parallel with Norton’s equivalent resistance (R N) or Impedance (ZN).
Here,
Isc = short circuit current at the terminals.
Norton is a dual of Thevenin’s Theorem.

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Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• This theorem is used to find the value of load resistance for which there would be maximum amount of power
transfer from source to load.
Maximum Power delivered to the load RL:
2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4𝑅𝑇ℎ

Reciprocity Theorem
● In a linear, bilateral passive Network, the ratio of excitation to the response is constant even though the source
is interchanged from input terminals to output terminals.

𝑉1 𝑉2
= 𝑜𝑟 𝑍12 = 𝑍21
𝐼2 𝐼1
Tellegan’s Theorem
● The Algebraic SUM of instantaneous power in a lumped Network is equal to zero.
𝑁

∑ 𝑉𝑘 𝐼𝑘 = 0
𝑘=1

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Millman’s Theorem

𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑁
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑁
𝑉=
1 1 1
+ +⋯+
𝑍1 𝑍2 𝑍𝑁
1
𝑍=
1 1 1
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + ⋯ + 𝑍𝑁
Compensation Theorem
● D.C. Circuit

(−𝑉𝐶 )
𝛥𝐼 = 𝐼′ − 𝐼 =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 + 𝛥𝑅𝐿
{VC = I(ΔRL) & it is termed as compensating voltage }

● A.C. Circuit

Ideal voltage source VC connected in series.

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NOTE -
Various Theorem and the circuits where they are applicable is shown below in the table:
Theorem Applicability
Superposition Theorem Linear
Thevenin’s Theorem Linear
Norton Theorem Linear
Maximum Power Transfer Linear
Tellegen All
Substitution Linear

A.C. FUNDAMENTALS
Important terms

(i) Amplitude
|𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚| + |𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚|
𝐴=
2
(ii) Time period
2𝜋 1
𝑇= 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 =
𝜔 𝑓
(iii) Average value
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 1 𝑇
𝑜𝑟 ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 0
(iv) RMS value
1 𝑇
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = √ ∫ 𝑓 2 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0
If any expression f(t) = a0 + a1sin(ωt) + a2sin(2ωt) +…..…..
Then, RMS value is given by:
1
𝑓 (𝑡)𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑎02 + (𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + ⋯ )
2

The average value of sine or cosine function of any phase & frequency is zero & its rms value is given
as:
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
=
√2

(v) Peak factor (or crest factor)

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

(vi) Form factor

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 𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Important Results

WAVEFORM SHAPE MAX. AVERAG RMS FORM CREST

VALUE E VALUE VALUE FACTOR FACTOR
SINUSOIDAL Am 2𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
= √2
WAVE 𝜋 √2 √2 = 1.11 𝐴𝑚
2𝐴𝑚 √2
𝜋

SQUARE Am Am Am 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
=1 =1
WAVE 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚

TRIANGULAR Am 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚
= √3
WAVE 2 √3 √3 = 2 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚 √3 √3
2

HALF-WAVE Am 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚 2
RECTIFIED 𝜋 2 2 =𝜋
𝐴𝑚 2
WAVE 𝜋

Series RL Circuit

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿)2
∵ “I” lags “V” so, lagging pf
𝑉𝑅
● 𝑝𝑓 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑉

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 𝑉 𝜔𝐿
● ɸ = (𝑉𝐿 ) 𝑜𝑟 ɸ = ( 𝑅 ) = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑅

Series RC Circuit

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐶2

1 2
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + ( )
𝜔𝐶
∵ “I” leads “V”, so leading power factor.
𝑉𝑅
● 𝑃𝑓 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑉
1 𝑉𝑐
● ɸ = (𝜔𝑅𝑐 ) 𝑜𝑟 (𝑉 ) = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑅

Series RLC Circuit

VL> VC V C> V L VL = VC

𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 )2 𝑉 = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2 ɸ = 0°

i.e., unity power factor
𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿
ɸ=( ) ɸ=( ) V = VR = IR
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
“I” is in phase with “V”
or or

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 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
ɸ=( ) ɸ=( )
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝑝𝑓 =
𝑉 𝑉
“I” lags “V” “I” lags “V”
i.e., lagging pf i.e., lagging pf

Parallel RL Circuit

𝑉 𝑉
𝐼𝑅 = , 𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅 𝑋𝐿
𝑉
⇒ 𝐼𝐿 = < −90°
𝑋𝐿

𝐼 = √𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐿2
𝐼𝑅
● 𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝐼
𝐼𝐿
● ɸ = (𝐼 ) = 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑅

Parallel RC Circuit

𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = < 90°
𝑋𝐶

𝐼 = √𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝐶2
𝐼𝑅
● 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ɸ = 𝐼
𝐼𝐶
● ɸ = (𝐼 )
𝑅

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 Resonance

Series Resonance Parallel Resonance

Consider series RLC circuit Consider parallel RLC circuit
●

● Resonance frequency (ω0)

● Resonance frequency (ω0) 1
𝜔0 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 √𝐿𝐶
𝜔0 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
√𝐿𝐶 Variation of circuit parameters with frequency
Variation of circuit parameters with frequency

Quality factor Quality factor

𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑄 = 2𝜋 × |𝐼𝐿 | 𝑅
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝑄= =
|𝐼|𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑋𝐿
|𝑉𝐿 | 𝑋𝐿
Or 𝑄 = |𝑉| = 𝑅 𝐶
𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑄 = 𝑅√
1 𝐿 𝐿
𝑄= √ Bandwidth
𝑅 𝐶
1
Bandwidth 𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 =
𝑅 𝑅𝐶
𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = 𝑓0
𝐿 𝑄=
𝑓0 𝑓0 𝜔0 𝐵𝑊
𝑄= = = 1 1 1
𝐵𝑊 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 𝜔1 = − +√ +
ω1 = lower Half power frequency 2𝑅𝐶 (2𝑅𝐶 ) 2 𝐿𝐶

𝑅 𝑅 2 1 1 1 1
𝜔1 = − + √( ) + 𝜔2 = +√ +
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 (2𝑅𝐶 ) 2 𝐿𝐶
ω2 = upper Half power frequency 𝜔0 = √𝜔1 𝜔2

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 Note: -
𝑅 𝑅 2 1 𝐵𝑊
𝜔2 = + √( ) + 𝜔1 ≈ 𝜔0 −
2𝐿 2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 2
𝜔0 = √𝜔1 𝜔2 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐵𝑊
𝜔2 ≈ 𝜔0 +
2
Valid Only when Q ≥ 10
Note: -
𝐵𝑊 𝑓0
𝜔1 ≈ 𝜔0 − 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
2 𝑓2 − 𝑓1
𝐵𝑊
𝜔2 ≈ 𝜔0 +
2
Valid Only when Q ≥ 10
Q ∝ selectivity or BW∝ 1/selectivity
𝑓0
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑓2 − 𝑓1

At Half power frequency

𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
{𝐼 = }
√2
{Z = √2R}
1
{𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = }
√2

Parallel R-C & R-L circuit

𝐿
1 −𝑅12
● Resonance frequency 𝜔0 = √𝐶𝐿
√𝐿𝐶 −𝑅22
𝐶

● Circuit will be at resonance for any frequency at

𝐿
𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = √
𝐶

Relation between damping ratio (ξ) and Quality factor (Q)

14 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 1
𝑉0 (𝑠) 𝐿𝐶
=
𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝑠 2 + (𝑅 ) 𝑠 + 1
𝐿 𝐿𝐶
1
𝜔𝑛 = = 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
√𝐿𝐶
𝑅 𝐶
𝜉= √
2 𝐿
1
𝜉=
2𝑄
● Critically Damped:
1 𝐿
𝜉 = 1, 𝑄 = , 𝑅 = 2√
2 𝐶
● Over -damped:
1 𝐿
𝜉 > 1, 𝑄 < , 𝑅 > 2√
2 𝐶
● Under -damped:
1 𝐿
𝜉 < 1, 𝑄 > , 𝑅 < 2√
2 𝐶
● Undamped:
Q → ∞, ξ = 0, R = 0 (Practically impossible)

Parallel RLC circuit

Ic> IL Ic< IL IL = Ic

𝐼 = √𝐼𝑅2 + (𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝐶 )2 ϕ = 0°
𝐼 = √𝐼𝑅2 + (𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝐿 )2
𝐼𝐿 − 𝐼𝑐 ⇒ unity power factor
𝐼𝑐 − 𝐼𝐿 𝜙=( ) I = IR
𝜙=( ) 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑅 𝐼𝑅
𝐼𝑅 𝐿𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑓 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑝𝑓 = 𝐼
𝐼
Leading power factor
15 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
 MAGNETIC COUPLED CIRCUITS

𝑁1 𝜙1 𝑁2 𝜙2
𝐿1 = 𝐼1
𝐿2 = 𝐼2
𝑁2 𝜙12 𝑁1𝜙21
𝑀= 𝐼1
= 𝐼2
𝜙12 𝜙21 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝐾= = =
𝜙1 𝜙2 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑀 = 𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2 ; 0  K  1

If K = 0 represents Loose Coupled (Under Coupling)

If K = 1 represents Tight Coupled (Critical Coupling)

● T equivalent Circuit for M is positive

● T equivalent Circuit for M is negative

1 1
● Energy stored in a combination of inductors = 𝐿 𝐼2
2 1 1
+ 2 𝐿2 𝐼22 ± 𝑀𝐼1 𝐼2

● The equivalent inductance of series aiding connection is

Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M

● The equivalent inductance of series opposing connection is

Leq = L1 + L2 – 2M
16 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
● The equivalent inductance of Parallel aiding connection is

𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 +𝐿2 −2𝑀

● The equivalent inductance of Parallel opposing connection is

𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2
𝐿𝑒𝑞 =
𝐿1 +𝐿2 +2𝑀
● For ideal transformer: the transmission matrix is given by
𝑁1 𝑁2
[𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] = [ 00 ] where N1 and N2 are the number of turns on primary and secondary side respectively.
𝑁2 𝑁1

TWO PORT NETWORKS

Two Assumptions must be kept in mind while dealing with two-port Networks.
(i) No initial condition from the input port to output port.
(ii) No dependent source from the input port to output port.

Classification of Parameters
Parameters Associate Associate Matrix Condition for
Equation representation reciprocity,
symmetry
Open-circuit impedance (z – V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2 [𝑍] Z12 = Z21
Parameter) V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2 = [𝑍11 𝑍12 𝑍21 𝑍22 ] Z11 =Z22

Short – circuit Admittance (Y) I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2 [𝑌] = [𝑌11 𝑌12 𝑌21 𝑌22 ] Y12 = Y21
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2 Y11 = Y22

Transmission (T) or (A, B, C, D) or V1 = AV2 – BI2 [𝑇] = [𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] AD – BC = 1

chain or general circuit parameters I1 = CV2 – DI2 A=D
Hybrid (h) V1 = h11I1 + h12V2 [ℎ] h12 = -h21
I2 = h21I1 + h22V2 = [ℎ11 ℎ12 ℎ21 ℎ22 ] h11h22 – h12h21 = 1
Inverse Transmission (T’) (A’, B’, C’, D’) V2 = A’V1 – B’I1 [𝑇′] = [𝐴′ 𝐵′ 𝐶′ 𝐷′ ] A’D’- B’C’ = 1
I2 = C’V1 – D’I1 A’= D’
Inverse hybrid (g) I1 = g11V1 + g12I2 [𝑔] g12 = -g21
V2 = g21V1 + g22I2 = [𝑔11 𝑔12 𝑔21 𝑔22 ] g11g22 – g12g21 =1

17 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

For T-Network

𝑍 = [𝑍𝑎 + 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑐 𝑍𝑏 + 𝑍𝑐 ]
For π-Network

𝑌 = [𝑌𝑎 + 𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑏 − 𝑌𝑏 𝑌𝑏 + 𝑌𝑐 ]
Symmetric-Lattice Network or Symmetric X-Network

1
𝑍= [𝑍 + 𝑍2 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 𝑍1 − 𝑍2 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 ]
2 1
Interconnection of two port networks
● If two-port networks A & B are connected in series, then
[Z]eq = [Z]A + [Z]B
● If two-port networks A & B are connected in parallel, then
[Y]eq = [Y]A + [Y]B
● If two-port networks A & B are connected in cascade, then
[A]eq = [A]A * [A]B
● If two-port networks A & B are connected in series at input and parallel at output, then
[h]eq = [h]A + [h]B
● If two-port networks A & B are connected in parallel at input and series at output, then
[g]eq = [g]A + [g]B

18 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Bartlett's Bisection Theorem
● A symmetrical network can be split into two halves then Z-parameters are given by:

1
𝑍11 = 𝑍22 = (𝑍𝑂𝐶𝐻 + 𝑍𝑆𝐶𝐻 )
2
1
𝑍12 = 𝑍21 = (𝑍𝑂𝐶𝐻 − 𝑍𝑆𝐶𝐻 )
2
Here,
ZOCH – Open circuit driving point impedance for half of section
ZSCH – Short circuit driving point impedance for half of section
NOTE
● [Y] = [Z}-1, [T’] ≠ [T]-1, [g] = [h]-1

Z – Parameters are not defined for this above series element.

Y- parameters are not defined for this above shunt element.

𝑁
● Ideal Transformer (i.e., 𝑁2 = 1)
1

● Neither Z-parameter nor Y-parameter are not defined for ideal transformer
● The ABCD parameters of the ideal transformer is
[1 0 0 1 ]
● For n:1 ABCD parameters of the ideal transformer is
[𝑛 0 0 1/𝑛 ]
1
● 𝑍11 ≠ 𝑌
11
−1
● [𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷 ] = [𝐴′ − 𝐵′ − 𝐶′ 𝐷′ ]

19 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 ● All passive networks are reciprocal network.
● All active networks are non-reciprocal network.

POWER SYSTEMS
INDEX
➢ Generating Power Stations
➢ Transmission Systems
➢ Voltage Control & Power Factor Improvement
➢ Distribution Systems
➢ Underground Cables & Insulators
➢ Per Unit System
➢ Fault Analysis

➢ Switchgear and Protection

➢ High Voltage D.C. Transmission (HVDC)

GENERATING POWER STATIONS

• In power generation, one form of energy gets converted into an electrical energy. Electrical energy is produced
from various natural sources.

• The overall efficiency of the Thermal Power Plant is about 29% because there is an approximation of 1% loss in
the Alternator.
Overall efficiency = Thermal efficiency × Electrical efficiency

• Multiplication factor -
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐾=
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The value of K indicates the chain reaction will continue at a critical state.
For K>1, Chain reaction stops and system becomes subcritical
For K<1, Chain reaction build up & system becomes super critical
For K = 1, System becomes critical.
The power level of the reactor can be increased by initially rising the value of k above 1, but later bringing it back
to K = 1.

• The power output from a hydro-electric power plant is given as

P = WQHη × 9.81 × 10-3 kW

Where,
W = specific weight of water in kg/m3
Q = rate of flow of water in m3/s
H = height of fall or head in meters
η = overall efficiency of operation

20 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Specific speed of turbine –
𝑁√𝑃𝑡
𝑁𝑠 =
ℎ1.25
Where,
𝑁𝑠 =Specific speed in metric unit
N= Actual speed of turbine (in rpm)
h=water head (in meters)
Pt=Output (in hp)

• Note -
Power station Efficiency
Steam Power station 25%
Hydro Power station 85%
Diesel Power station 35%
Nuclear Power station 55%

• Economics of power Generation –

Connected load It is the sum of the continuous rating of all the electrical equipment
connected to the supply system.
Demand Factor 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
It is always less than unity
Daily Average load 𝑘𝑤ℎ 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
24
Monthly, Annual average load can also be calculated.
Load Factor 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Load factor is always less than unity.
Diversity Factor 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Diversity factor is always greater than unity.
Coincidence Factor 1
𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
It is always less than unity
Capacity factor or plant 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ( )
factor 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Or
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = ( ) × 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Utilization Factor 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

21 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 It is always less than unity
Plant use factor 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑤ℎ 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
Spinning reserve It is the generating capacity connected to the bus & to take load

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
• Skin Effect -
➢ It is the tendency of A.C. current to be concentrated only on skin or surface of the conductor.

2
𝛿=√
𝜔𝜇𝜎

Where,
δ = skin depth (It is the depth of conductor from surface in which current is appreciably very high.
ω = 2πf
σ = conductivity
5σ = Depth from surface of the conductor in which non-zero current
flows.
➢ J = Jmax e-x/δ

• For ideal conductor

ρ = 0 or σ = ∞
⇒δ=0
i.e., skin effect maximum for ideal conductor
➢ As δ↑, skin effect ↓
➢ As δ↓, skin effect ↑
Factor on which skin effect depends
➢ As f ↑, δ↓, skin effect ↑
1
➢ ∵𝛿 ∝
√𝜇𝑟
➢ ⇒ Skin effect ∝ μr
➢ As physical area (a) ↓, skin effect ↓
• Sag -

𝑤𝑙2
𝑠𝑎𝑔 = 8𝑇
Where,
w = weight
l = span length
T = Tension

➢ For AAC conductor,

As T↓, sag↑, h↓, safety for system↓

• Composite standard conductor -

Some of aluminium strands replaced with new strands having good mechanical strength (i.e., steel is used)
22 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
 Also known as Aluminium conductor steel reinforced (ACSR)

• ACSR is represented as x/y

Where,
x = Number of Al strands (or) Number of steel strands
y = Number of steel strands (or) Number of aluminium strands
• Number of strands = (3n2 – 3n + 1)
Where n = Number of layers.
• For n layers,
D = (2n – 1) d
Here, D = Diameter of each strand
d = Diameter of ACSR
• Most used conductor in the distribution system is ACSR 1/6

GMD & GMR

GMD
𝑛
𝐺𝑀𝐷𝑥 = √𝑑𝑥1 . 𝑑𝑥2 . 𝑑𝑥3 … . 𝑑𝑥𝑛

𝐺𝑀𝐷𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = √𝐺𝑀𝐷𝑎 . 𝐺𝑀𝐷𝑏 = √𝑑. 𝑑 = 𝑑

Note: To calculate GMD, Number of paths has to be considered but not the number of
conductors.
GMR

GMR = 0.7788r = r’
Here r = physical radius
Equivalent circuit

• Internal Inductance (Lint)

𝜇
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐻/𝑚
8𝜋
• External Inductance (Lext)
𝜇 𝑑
𝐿𝑒𝑥𝑡 = ln ( ) 𝐻/𝑚
2𝜋 𝑟
• Total Inductance (LTotal)
𝜇 𝑑
𝐿 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ln ( ′ ) 𝐻/𝑚
2𝜋 𝑟
𝜇 𝑑
• 𝐿2−𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋 ln
√𝑟1′ 𝑟2′

• Flux linkage

23 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑛
𝜇 1
𝜆=∑ 𝐼𝐾 ln ; 𝐷 = 𝑟𝑖 ′
2𝜋 𝐷𝑖𝐾 𝑖𝑖
𝐾=1

Bundled conductor system

𝜇𝐼 1
• 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝜆𝑎1 = 2𝜋 ln ( )
√𝑟1′𝑑
𝜇 𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐺𝑀𝐷
• 𝐿 = 2𝜋 ln ( 𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐺𝑀𝐷
)

Three phase transmission line

Symmetrical configuration

1
(𝐺𝑀𝐷)𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = (𝐷𝑎𝑏 . 𝐷𝑏𝑐 . 𝐷𝑎𝑐 )3 = 𝑑
L a = Lb = L c
• Radio interference is absent.
Asymmetrical configuration

• La ≠ Lb ≠ L c
Capacitance

1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑎𝑏 𝐶𝑎𝑛 𝐶𝑏𝑛
• For 1 – ϕ, 2-wire system
𝜋𝜖
𝐶𝑎𝑏 =
𝑑
ln ( )
√ 1 𝑟2
𝑟
2𝜋𝜖
• 𝐶𝑏𝑛 = 𝑑
ln( )
𝑟2

24 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 2𝜋𝜖
• 𝐶𝑎𝑛 = 𝑑
ln( )
𝑟1

• Three-phase system
2𝜋𝜖
𝐶𝑝ℎ =
𝐺𝑀𝐷
ln ( 𝑟 )
• For bundle Conductor
2𝜋𝜖
𝐶𝑝ℎ =
𝐺𝑀𝐷
ln (𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝐺𝑀𝐷)

• Charging current
Ic= ω Cph Vph

• Reactive power
2
Q = 𝜔 𝐶𝑝ℎ 𝑉𝑝ℎ
Effect of parameters
• If l↑ ⇒ R↑, L↑, C↑, Ic↑
• If r↑ ⇒ R↓, L↓, C↑, Ic↑
• If d↑ ⇒ R = constant, L↑, C↓, Ic↓
• If f↑ ⇒ R↑, L = C = constant, Ic↑
• If V↑ ⇒ R, L, C = constant, Ic↑
Efficiency of line
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂=
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠

Voltage regulation
|𝑉𝑅0 | − |𝑉𝑅 |
% 𝑉. 𝑅. = × 100%
|𝑉𝑅 |

• Assumption: |Vs| = constant

25 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

ABCD parameters

𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴𝑉𝑅 + 𝐵𝐼𝑅
} ⇒ 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐶𝑉𝑅 + 𝐷𝐼𝑅
𝑉𝑠 𝐴
𝑍𝑜𝑐 = |
𝐼𝑠 𝐼 =0
= 𝐶 → open circuit driving point input impedance
𝑅

𝑉𝑠 𝐵
𝑍𝑠𝑐 = |
𝐼𝑠 𝑉 =0
= 𝐷 → Short circuit driving point input impedance
𝑅

• Characteristic Impedance

𝐴𝐵
𝑍𝑐 = √𝑍𝑜𝑐 𝑍𝑠𝑐 = √
𝐶𝐷

• For symmetrical network

A=D
• For reciprocal or passive Network
AD – BC = 1
Cascading of Transmission line

𝐴 𝐴 + 𝐵1 𝐶2 𝐴1 𝐵2 + 𝐵1 𝐷2
[ 1 2 ]
𝐶1 𝐴2 + 𝐷1 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐵2 + 𝐷1 𝐷2
Parallel connection

𝐴1 𝐵2 + 𝐴2 𝐵1 𝐵1 𝐵2
𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐵1 + 𝐵2
(𝐴1 − 𝐴2 )(𝐷2 − 𝐷1 ) 𝐷1 𝐵2 + 𝐷2 𝐵1
(𝐶 + 𝐶2 ) +
[ 1 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 𝐵1 + 𝐵2 ]

26 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Voltage regulation
|𝑉𝑠 |
| |
|𝐴| − 𝑉𝑅
% 𝑉. 𝑅. = × 100%
|𝑉𝑅 |
This is universal formula for any transmission line.
Line charging current
𝐶
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑠 This is universal formula for any transmission line.

Short transmission line analysis

𝑉 1 𝑍 𝑉𝑅
[ 𝑠] = [ ][ ]
𝐼𝑠 0 1 𝐼𝑅

Observation
• Symmetrical Condition: A = D
• Reciprocal Condition: AD – BC = 1
|𝑉𝑠|−|𝑉𝑅 |
• Voltage regulation: % 𝑉. 𝑅. = |𝑉𝑅 |
× 100%
𝐶
• Charging Current: 𝐼𝑐 = 𝐴 |𝑉𝑠 | = 0

Medium transmission line

Receiving end ‘C’ model
𝐴 𝐵 1 + 𝑌𝑍 𝑍
[ ]=[ ]
𝐶 𝐷 𝑌 1
Sending end ‘c’ model
𝐴 𝐵 1 𝑍
[ ]=[ ]
𝐶 𝐷 𝑌 1 + 𝑍𝑌
Nominal T model
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
1+ 𝑍 (1 + )
[ 2 4 ]
𝑌𝑍
𝑌 1+
2
Nominal π model
𝑌𝑍
1+ 𝑍
[ 2 ]
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
𝑌 (1 + ) 1 +
4 2

27 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Long Transmission line
cos ℎ𝑦𝑙 𝑍𝑐 sin ℎ𝑦𝑙
[1 ] ⇒ 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
sin ℎ𝑦𝑙 cos ℎ𝑦𝑙
𝑍𝑐

𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
1+ 𝑍 (1 + )
[ 2 6 ] ⇒ 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝑌𝑍 𝑌𝑍
𝑌 (1 + ) 1+
6 2
Per unit ABCD parameters
Apu = A
𝐵
𝐵𝑝𝑢 =
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
Cpu = C Zbase
D = Dpu
Complex representation
A = |A| ∠α; |A| ≤ 1, very close to unity α = 0° to 10°
B = |B| ∠β; β = 60° to 90°
C = |C| ∠γ; γ ≃ 90°
D = |D| ∠Δ; |D| ≤ 1, very close to 1, Δ = 0° to 10°
Static power transfer equations

• Real power injected to receiving end bus,

|𝑉𝑠 ||𝑉𝑅 | |𝐴|
𝑃𝑅 = cos(𝛽 − 𝛿 ) − |𝑉 |2 cos(𝛽 − 𝛼 )
|𝐵 | |𝐵 | 𝑅
• Reactive power injected to receiving end bus,
|𝑉𝑠 ||𝑉𝑅 | |𝐴|
𝑄𝑅 = sin(𝛽 − 𝛿 ) − |𝑉 |2 sin(𝛽 − 𝛼 )
|𝐵 | |𝐵 | 𝑅
• Maximum power transfer condition:
β=δ
• For maximum power transfer, receiving end pf should be leading.
𝑑𝑃𝑅
If > 0, system is stable (δ < β)
𝑑𝛿
𝑑𝑃𝑅
If 𝑑𝛿
< 0, system is unstable (δ > β)
𝑑𝑃𝑅
If 𝑑𝛿
= 0, system is maginally stable (δ = β)

28 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• In case of short transmission line,
|𝑉𝑠 ||𝑉𝑅 |
𝑃𝑅 = sin 𝛿
𝑋
|𝑉𝑅 |
𝑄𝑅 = [|𝑉𝑠 | cos 𝛿 − |𝑉𝑅 |]
𝑋
|𝑉𝑠 |
𝑄𝑠 = [|𝑉𝑠 | − |𝑉𝑅 | cos 𝛿]
𝑋

Distortion less line

𝐿 𝐶
=
𝑅 𝐺
Loss less line
R=G=0
Flat or infinite line
Z L = Zc
Velocity of electromagnetic wave propagation
1 1 3 × 108
𝑉= 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
√𝐿𝐶 √𝜇0 𝜖0 𝜖𝑟 √𝜖𝑟
Propagation constant (γ)
𝛾 = √(𝑟 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿)(𝑔 + 𝑗𝜔𝑐) = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
For lossless line:
𝛾 = 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑗𝜔√𝐿𝐶
𝛼=0
Wavelength
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜆= =
𝛽 𝜔√𝐿𝐶
Surge impedance or characteristic impedance or natural impedance
𝐴 𝐵 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
𝑍𝑐 = √ . = √ = |𝑍𝑐 |∠ − 𝜃
𝐶 𝐷 𝐺 + 𝑗𝜔𝐶
Surge impedance of attenuated line is ‘capacitive’ in nature.
For loss-less model
𝐿
𝑍𝑐 = √𝐶 ; pure resistive in nature

Surge Impedance loading (SIL)

𝑉𝑙2
𝑆𝐼𝐿 =
𝑍𝑐
Note:
Loading = SIL Loading > SIL Loading < SIL
ZL = ZC ZL < Z C ZL > ZC
|Vs| = |VR| |Vs| > |VR| |Vs| < |VR|
|IS| = |IR| |IS| < |IR| |IS| > |IR|
Unity pf lagging pf leading pf

29 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 VOLTAGE CONTROL & POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

• Introduction -
➢ The overall power factor is defined as the cosine of the angle between the voltage and current.
➢ In AC circuits, the power factor is also defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the
apparent power in the circuit. Hence power factor can also be defined as the ratio of watts to volt-
amperes.
➢ It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance of the circuit.
➢ The capacitor is used for power factor improvement.
• Power Triangle –
Power factor = cos ϕ
OA = VI cos φ and represents the active power in watts or kW
AB = VI sin φ and represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR
OB = VI and represents the apparent power in VA or kVA
OB2 = OA2 + AB2
(kVA)2 = (kW)2 + (kVAR)2
𝑂𝐴 𝑘𝑊
cos 𝜙 = =
𝑂𝐵 𝑘𝑉𝐴
The lagging reactive power is responsible for the low power factor.
From the power triangle it is clear that the smaller the reactive power component, the higher is the power
factor of the circuit and vice-versa.
• Power Factor Improvement -
Considered an inductive load taking a lagging current at power factor cos
ϕ1

In order to improve the power factor of the circuit, we have to connect

the capacitor in parallel with the inductive load as shown,

Where,
Ic = current flow through the capacitor that leads the supply voltage by
90°.
I = current flow through the inductive load that lags behind the supply voltage
by angle ϕ1.
I' = Resultant current that lags or leads the supply voltage by
angle ϕ2 depends on the magnitude of Ic.
The phasor diagram of the circuit can be drawn as,

From the phasor,

𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼 sin 𝜙1 − 𝐼′ sin 𝜙2
Capacitor required to improve power factor from cos ϕ1 to cos ϕ2 given by,
𝐼𝑐
𝐶=
𝜔𝑉

30 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

The power factor can be improved by installing a device in parallel with a load
that has leading reactive power.
The kVAR need to supply to improve the load power factor
Q = P (tan ϕ1 – tan ϕ2)

• Low power factor can be avoided by -

➢ Using synchronous motors instead of induction motors
➢ Using high-speed induction motors to low-speed machines
➢ Not operating induction motors at less than the rated output
By using the following equipment -
1. Static capacitors
2. Synchronous condenser
3. Phase advancer

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

• The system which is specially designed to distributing the power to the loads are known as Distribution
system.
• D.C. distribution act as a back-up in the generating station & the substation.

Distribution system
As per Nature of current As per type of construction As per scheme of connection
D. C. distribution system Overhead distribution system Radial distribution system
A. C. distribution system Underground distribution system Ring main distribution system
Inter-connected distribution system

• Presently, 3 phase 4-wire A.C. system is universally used for distribution of power throughout the world.
• Feeders are not tapped in between the sub-transmission substation and the distribution substations, while
distributors are tapped throughout at several points the consumers.
1
• The power loss in A.C. single – phase 2 – wire system is ∝ (𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)2
• Ratio of conductor-material in any system compared with that in the corresponding 2-wire D.C. system.

Same maximum
Same maximum
System voltage between
voltage to earth
conductors
DC system: Two wire 1 1
DC: Two wire mid-
0.25 1
point earthed
DC: 3 wire 0.3125 1.25
Single phase: 2 wire 2/cos2ϕ 2/cos2ϕ
Single phase: 2 wire
0.5/cos2ϕ 2/cos2ϕ
mid-point earthed
Single phase: 3 wire 0.625/cos2ϕ 2.5/cos2ϕ
2-phase: 4 wire 0.5/cos2ϕ 2/cos2ϕ

31 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 2-phase: 3 wire 1.457/cos2ϕ 2.914/cos2ϕ
3 phase, 3 wire 0.5/cos2ϕ 1.5/cos2ϕ
3 phase, 4 wire 0.583/cos2ϕ 1.75/cos2ϕ

• Distributor - A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the consumers.
The current through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at various places along its
length.

Where,
L is the length of the distributor
I is the current through the distributor
I1 I2 I3 I4 are the tappings on the distributor

• Uniformly loaded distributor fed at both the ends –

Let the DC Distribution Calculation be fed at the feeding points A and B at equal voltages, say V volts.
The total current supplied to the distributor is i l. As the two end voltages are equal
𝐼𝑟𝑙2
➢ Total Voltage drop ∆𝑉 = 2

➢ The power loss in the distributor is

𝑖 2 𝑟𝑙3
𝑃= 12

UNDERGROUND CABLES & INSULATORS

• Underground cables are used for the transmission and distribution of power where it is impracticable to make
use of overhead construction.

Type of Cable Voltage level (kV)

Low tension (L.T.) Cable 0 – 1 kV

High tension (H.T.) Cable 1 – 11 kV
Super tension (S.T.) Cable 11 – 33 kV
Extra high-tension (E.H.T.) Cable 33 – 66 kV
Extra super-tension(E.S.T.) Cable 66 kV and above

32 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Insulation resistance of cable -
➢ Insulation resistance is inversely proportional to length of the cable
𝜌 𝑟2
𝑅= log
2𝜋𝑙 𝑟1
1
𝑅∝
𝑙
Where,
r2 = outer radius of the cable, r1 = radius of core conductor or inner radius of the cable, l = length of
cable
➢ It has negative temperature coefficient.
➢ 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 ∝ 𝑙

• Electrostatic stress distribution –

𝑞 𝑉𝑝ℎ
➢ At any point x in the cable cross-section, 𝐸𝑥 = = 𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑥 𝑥 ln ( 2 )
𝑟1

𝑞 𝑉𝑝ℎ
➢ On surface of core (x= r1), 𝐸𝑥 = = 𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟1 𝑟1 ln ( 2 )
𝑟1

𝑞 𝑉𝑝ℎ
➢ On surface of sheath (x= r2), 𝐸𝑥 = = 𝑟
2𝜋𝜀𝑟2 𝑟2 ln ( 2 )
𝑟1

𝑉𝑝ℎ
➢ The maximum dielectric stress occurs at the surface of conductor is, 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟
𝑟1 ln ( 2 )
𝑟1

𝑉𝑝ℎ
➢ The minimum dielectric stress occurs at the surface of sheath is, 𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟
𝑟2 ln ( 2 )
𝑟1
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟2
➢ =
𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑟1
𝑟2
➢ Condition for the minimum dielectric stress occurs at the surface of conductor is, =𝑒
𝑟1

• Most Economic radius of the core –

𝑟2
=𝑒
𝑟1
• Capacitance of single core cable –
2𝜋𝜀
𝐶= 𝑟
ln (𝑟2 )
1
• Capacitance per phase of three core, three phase, A.C. cable –

➢ The cable capacitance of each core to neutral is, CN = (3CC + CS) = C0

➢ The charging current, IC = 2πf Vph CN
➢ Capacitance between the three cores bunched together & the earthed sheath CI = 3 CS
➢ Capacitance between two cores or lines with the third core either insulated or connected to sheath is, CII =
0.5CN = 0.5 (3CC + CS)
➢ Capacitance between the two cores shorted with the sheath & the third core is, CIII = (2CC + CS) =
(C0 – CC)

33 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 ➢ The capacitance between two jointed cores and the third core is, CIV = (2/3)( 3CC + CS) =
(2/3) C0

Where,

CS = Capacitance from any one conductor to sheath

CC = Capacitance between any two conductor

• Losses in the Underground Cable –

➢ I2R losses in the conductor or core.

➢ Dielectric Power loss per phase,
P= (Vph)2ωCphtan(δ)
For three phase, P= 3(V)2ωCtan(δ)
Where, δ = Displacement angle or loss angle of dielectric material
➢ Using the phasor diagram,
𝐼𝑅
cos 𝜙 =
𝐼
𝐼𝑅
tan 𝛿 =
𝐼𝐶
IR = IC tan δ
➢ Form the circuit,
𝑉
𝐼𝐶 = = 𝜔𝐶𝑉
𝑋𝐶
1
➢ Loss tangent of material, tan(𝛿 ) =
𝜔𝑅𝐶
➢ Power factor of cable dielectric material, cos(ϕ) = cos(90 – δ) = sin(δ)

• Effect of parameters –

Parameters I2R losses Dielectric Power loss Sheath losses

If Icore ↑ ↑ Constant ↑
If f ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
If physical length ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
If DC cable (f=0) ↓ ≈0 ≈0

• String Efficiency -
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
%𝛈 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏 × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒂𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒋𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆
OR
𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒉 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈
%𝛈 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒏 × 𝒇𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒉 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕

Where, n = total number of insulators in a string

34 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 NOTE –
For static shielding, the capacitance from the shield to the kth link from the top is,
𝑘𝐶
𝐶𝑘 =
𝑛−𝑘

PER UNIT SYSTEM

• The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in any unit to the base or reference
value in the same unit.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 )
𝑝. 𝑢. =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

• The rating of the equipment in a power system are given in terms of operating voltage and the capacity in kVA.
Therefore, it is found convenient and useful to select voltage and kVa as the base quantities.
𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐵 𝑆𝐵
⏟ 𝑍𝐵
𝑆𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 ×1000
• Base current (IB) =
𝑉𝑏

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉𝐵 ) 𝑉𝐵2

• Base impedance (ZB) = =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼𝐵 ) 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑏 ×1000

𝑉𝐵2 𝑉𝐵2 𝑍𝑀𝑉𝐴𝐵

• 𝑝. 𝑢. 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = = = (𝑘𝑉𝑏 )2
𝐼𝐵 𝑆𝐵
Per unit impedance is directly proportional to the base kVA & inversely proportional to square of base voltage.

• Per Unit impedance of an equipment corresponding to its own rating is given by,
𝐼𝑍
𝑍𝑝.𝑢. =
𝑉
Here,
Z = Absolute value of impedance of equipment.

• Relation between New per unit value & old per unit value:
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑘𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑑 2
𝑍𝑝.𝑢.𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑍𝑝.𝑢.𝑜𝑙𝑑 ( )( )
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑤

FAULT ANALYSIS
• Fault is only limited by reactance. Therefore, fault current is highly lagging low power factor current.
• Fault is a low voltage high current high frequency highly lagging low power factor phenomenon.
• Single line to Ground fault (LG fault - 85% chances) (Unsymmetrical faults)
• Line to Line fault (LL fault - 5% chances) (Unsymmetrical faults)
• Double line to Ground fault (LLG fault - 7% chances) (Unsymmetrical faults)
• Whenever fault occur in transmission line, symmetrical fault is most severe.

35 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 • Whenever fault occur at the terminals of Generator, LG fault is most severe.
• The order of frequency of occurrence: LG > LL > LLG > LLL
• The order of severity of faults: LLL > LLG > LL > LG

• Fault level or fault MVA or short circuit MVA -

100
𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 = ( ) × (𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑉𝐴)
%𝑋
Where,
X = Thevenin’s equivalent reactance between fault point and zero power bus (ZPB)
Thus, series reactors reduce the short circuit MVA of the circuit breaker that is installed to protect the equipment.

• Current rating of circuit Breakers –

➢ Momentary current rating (rms) = 1.6 (Sub transient fault current through circuit breaker)
➢ Interrupting current rating (rms) = M (Symmetrical interrupting current through circuit breaker)
Speed of CB M
8 cycles 1
5 cycles 1.1
3 cycles 1.2
2 cycles 1.4

Note: If short circuit MVA > 500, then each factor is increased by 0.1

• Unsymmetrical fault Analysis -

➢ Alpha operator (α)

α = 1∠120°
Va = Va
Vb = α2Va
Vc = αVa
Any phasor when multiplied with α – operator rotates anticlockwise by 120°.

NOTE: -
𝑉𝑎 1 1 1 𝑉𝑎0
[𝑉𝑏 ] = [1 𝛼 2 𝛼 ] [𝑉𝑎1 ]
𝑉𝑐 1 𝛼 𝛼 2 𝑉𝑎2

36 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑉𝑎0 1 𝑉𝑎
1 1 1
[𝑉𝑎1 ] = [1 𝛼2 𝛼 ] [𝑉𝑏 ]
3
𝑉𝑎2 1 𝛼 𝛼 2 𝑉𝑐
𝐼𝑎 1 1 1 𝐼𝑎0
[𝐼𝑏 ] = [1 𝛼 2 𝛼 ] [𝐼𝑎1 ]
𝐼𝑐 1 𝛼 𝛼 2 𝐼𝑎2
𝐼𝑎0 1 𝐼𝑎
1 1 1
[𝐼𝑎1 ] = [1 𝛼 2 𝛼 ] [𝐼𝑏 ]
3
𝐼𝑎2 1 𝛼 𝛼 2 𝐼𝑐
Case 1: For Delta connected system:
• Zero sequence component of line current
• Positive sequence component of line current = √3 positive sequence component of phase current and lag
phase current by 30°
• Negative sequence component (line) lead the phase current by 30°.
Case 2: For star connected system:
• Zero sequence component of current in isolated neutral star connected us zero.
• Zero sequence component of line voltage is always zero.
• Positive sequence component of line voltage is always zero.
• Positive sequence component of line voltage = √3 × positive component of phase voltage
• Power in terms of symmetrical components –

𝑆 = 3𝑉𝑎1 𝐼𝑎∗1 + 3𝑉𝑎2 𝐼𝑎∗ 2 + 3𝑉𝑎0 𝐼𝑎∗0

• Unsymmetrical Faults on an Unloaded Generator –

Line to ground (LG) fault Line to Line (LL) fault Double line to ground fault (LLG)
➢ All sequence networks are ➢ Positive & Negative sequence ➢ All sequence networks are
connected in series. Networks are connected in connected in parallel.
𝐸𝑎 series opposition. ➢ 𝑉𝑎1 = 𝑉𝑎2 = 𝑉𝑎0
➢ 𝐼𝑎1 = 𝐼𝑎2 = 𝐼𝑎0 = (𝑍 )
1+𝑍2 +𝑍0 ➢ 𝐼𝑎0 = 0, 𝐼𝑎1 = −𝐼𝑎2
➢ 𝐼𝑎1 + 𝐼𝑎2 + 𝐼𝑎0 = 0
➢ 𝐼𝑓𝐿𝐺 = 3𝐼𝑎1
√3𝐸𝑎
➢ 𝐼𝑓,𝐿𝐿 = √3𝐼𝑎1 = 𝑍 ➢ 𝐼𝑓,𝐿𝐿 = 3𝐼𝑎0
Where, 1 +𝑍2

Ea = phase voltage

NOTE -
• If the star point of an alternator is solidly grounded, the zero-sequence net impedance = Z0
• If the star point of an alternator is grounded through a resistance Rn, the zero-sequence net impedance = Z0 + 3Rn
• If the star point of an alternator is grounded through a reactance Xn, the zero-sequence net impedance = Z0 + 3Xn
• If the star point of an alternator is grounded through a impedance Z n, the zero-sequence net impedance = Z0 +
3Zn

• Comparison of three phase fault & line to ground fault on the terminal of generator –
Case 1: For solidly grounded generator
𝐼𝑓,𝐿𝐺 = 1.5 𝐼𝑓,3𝜙

37 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Case 2: Generator Neutral Ground with impedance Zn ≠ 0
1
For same severity 𝑍𝑛 = (𝑍1 − 𝑍0 )
3
1
𝐼𝑓 𝑍𝑛 < (𝑍1 − 𝑍0 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑓,𝐿𝐺 > 𝐼𝑓,3𝜙
3
1
𝐼𝑓 𝑍𝑛 > (𝑍1 − 𝑍0 ) 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐼𝑓,3𝜙 > 𝐼𝑓,𝐿𝐺
3
Note:
Synchronous M/C Transformer Transmission line

Z1 Zs + 2Zm Zs - Zm Z s - Zm

Z2 Zs - Zm Zs - Zm Z s - Zm

Z0 Zs - 2Zm Zs - 2Zm Zs + 2Zm

SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION

Classification of switchgear
Low voltage switchgear High voltage switchgear
Switches (Air break type) Oil switches
Isolators Isolators
Fuses Circuit breakers
Relays HRC fuses up to medium voltage
Circuit breakers Lightning arrestors

• Prospective voltage -
The voltage developed across the circuit breaker contacts due to transfer of energy is known as
‘Prospective voltage’.
𝐿
𝑉 = 𝑖√𝐶

• Transient Recovery voltage -

𝑡
𝑇𝑅𝑉 = 𝐸𝑚 (1 − cos )
√𝐿𝐶

• Recovery voltage -
It is the RMS value of power frequency voltage when arc is extinct is recovery voltage.

𝑉𝐶𝐵
Recovery voltage =
√2

38 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Active recovery voltage –
It is the instantaneous value of power frequency voltage.
Active Recovery voltage (ARV) = k1 k2 k3 Vmax sin ϕ
Where,
𝑉𝐿−𝐿
Vmax (Maximum value of phase voltage) = × √2
√3
Recovery voltage
k1 = Rated voltage
1; for grounded fault
k2 = {
1.5; for ungrounded fault
1; for phase voltage
k3 = {
√3; for L − L voltage

• Restriking Voltage –

The voltage due to which the arc will restrike is called as

Restriking voltage.
Restriking voltage (Vc) = ARV (1 – cos ω0t)
Vr(max) = 2 ARV
Vr(avg) = ARV
1 2
Damping frequency (f) = √1 − (𝑅)
2𝜋 𝐿𝑐 2𝐿

• Rate of Rise of restriking voltage (RRRV) –

𝑑𝑉𝑟 𝐴𝑅𝑉 𝑡
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 = = sin ( )
𝑑𝑡 √𝐿𝐶 √𝐿𝐶
𝐴𝑅𝑉 𝜋
(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = √𝐿𝐶
√𝐿𝐶 2
Δ𝑉 (
2 𝐴𝑅𝑉 )
(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑉 )𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑟 =
Δ𝑡 𝜋√𝐿𝐶

• Critical value of resistance for resistance switching of the circuit breaker is,

1 𝐿
𝑅= √
2 𝐶

NOTE –
1 𝐿
Critical damped 𝑅 = √
2 𝐶

1 𝐿
Under damped 𝑅 > √
2 𝐶

39 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 1 𝐿
Over damped 𝑅 < √
2 𝐶

• Circuit Breaker ratings –

➢ Breaking capacity = √3 Ibreak Vrated
Where,
Ibreak = Symmetrical or unsymmetrical breaking current

➢ Making capacity = 2.55 × (Symmetrical breaking capacity)

• Protective relays -
➢ Instantaneous relay - The operation of relay takes place after a very short duration of time (generally t ≤ 0.1
sec)
➢ Definite time over current relay - It operates at constant time regardless of current.

1
➢ Inverse time over current relay - 𝑇𝑜𝑝 ∝
𝐼
➢ Inverse Definite Minimum time (IDMT) -
If I < 10 Ipickup Operates as Inverse time relay.
If I > 20 Ipickup Operates as Definite time OC relay.
If 10 Ipickup < I < 20 Ipickup → Transition region.
1
➢ Very Inverse type OC relay - 𝑇𝑜𝑝 ∝ (𝐼𝑛
−1)
1
➢ Extremely inverse - 𝑇𝑜𝑝 ∝
𝐼3.5

• Relay setting -
Pick − up current
Relay setting =
Relay operating current
Note: - If relay setting not given then assume it as 100%

• Plug setting Multiplier (PSM) -

fault current (If )
PSM =
Current setting × CT secondary rated current × CT ratio

• Time multiplier setting (TMS) -

𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑇𝑀𝑆 =
𝑡𝑇𝑀𝑆 = 1

40 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Note
If PSM > 1 → Relay operate
If PSM < 1 → No operation

• Universal relay torque equation -

Q = k1 |I|2 + k2 |V|2 + k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – 𝜏) – k4

Where,
θ = Angle between V & I
𝜏 = Adjustable parameter

For over current relays For direction relays

K2 = k3 = 0 K1 = k2 =k4 = 0
So, Q = k1 |I|2 – k4 Q = k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – 𝜏)
𝐾4
⇒ |𝐼| > √ (pick up current)
𝐾1

• Distance Relays –

Impedance relay Reactance relay Mho relays

K3 = k4 = 0
K2 = k4 = 0

Q = k1 |I|2 – k2 |V|2 K1 = k4 = 0
Q = k1 |I|2 – k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – 𝜏)

⇒ |Z| < |Zset| Q = k3 |V| |I| cos (θ – 𝜏) – k2

𝐾 𝐾
Where, ⇒ |𝑍| sin 𝜃 < 𝐾1 or |𝑋| < 𝐾1
3 3 |V|2
𝐾1
|𝑍𝑠𝑒𝑡 | = √ =Impedance setting
𝐾2
|𝑉| 𝐾3
of relays < cos(𝜃 − 𝜏)
|𝐼| 𝐾2

NOTE-
• Mho relay is also called voltage restrained directional relay.
• Impedance relay is also called a voltage restrained overcurrent relay.
• Mho relay is suitable for the protection of long transmission line.

41 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 • Impedance relay is suitable for protection of medium transmission line.
• Reactance relay is suitable for the protection of a short transmission line.

• For Restricted Earth Fault Protection –

➢ Percentage of unprotected winding of generator –

𝐼𝑜 𝑅𝑛
% 𝑈𝑊 =
𝑉𝑝ℎ

➢ Percentage of protected winding of generator –

%𝑃𝑤 = 100 − %𝑈𝑊

Where,
Io = Pick up current of relay × CT ratio
Rn = Neutral resistance
Vph = Phase voltage
(𝒊𝟏 −𝒊𝟐 )
• For a percentage differential relay, % slope or % bias = 𝒊 +𝒊 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
( 𝟏 𝟐)
𝟐

HIGH VOLTAGE D.C. TRANSMISSION (HVDC)

• Power Control in HVDC system -

𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝑅
➢ Line Current, 𝐼𝑑𝑐 =
𝑅

Where, R = Resistance of entire transmission link

Vs = Voltage at sending end
VR = Voltage at receiving end

3√2 3𝑋𝐶𝑆
➢ The sending end voltage is, 𝑉𝑆 = [( 𝜋
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑠 ) cos(𝛼 ) − 𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐]
3√2 3𝑋𝐶𝑅
➢ The receiving end voltage is, 𝑉𝑅 = [( 𝜋
𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑅 ) cos(𝛽 ) − 𝜋
𝐼𝑑𝑐]

𝑉𝑆 −𝑉𝑅
➢ Power transmitted is, 𝑃 = 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑑𝑐 = 𝑉𝑆 ( )
𝑅

ELECTRICAL MACHINES PART 1

Index
⮚ Transformers
⮚ Three phase Induction Machines
42 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
 TRANSFORMERS.

● Faraday’s law
It states that a voltage appears across the terminals of an electric coil when the flux linkages associated with
the same design.
𝑑𝜓
𝑒=
𝑑𝑡
If N turns links flux lines of ϕ. Then, ψ = Nϕ
𝑁𝑑𝜙
So, 𝑒 = − 𝑑𝑡
Here, (-) sign indicates that induced current opposes cause of its production (As per Lenz’s Law)
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙
● 𝐸1 = −𝑁1 𝑑𝑡
, 𝐸2 = −𝑁2 𝑑𝑡
EMF per turns is constant for common mutual flux
𝐸 𝑁 𝐸2 𝐸
i.e., 𝐸2 = 𝑁2 𝑜𝑟 𝑁2
= 𝑁1
1 1 1
● Step-up transformer - If N2 > N1, then E2 > E1 (or V2 > V1)
● Step-down transformer - If N2 < N1, then E2 < E1 (or V2 < V1)
● EMF Equation of a transformer - 𝐸1 = √2 𝜋𝑓𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁1 𝑜𝑟 𝐸2 =
√2 𝜋𝑓𝜙𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁2
● Primary volt-amperes = Secondary volt-amperes
● N1I1’ = N2I2
Where, I1’ = Load component of primary current I1
● Instantaneous power input into primary = Instantaneous power output from the secondary
𝐸 𝑁
● Transformation Ratio (K) - 𝐾 = 𝐸1 = 𝑁1
2 2
● Ideal Transformer –
Ideal transformer on No-load Ideal transformer on Load

𝑉1 𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑉1 𝐸1 𝑁1
= = = = =𝐾
𝑉2 𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝐸2 𝑁2
● Input power to the 𝑁
𝐼1 = 𝑁2 𝐼2 =
𝐼2
= 𝐼2′ (secondary current referred to
𝐾
transformer =0 1
primary side)
[P =
N1I2’ = N2I2
V1I1cos(90°)=0]

43 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

● Practical Transformer
At No-Load At load
● Active or working or iron loss component (Ic) in ● If load is Inductive, I2 lags E2 by ϕ2
phase with the applied voltage. ● If load is resistive, I2 in phase with E2.
Ic = I0 cosϕ0 ● If load is capacitive, I2 leads E2 by ϕ2
● Magnetizing component (Im) lagging behind V1 by
90° which produces mutual flux ϕ in the core.
Im = I0 sinϕ0
Therefore,

𝐼0 = √𝐼𝑐2 + 𝐼𝑚
2

No load power factor

𝐼𝑐
(p.f) =𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙0 =
𝐼0
No load Input power
(P0) = V1I0 cosϕ0 =
Iron loss.

I1 ≅ I2’
Balancing the
Ampere – turns
N1I2’ = N1I1 + N2I2
𝐼1 𝑁2
= =𝐾
𝐼2 𝑁1

● Losses in the transformer –

Iron losses (Pi) Copper losses (Pcu) Stray loss Dielectric loss
Pi = Ph + Pe Total cu losses = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + The stray losses are due to These losses occur in
Where, 𝐼22 𝑅2 the presence of a leakage the insulating material
Ph = Hysteresis loss Here, field. of the transformer i.e.,
Pe = Eddy current loss I1 = primary current in oil of transformer
(i) Hysteresis loss I2 = secondary current These losses can be
𝑥
𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝑓𝐵𝑚 𝑉 R1 & R2 = primary & Neglected because % of
Where, secondary winding these losses are very
f=frequency of resistance small as compared to Iron
magnetization or supply & copper losses.
frequency.
V = volume of core.
x = steinmetz constant
(range 1.5 to 2.5)
Bm = Magnetic field
density
x = 1.6 for silicon steel

44 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 (ii) Eddy current loss
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 𝑓 2 𝐵𝑚
2 2
𝑡 𝑉
Where,
t= thickness of
laminations

● NOTE -
Conditions Hysteresis loss (Ph) Eddy current loss (Pe) Iron loss
𝑉 Ph ∝ f Pe ∝ f2 Pi = K1f + K2f2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑓 ⇒ Ph = K1f ⇒ Pe = K2f2
𝑉 𝑃ℎ = 𝐾1 𝑉1.6 𝑓 −0.6 Pe = K2V2 𝑃𝑖 = 𝐾1 𝑉1.6 𝑓 −0.6 + 𝐾2 𝑉 2
≠ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑓
V = constant Ph increases Pe = constant Pi = increases
f = decreased
f = constant Ph = decreases Pe = decreases Pi = decreases
V = decreased

𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)

Pu full load Cu – loss =
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡)
Pu iron loss =
𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
Pcu ∝ or Pcu ∝ (KVA)2
S2
● Efficiency of transformer –
𝑜/𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜/𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2
𝜂= = Or 𝜂=
𝐼/𝑃 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜/𝑝 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟+𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2 +𝑃𝑖 +𝑃𝑐
𝑥 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2
Consider, x = fraction of full load then 𝜂𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2 +𝑃𝑖 +𝑥 2 𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑠
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑠 = full load Cu loss
● Maximum Efficiency -
Conditions: copper loss is equal to iron loss i.e., 𝑃𝑖 = 𝐼22 𝑅𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝑓𝑙
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2 + 2𝑃𝑖
𝑃
𝑥 = √𝑃 𝑖
𝑐𝑢

𝐼𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑘𝑉𝐴)√
𝐶𝑢 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
● All Day Efficiency –
𝑜/𝑝 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ)
𝜂𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑦 =
𝐼/𝑃 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑤ℎ)
Pi = constant for 24 hours
Pcu = variable and directly proportional to S2 or (kVA)2

45 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

● Voltage Regulation –
𝐸2 −𝑉2
% 𝑉. 𝑅 = 𝐸2
× 100

Voltage regulation on x% of full load is calculated as:

𝑁𝑜. 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑥% 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑉. 𝑅. =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑥% 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
% Regulation = (% R) cos ϕ2 ± (% x) sin ϕ2
{+ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑓
Or
Regulation = Zpucos(θeq – ϕ) pu
● Condition for voltage regulation –
Condition for maximum regulation Condition for minimum Condition for zero regulation
regulation
θeq = ϕ θeq - ϕ = 180°
𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝑋𝐿
(𝑅 ) = ( 𝑅 ) ⇒ ϕ = θeq – 180
𝑒𝑞 𝐿
⇒ ϕ = 85 – 180 {θeq = 85°}
Or ϕ = -90° {∵ ϕ = -95° physically
𝑋𝑒𝑞 𝑋𝐿
= note realizable}
𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑅𝐿 Minimum V.R. = -Xpu
Maximum Voltage θeq + ϕ = 90°
Regulation = Zpu 𝑋 𝑅𝑒𝑞
( 𝐶) = ( )
𝑅𝐿 𝑋𝑒𝑞
𝑋 𝑅𝑒𝑞
⇒ 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑋
𝐿 𝑒𝑞

Note:
Regulation at any fraction of load ‘x’ = x (Rpu cos ϕ ± Xpu sin ϕ)
Regulation at UPF load = %R = % full load Cu losses.
Regulation curve

46 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

● Testing of transformers –
Open circuit test Short circuit test
Calculation of OCC
P0 = V0I0 cos ϕ0 Psc = (Isc)2 Req
∴ Ic = I0 cos ϕ0 𝑅𝑒𝑞 =
& Im = I0 sin ϕ0 𝑃𝑠𝑐
, 𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
2
𝐼𝑠𝑐
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝐼𝑠𝑐
P0 = V0Ic
𝑋𝑒𝑞 =
𝐼𝑚 = √𝐼02 − 𝐼𝑐2
𝑉0 𝑉0 2 ) − (𝑅 2 )
√(𝑍𝑒𝑞
𝑅𝑐 = , 𝑋𝑚 = 𝑒𝑞
𝐼𝑐 𝐼𝑚

● Polarity test –
Additive Polarity Subtractive polarity
V c = Va + Vb V c = Va - V b

● Sumpner’s Test –
O.C. test results-
W1 = 2Wo
I1 = 2 Io
V 1 = Vr
S.C. test results-
W2 = 2 Wsc
I2 = Isc
V2 = 2IscZsc = 2Vsc
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
Iron loss of each transformer =
2
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑥𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒
Full load cu-loss in each transformer=
2
● Auto-transformer –

47 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝐿𝑉
Transformation ratio (𝑘) = (Always < 1)
𝐻𝑉
1
(kVA rating)auto transformer = (1−𝑘) × (kVA rating)2-wdg transformer
(% full load losses) auto-transformer = (1 – k) × (% full load losses)2-wdg
transformer
(% Voltage drop) auto-transformer = (1 - k) two-winding transformer
(kVA)conduction = k × Input KVA
(kVA)induction = (1 - k) × Input kVA
(Weight of copper) auto-transformer = (1 - k) × (Weight of copper of 2-wdg
transformer)
NOTE –
𝑁1 3
If 𝑁2
> 1 or K < 33.3% then auto-transformer is not feasible.
● Three-phase transformer connections –

Types Phasor Group Connection Special connection

Type-1 0° YY0; Dd0 Delta-star, Zig-zag
Type-2 180° YY6; Dd6 Delta-star, Zig-zag
Type-3 30° lag i.e. -30° Yd1; DY1 Star zig-zag star
Type-4 30° lead, i.e. +30° Yd11; DY11 Star zig-zag star

Connection EMF vector diagrams

Yy0
0°

Dd0
0°

Yy6
180°

48 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Dd6
180°

Dy1
-30°

Yd1
-30°

Dy11
+30°

Yd11
+30°

Let H.V. line voltage = V and transformation ratio = at

𝑉𝐻.𝑉. 𝑉𝐻.𝑉. 𝑉
i.e., 𝑉𝐿.𝑉
= 𝑎𝑡 ⇒ 𝑎𝑡
= 𝑎 = 𝑉𝐿.𝑉.
𝑡

𝑉
(1) Phase voltage transformation ratio = 𝑉 ∶ = at: 1
𝑎𝑡
√3𝑉 𝑎𝑡
(2) Line voltage transformation = 𝑉 ∶ = ∶1
𝑎𝑡 √3
𝑎𝑡 𝐼 𝑎𝑡
(3) Line current transformation ratio = 𝐼 ∶ =1∶
√3 √3
𝐼 𝑎𝑡 𝐼
(4) Phase current transformation ratio = ∶ = 1: at
√3 √3

49 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

● Triplen (3n) Harmonics -

Connection 3rd Harmonic current 3rd Harmonic flux

Star (Y) Absent Present only in 5 limb shell
Star with Present Absent
grounded
Delta (Δ) Phase current present Line current Absent
Absent

● Stacking Factor –
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
Stacking factor is always less than 1.

● Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuits

Electric circuit Magnetic circuit

Voltage/EMF = RI MMF = N.I

Where,
N is the number of turns of winding in a coil
I is the electrical current passing through the coil
Unit of MMF is Ampere-turns

Current Flux
𝑉 𝜌𝑙 𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑙
Resistance 𝑅 = or 𝑅 = Reluctance 𝑅 = or 𝑅 = 𝜇𝐴
𝐼 𝐴 𝜙
Where,
l is the average length of the magnetic core(m)
A is the area of cross-section of the magnetic core (m2)
μ is the permeability of magnetic material (AT/m2)

The permeability is given by,

μ = μ0.μr
where,
μ0 is the permeability of air
μr is the relative permeability
𝑉 𝑀𝑀𝐹 𝑁𝐼
Electric Field intensity - 𝐸 = Magnetic field intensity - 𝐻 = ==
𝑑 𝑙 𝑙
Where,
l is mean (or) average path length of the magnetic flux
unit of H is Amp-turns/meter
𝐼 𝜙
Electric current density - 𝐽 = Magnetic flux density - 𝐵 =
𝐴 𝐴
Where,
B is the magnetic flux density
ϕ is the magnetic flux
A is the area (m2)

50 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Magnetic flux density has SI unit as weber/m2
J=σE B=μH
J = electric current B = magnetic flux density
σ = conductivity μ = permeability

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MACHINES

● A poly phase induction motor is a singly excited A.C. machine.

● Resultant MMF can be given as
3
𝐹𝑅 = 𝐹𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝜃)
2

Where,
FR = resultant MMF
Fm = Maximum MMF

● Synchronous Speed-

120 𝑓
𝑁𝑠 =
𝑃

● Slip –
𝑁𝑠 − 𝑁𝑟
𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝(𝑠) =
𝑁𝑠
f2 = sf1 → slip frequency
NOTE -
If Nr = 0 (standstill) ⇒ s = 1
If Nr = Ns ⇒ s = 0 Therefore, the range of slip for Induction Motor is 0 < s ≤ 1
If RMF and stator magnetic field rotate in opposite direction, then relative speed is = Ns+N r

𝑁𝑠 + 𝑁𝑟
𝑠= >1
𝑁𝑠
⇒ fr > f

So, IM can also be used as a frequency changer because it changes the frequency from stator to the rotor.
Nactual = Nrelative + Nframe

Speed of → Stator Stator magnetic field Rotor Rotor magnetic field

51 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 w.r.t.
↓
Stator 0 Ns Nr Ns
Stator magnetic
field -Ns 0 Nr - Ns 0

Rotor -Nr sNs 0 sNs

Rotor magnetic
-Nr 0 Nr - Ns 0
field

● INVERTED INDUCTION MOTOR (or Rotor Fed Induction Motor) –

Speed of rotor flux w.r.t. rotor = Ns (which is opposite to Nr)
Flux speed in space = (Ns - Nr) = sNs (which is opposite to Nr because Ns > Nr)
Slip frequency (fs) = sfr

Speed of → Stator Stator magnetic field Rotor Rotor magnetic field

w.r.t.
↓
Stator 0 sNs -Nr sNs
Stator Magnetic
-sNs 0 -Ns 0
field
Rotor Ns(1 - s) sNs - Nr 0 Ns
Rotor Magnetic
-sNs 0 -Ns 0
field

● Induced EMF per phase –

Stator Induced EMF (E1) = √2π f Kω1 N1

Rotor Induced EMF (E2) at standstill = √2π f Kω2N2

Rotor Induced EMF (E2) at any slip ‘s’ = √2π (sf) Kω2N2

𝐸1 𝐾 𝑁 𝑁′
𝐸2
= 𝐾𝜔1𝑁1 = 𝑁1′ = 𝐾
𝑤2 2 2

● Rotor Circuit –
At standstill At some slip (s) i.e., Rotor in Motion
s=1

Here,

52 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

X2 = Rotor leakage reactance at standstill 𝐼
R2 = Rotor resistance at standstill
𝑠𝐸⃗2 = 𝐼2𝑅2 + 𝑗𝐼2 𝑥2 𝑠 or 𝐸⃗2 = 2 𝑅2 + 𝑗. 𝐼2 𝑥2
𝑠
𝑠𝐸⃗2 𝐸⃗2 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑠𝐸2 𝑠𝑥2
𝐼2 = = 𝑅2 = ∠−( )
𝑅2 +𝑗𝑠𝑥2 +𝑗𝑥2 √𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑥2 )2 𝑅2
𝑠

𝑠 2 𝐸22 𝑅2
Rotor Power = 𝐼22 𝑅2 =
𝑅22 +(𝑠𝑥2 )2

𝐸⃗2 𝐸2 <0 𝑥
𝐼2 = 𝑅2 = 2
∠ − ( 𝑅22 )
+𝑗×2 √(𝑅2 ) +(𝑥2 )2
𝑠 𝑠
𝑠
𝑅2
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼22 𝑠

● Exact equivalent circuit referred to stator –

Here,
𝑥2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑥2
𝑅2′ = 𝐾 2 𝑅2
𝐼
𝐼2′ = 2
𝐾

● Power flow Diagram –

Stator I/P (Pi) = √3 Vl Il cosϕ

𝑅2
Rotor I/P power (Pg) = 3𝐼22
𝑠

Rotor losses = 3𝐼22 𝑅2

1
Gross Mechanical power developed = 3𝐼22 𝑅2 ( − 1)
𝑠
Rotor cu loss (Pcu) = sPg
Gross mechanical power output (Pm) = (1 – s) Pg
𝑠
Rotor cu losses = gross mechanical power output × (1−𝑠)
𝑃𝑔
Air gap torque (𝑇𝑔 ) = 𝜔
𝑠𝑚
𝑃𝑑
Developed torque (𝑇𝑑 ) = 𝜔𝑚
; ωm = rotor speed [ ∴ ωm = ωsm(1 – s) ]
𝑃𝑔
𝑇𝑑 == 𝑇𝑔
𝜔𝑠𝑚
2𝜋
𝜔𝑠𝑚 = 60 𝑁𝑠 ; ωsm = synchronous speed (in mechanical radian per second)
53 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
NOTE –
Power Flow according to Steinmetz Model

Here,
Pfw = Friction & Windage
loss
Pl – l = stray load loss
Ph+e = magnetic loss

● Efficiency (η) –
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑠ℎ
%𝜂 = × 100 = × 100
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑃𝑠ℎ + 𝑃𝑓 + 𝑃𝑜ℎ
where,
Psh = output power or shaft power
Pf = fixed losses (i.e., Core + Friction and Windage losses)
Poh = stator and rotor Ohmic losses + brush contact loss (if any)

Note: -
Approximate efficiency of rotor
𝑁𝑟
𝜂𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = (1 − 𝑠)
𝑁𝑠

1−𝑠
● Mechanical power (𝑃𝑚 ) = 𝐼22 𝑅′2 ( 𝑠
)
● Cu losses (𝑃𝑐𝑢 ) = 𝐼22 𝑅′2
𝑅2′
● Air gap power 𝑃𝑔 = 𝐼22 = 𝑃𝑚 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢
𝑠

● Basic Torque Equation –

60̇
(i) Synchronous Watt - 𝑇 = (𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) i.e., 𝑇 ∝ 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝐴𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑁𝑠)
2𝜋𝑁𝑠
180 2 𝑠𝐸2
(ii) 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑁 ⋅ 𝑅2 +(𝑠𝑋 2 𝑅2 This is Approximate Torque Equation
𝑠 2 2)

Or 𝑇 ∝ 𝐸22 ∝ 𝐸12 ∝ 𝑉12

At ‘s’ is low At High slip ‘s’
R > > s X2 sX2 > > R2
So, (s X2)2 is Neglected So, 𝑅22 is Negleted
𝑠𝐸22 𝑠𝑉12 1
𝑇 ∝ 𝑠 → Torque slip is rectangular
𝑇∝ 2 ∝
𝑅2 𝑅2 hyperbola.
T ∝ s → torque slip is straight line.

54 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 ● Full load torque –
180 𝑠𝑓𝑙 𝐸22
𝑇𝑓𝑙 = ⋅ 𝑅
2𝜋𝑁𝑠 𝑅2 + (𝑠 𝑋 )2 2
2 𝑓𝑙 2

● Maximum torque –
2
3 𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑅2′
𝑇= × 2 ×
𝜔𝑠 𝑅′ 𝑠
(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑠2 ) + (𝑋𝑇ℎ + 𝑋2′ ) 2

● Slip at which maximum torque is-

𝑅2′
𝑠𝑚𝑡 =
√(𝑅𝑇ℎ )2 +(𝑋𝑇ℎ +𝑋2′ )2

Assume:
RTh = 0, XTh = 0, VTh = V1
𝑅′
𝑆𝑚𝑡 = 𝑋2′
2

3 𝑉12
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ×
𝜔𝑠 2𝑋2′
Note:
𝑇 2
= 𝑠𝑚𝑡 𝑠 This formula only applicable only if R1 (stator Res.) = 0
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 +𝑠
𝑠 𝑚𝑡

● Slip for maximum power-

𝑟2′
𝑠𝑚,𝑝 =
𝑟2′ + √(𝑟2′ + 𝑅𝑇ℎ )2 + (𝑋𝑇ℎ + 𝑋2′ )2

● Thevenin’s Equivalent of 3 - ϕ Induction motor

Rc Neglected
⃗ 𝑗𝑋𝑚
𝑉
⃗ 𝑇ℎ =
𝑉
(𝑅1 + 𝑗𝑋1 ) + 𝑗𝑋𝑚
𝑍𝑇ℎ = (𝑅⃗1 + 𝑗𝑋1 ) ∥ 𝑗𝑋𝑚
𝑅1 𝑋𝑚 𝑋1 𝑋𝑚
𝑍𝑇ℎ = +𝑗 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑗𝑋𝑇ℎ
𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑚 𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑚
𝑅2′
𝑃𝑔 = (𝐼2′ )2
𝑠
𝑉𝑇ℎ
= ′ 2
𝑅
[(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 2 ) + (𝑋2′ + 𝑋𝑇ℎ )2 ]
𝑠
𝑅2′
⋅
𝑠

55 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 2
𝑃𝑔 𝑚 𝑉𝑇ℎ 𝑅2′
𝑇𝑔 = = ⋅ 2 ×
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠 𝑅2′ ′ )2
𝑠
[(𝑅𝑇ℎ + ( ]
𝑠 ) + 𝑋𝑇ℎ + 𝑋2
Here, m = Number of phases.

● Approximate Analysis –
Assume:
Xm = ∞
VTh = V1
ZTh = R1 + jX1
𝑚 𝑉12 𝑅2′
𝑇= ⋅ 2 ×
𝜔𝑠 𝑅2′ ′ )2
𝑠
[(𝑅1 + ( ]
𝑠 ) + 𝑋1 + 𝑋2
Terms s = low (i.e., Running Condition) s = high (i.e., starting
Condition)
Torque 𝑅2′ 𝑅2′
> > > 𝑋2′ < < 𝑋2′
𝑚 𝑉12 𝑅2′ 𝑠 𝑠
𝑇= ⋅ ×( ) 𝑅2′ ′
𝜔𝑠 𝑅′
2 𝑠 2 2 𝑅2
[( 2 ) + (𝑋2′ )2 ] 3 𝑉1 × 𝑠 3 𝑠𝑉12 3 𝑉1 𝑠
𝑠 𝑇= × 2 = 𝜔 × 𝑅′ 𝑇= × ′2
𝜔𝑠 𝑅2′ 𝑠 2 𝜔𝑠 𝑋2
( ) 1
𝑠 𝑇 ∝ 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝
𝑇 ∝ 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑝 i.e., Linear
or Slip ↓ → T ↑
Characteristics.
Nr ↑ → T ↑
Power factor 𝑅2′ 𝑅2′
⋙ 𝑋2′ ≪ 𝑋2′
𝑅2′ 𝑠 𝑠
𝑠 So, pf = 1 (Unity) 𝑅′
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 𝑝𝑓 = 𝑠𝑋2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑤
2
′ 2
√(𝑅2 ) + (𝑋2′ )2
𝑠
Rotor current 𝑅2′ 𝑅2′
≫ 𝑋2′ ≪ 𝑋2′
𝑉1 𝑠 𝑠
𝐼2 =
𝑅′ 2 So, So,
√( 2) +𝑋22
𝑆𝑉1
𝑠
𝐼2 = 𝐼2 =
𝑅2′ 𝑉1
(𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
𝑋2′

Stator impedance: R1 = X1 = 0
𝑚 𝑉12 𝑅2′
𝑇= ⋅ 2 ×( )
𝜔𝑠 𝑅2′ 𝑠
[( ( ′ )2 ]
𝑠 ) + 𝑋2

56 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

● Torque – slip Characteristics –

● Power-slip characteristics -

● For a stable operating point, the load torque should increase at a higher rate with speed as compared to motor
torque.
𝑑𝑇𝑚 𝑑𝑇𝐿
<
𝑑𝑛 𝑑𝑛

● Determination of equivalent circuit parameters

No-load test Blocked Rotor (or) Locked rotor Test
𝑊0 𝑊 0
𝑃𝑠𝑐
𝑅 = 3
2 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙0 = 3 1
(𝐼𝑓) 𝐼𝑓
𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝐼0
𝑉𝑠𝑐
𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝑍1 =
𝑅𝑐 = 𝐼𝑓
𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙0
𝑉𝑝ℎ 𝑋1 = √𝑍12 − 𝑅12
𝑋𝑚 =
𝐼0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙0
𝑅1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙𝑠𝑐 =
𝑍1
Where,

57 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 If = Full load stator current per phase
Input power per phase = W0/3
Input voltage per phase = Vsc

● Starting of Induction Motor

Direct On-line starting (DOL) Reduce voltage starting

𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐼 2 (i) Stator resistance or reactance starting

𝑇𝑓𝑙
= (𝐼𝑠𝑐 ) 𝑆𝑓𝑙 {∵ Ist = Isc} 2
𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑠𝑐
Where, = 𝑥 2 ( ) 𝑠𝑓1
𝑇𝑓1 𝐼𝑓1
For series inductor starting: Ist = x Isc
Ist = starting line current
Where x < 1
Ifl = Full load current
● Starting torque is reduced by a x2
Sf1 = Full load slip
● Starting current is reduced by a x
𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 (ii) Auto-transformer starting
𝑇𝑓𝑙 = 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 2
𝑇𝑠𝑡 𝐼𝑠𝑐
= 𝑥 2 ( ) 𝑆𝑓1
𝑇𝑓1 𝐼𝑓1
For Auto-transformer starting, Isupply = x2Isc
Where, x < 1
● Isupply is reduced by a factor of x2
● Tst is reduced by a factor of x2
(iii) Star-delta starter
2
𝑇𝑠𝑡 1 𝐼𝑠𝑐
= ( ) 𝑆𝑓1
𝑇𝑓1 3 𝐼𝑓1
𝐼𝐿𝛾 1
=
𝐼𝑙,𝛥 3

● Speed control of Induction motor

𝑆𝑉 2
(i) Stator voltage control: 𝑇 ∝ 𝑅2
⇒ 𝑆𝑉 2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 => 𝑆1 𝑉12 = 𝑆2 𝑉22 [∵ T = Constant ]

(ii) Pole changing method: Only in Squirrel Cage Induction motor

(iii) Frequency control Technique:

For below rated speed Above Rated speed
if f < frated 𝑉
As f ↑ ⇒ ↓ 𝜙 ∝
𝐹↑
∵ ϕ ∝ V/f
But here, ‘V’ cannot increase beyond rated because
So, ϕ ↑ ⇒ can cause saturation
it damages insulation. That’s why ‘V’ kept at rated
So, if ϕ = ϕrated = constant
value.
𝑉
⇒ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 Characteristics:
𝑓 3 𝑉2 1
As f ↓ ⇒ V must also be reduced. ● 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔 . 2𝑋1 ∝ 𝑓2
𝑠 2

58 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Characteristics: 3 𝑉12 𝑅2 1
● 𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 𝜔 . 2 ∝ 𝑓3
𝑠 𝑆𝑋2
𝑅2 1
● Maximum torque (Tmax): ● 𝑆𝑚𝑡 = ∝𝑓
𝑋2
3 𝑉12 2
∵ 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = {∵ 𝜔𝑠 = × 2𝜋𝑓 }
𝜔𝑠 2𝑋2 𝑃
3 1 𝑉2 𝑉
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4𝜋 . 4𝜋𝐿 . ( 𝑓12 ) {∵ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 }
2 𝑓
𝑃
So, Tmax = constant
● Starting torque (Tst):
3 𝑉12 𝑅2 𝑉12 𝑉 2 1
∵ 𝑇𝑠𝑡 = 𝜔 . ∝ ∝ (𝑓 ) . 𝑓
𝑠 𝑆𝑋22 𝑓3
1
So, 𝑇𝑠𝑡 ∝ 𝑓

● Slip at maximum torque (Smt) Observation:

𝑅2 1 ● If frequency is increased above rated value, N s
∵ 𝑆𝑚𝑡 = ∝
𝑋2 𝑓 increase but starting torque as well as
maximum torque reduces.
f3 < f2 < f1
Tst3 > Tst2 > Tst1
Smt3 > Smt2 > Smt1
Tmax = constant

NOTE -
For a frequency control Induction motor below the rated speed for constant load torque, the difference
between Ns & Nr must remain constant as the frequency is varied.
𝑁𝑠 – 𝑁𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

(iv)Rotor resistance Method:

𝑆𝑉 2
∵𝑇∝ {𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 }
𝑅2
𝑆
⇒ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅2

(v) Rotor EMF injection method: Only in SRIM

In same phase In opposite phase

𝑆𝐸⃗2 + 𝐸⃗𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 0

59 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 ↓ 𝑆 = −↑ 𝑆𝐸⃗2 − 𝐸⃗𝑖𝑛𝑗 = 0
𝐸⃗𝑖𝑛𝑗
𝐸⃗𝑖𝑛𝑗
𝐸⃗2 ↑ 𝑆 =↑
𝐸⃗2

(vi) Cascading of two Induction Motors

Cumulative cascading Differential Cascading

Torque produced by both having the same direction. Torque produced by both having different directions.
𝑁𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃
120𝑓
This is the speed of two IM. 120𝑓
1 +𝑃2 𝑁𝑠𝑒𝑡 =
𝑃1 − 𝑃2

● The air gap power can be utilized to run another induction motor. So, the Cascading method is also called a slip
power recovery scheme.
Pmec1 = (1 – s)Pg1,
Pe1 = sPg1
𝑃𝑚𝑒𝑐1 1 − 𝑆1 𝑃1
= =
𝑃𝑒1 𝑆1 𝑃2

ELECTRICAL MACHINES PART 2

Index
➢ D.C. Machines
➢ Synchronous Machines
➢ Single phase Induction Motor & Special Machines

D.C. MACHINES

• EMF generated in the armature -

Z PφN
E= = 𝑘φ𝜔𝑚
A 60
2𝜋𝑁
𝜔𝑚 = (mech. Rad per sec)
60
𝑃𝑍
k=
2𝜋𝐴

• Torque Equation -
𝒁 𝑷𝛗𝑰𝒂
𝑻𝒆𝒎 =
𝑨 𝟔𝟎

60 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Where,
Tem is the electromagnetic torque
Ia is the current through armature

• Note -
If the number parallel paths are A
In multiplex lap winding A = mp
In multiplex wave winding A = 2 m
Where, m = multiplicity
If m = 1 → simplex winding
m = 2 → duplex winding
m = 3 → triplex winding
m = 4 → quadrant winding

• Power balance in D.C. Machine –

Generator Action Motor Action

Where,
Protational loss = Pf+w + Ph+e + Pst
Pf+w = friction and windage loss
Pn+e = Hysteresis and Eddy current loss
Pst = stray Load loss
Pcopper loss = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑓 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒 2
𝑅𝑠𝑒 + 𝑉𝐵𝐷 𝐼𝑎
Armature copper loss = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎
Shunt field copper loss = 𝐼𝑓2 𝑅𝑓
2
Series field copper loss = 𝐼𝑠𝑒 𝑅𝑠𝑒
Brush contact power loss = 𝑉𝐵𝐷 𝐼𝑎

• Efficiency-

Generator Motor
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝜂𝑔 = 𝜂𝑚 =
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝐿 𝑉𝐼 − (𝐼2 𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝐷 𝐼 + 𝑃𝐶
𝜂𝑔 = 𝜂𝑚 =
𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼 𝑅 + 𝑉𝐵𝐷 𝐼 + 𝑃𝐶 )
( 2
𝑉𝐼
Where, Here,
VtIL = output power VI = Electrical input power
I2R = Total Ohmic losses

61 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Pc = constant losses
VBDI = Brush contact losses
Vt = output voltage
IL = Load current

• Condition for maximum power transfer – For generator and motor maximum efficiency occurs when,
Constant loss = Variable loss
⇒ Pk = 𝐼𝑎2 𝑅𝑎

For Generator For Motor

𝐸𝑎 𝑉
𝑉= 𝐸𝑎 =
2 2

NOTE:
• Motor nor Generator can be design on maximum power output.

• Maximum Efficiency-

Generator Motor
𝑉𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝐵𝐷 𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑃𝑐
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑉𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝑉𝐵𝐷 𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where, Where,
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √ 𝐼𝑎 |𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑎

• If a coil rotates between two poles, the induced voltage is A.C. (bidirectional) If it is collected through two slip
rings & brushes it will be A.C. with a standard frequency. It can be treated as A.C. Generator with rotating
armature
120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑃
• Relationship between Electrical degree & Mechanical degree-
𝑃
𝜃𝑒 = 𝜃𝑚
2
Number of commutator segments = Number of coils

• Pole pitch- It is the peripheral distance centers of two adjacent poles in D.C. Machines.
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠
𝛾𝑃 =
𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒
• Slot pitch angle – It is the distance between two adjacent slots.
Slot pitch (in electrical angle)
𝑃
𝛾 = 𝛾𝑚
2
Where,
γm = Mechanical angle between two adjacent slots
2𝜋
𝛾𝑚 =
5

62 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• For double layer winding,
Number of coils = Number of slots

• For single layer winding,

Number of slots = 2 × Number of coils

(a) Lap winding:

In order to form lap winding, γb & γf are of opposite sign.
γb ≠ γf or γb – γf ≠ 0

• In order to form, symmetrical double layer winding, both γb & γf should be odd integer
γb – γf = ± 2m

NOTE -
γc = ± m
where,
γb = Back Pitch
γf = Front Pitch
γc = Commutator pitch
γR = γb – γf = Resultant Pitch

(b) Wave winding:

• In order to form wave winding, γb & γf should have some sign.
• Armature winding resistance (Ra)
Number of conductor per parallel
𝑍
Path =
𝐴
𝑥𝑧
Resistance per path = 𝐴
𝑥𝑍
𝑅𝑎 = Ω
𝐴2
Where,
Z = Number of conductor
A = Number of parallel path
X = Resistance per conductor (Ω)

• Effect of brush shifting -

63 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Demagnetizing component of armature flux
ϕd = ϕa sin θ

• Cross-magnetizing component of armature flux

ϕc = ϕa cos θ

Case 1: No brush shift (θ = 0) or brush on GNA ϕd = 0 & ϕc = ϕa

Only cross magnetizing

Case 2: Brushes shifted 90°E

θ = 90°
i.e., ϕd = ϕa & ϕc = 0

‘Only Demagnetizing’

• Demagnetizing armature MMF per pole -

(𝑍/2) 2𝜃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑎
𝐹𝑎𝑟(𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑔) 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = ×( )×
𝑃 180° 𝐴

• Cross - magnetizing armature MMF per pole -

(𝑍/2) 2𝜃𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑎
𝐹𝑎𝑟(𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑔) 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = × (1 − )×
𝑃 180° 𝐴

• Compensating winding MMF per pole (ATc) -

𝑍
( ) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐼𝑎
𝐴𝑇𝑐 = 2 ×
𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴

• If a Machine is designed with Brush shift it requires addition ampere turns on each pole to compensate balance
addition Demagnetization.
𝑁𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝐼𝑠ℎ = Demagnetizing Ampere turns

Shunt Machine Series Machine Compound Machine

𝐴𝑇𝑑 /𝑃 𝐴𝑇𝑑 /𝑃 𝐴𝑇𝑑 /𝑃
𝑁𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝐼𝑠ℎ = 𝑁𝑠𝑒𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 = 𝑁𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 =
𝐼𝑠ℎ 𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑠ℎ

Where,
𝐴𝑇𝑑
𝑃
is Demagnetizing Ampere turns per pole.

64 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Commutation -

𝐿𝑑(2𝐼𝑐 ) 2𝐼𝑐
𝑉 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑡𝑐
Where
60
𝑡𝑐 =
𝑁
(N = Number of commutator segments)

Compensating armature per pole,

𝑍
( ) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐼𝑎
𝐹(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = 2 ( ) × 𝐴𝑇/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴

Number of conductor in compensating winding,

𝑍
( ) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐 1
2
𝑇(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔) = ( ) × 𝐴𝑇/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴

& Z(compensating) = 2T(compensating)

Un-compensating armature per pole,

𝑍
( ) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐼𝑎
2
𝐹𝑎𝑟 = (1 − ) × 𝐴𝑇/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴
• Interpoles -

Rotational voltage created by interpoles MMF with additional Binterpole in the interpolar air
gap = Reactance voltage
2𝐼𝑐
𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 [𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 × 2 × 𝐿] × 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 ×
𝑡𝑐
Where,
𝑍
( ) 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐼𝑎 𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 2 (1 − )× + ×𝑙
𝑃 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝐴 𝜇0
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑉=
60
65 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
 l = interpole air gap

• Voltage Regulation-

𝐸−𝑉𝑟
% voltage regulation = × 100
𝑉𝑟
Where,
Vr = rated (or full voltage) armature voltage
E = No-load generated voltage

• Speed regulation-
𝑁0 − 𝑁𝑓𝑙
% 𝑆. 𝑅. = × 100
𝑁𝑓𝑙

• Speed control of D.C. Machine-

𝑉−𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
∵ 𝑁=
𝑘𝜙

Speed can be controlled by-

Armature voltage control Armature Resistance Field flux control
control
(i) constant torque drive (i) constant torque drive (i) It is constant power drive
(ii) speed control is possible (ii) speed control is possible (ii) speed control is possible
only below base speed i.e., N only below base speed i.e., N above base speed i.e., N > NB
< NB < NB
(iii) wide range of speed
control is Not possible.

66 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
• Windings are always connected in star.
• Armature winding is placed in stator and field winding is in
rotor.
• The machine always rotates with synchronous speed that is why
it is called synchronous machine.
120 f
Synchronous Speed ( Ns) =
P

• Distributed winding is used to eliminate higher order

harmonics.
• Fractional slot winding is used to eliminate the slot or tooth
harmonics.

• Terms belonging to Armature winding –

Coil span (β) For full pitched coil
If coil span = pole pitch
= 180° electrical
= slots/pole
For short pitched or fractional pitched or chorded
coil
If coil span < pole pitch
< 180° electrical
< slots/pole
Pole pitch It is the angle for each pole
Each pole creates an angle of 180° electrical.
θe = (P/2)θm [Where, θe is the electrical angle & θm is
the mechanical angle]

Slot pitch or slot angle (𝛾 ) 180° 𝑃 × 180°

𝛾= =
𝑠/𝑃 𝑠
‘𝛾’ represents the phase angle between induced emf’s
of any two consecutive slots.

Pitch factor or Coil span factor or Chording factor Kp

(Kp) Short pitched
=
The EMF induced per coil when the winding is full pitched
𝛼
2𝐸 cos
𝐾𝑝 = 2 = cos 𝛼
2𝐸 2
𝛼
Pitch factor, 𝐾𝑝 = cos
2
𝑛𝛼
Pitch factor of nth harmonic, K pn = cos
2
Kp = 1 ⇒ for full pitched winding

67 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Kp < 1 ⇒ for short pitched winding
Phase belt (or) phase group (or) phase band It is the group of slots belong to each phase under each
pole.
Phase belt = m slots = slots / pole / phase
Phase spread It is the angles subtended by phase belt.
Phase spread = mγ
180°
Phase spread of “n” phase machine = 𝑛
• For connecting winding phase belt = 1
• For distributed winding phase belt ≥ 2
Distribution factor (or) belt factor (or) breadth The EMF induced with distributed winding
Kd =
factor (or) spread factor The EMF induced with concentrated winding
𝑚γ
sin 2
𝐾𝑑 = γ
𝑚 sin 2
For nth harmonic
𝑚γ
sin(𝑛 2 )
𝐾𝑑𝑛 = γ
𝑚 sin(𝑛 2)
• For concentrated winding Kd = 1
• For distributed winding Kd < 1
Winding factor Kvv = Kp × Kd

NOTE - For elimination of nth harmonic

180
𝛼=
𝑛
𝑛−1
𝛽 = 180 ( )
𝑛

RMS induced EMF per phase –

Eph = 4.44 Kp Kd ∮ 𝑓 𝑇𝑝ℎ
Where,
∮ is the flux
f is the frequency
Tph is the turns per phase

• Uniformly distributed winding -

If the number of slots per pole phase are more, then the generated EMF is more sinusoidal.
Then the winding is said to be uniformly distributed winding
mγ
sin 2
K du = mγ π
×
2 180°
• Armature Reaction -

68 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Power factor Alternator Synchronous motor

UPF Purely cross magnetization Purely cross magnetization

ZPF lagging Purely demagnetization Purely magnetization

ZPF leading Purely magnetization Purely demagnetization

0.8 lagging Partly demagnetization and Partly magnetization and partly

partly cross magnetization cross magnetization
0.8 leading Partly magnetization and partly Partly demagnetization and
cross magnetization partly cross magnetization

• Vector diagram of alternator -

E = V + Ia Ra + j Ia XL + j Ia Xa

The angle between E & Ia is called internal power factor angle

ψ=∮±δ
Here,
‘+’ is for lagging power factor
‘-‘ is for leading power factor

When Ecos(δ) = V Normal Excitation (unity pf)

When Ecos(δ) > V Over Excited machine (lagging pf)
When Ecos(δ) < V Under Excited machine (leading pf)

• Induced EMF –
Alternator Motor
𝐸 = √(𝑉 cos 𝜙 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 + (𝑉 sin 𝜙 ± 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 )2 𝐸 = √(𝑉 cos 𝜙 − 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎 )2 + (𝑉 sin 𝜙 ± 𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑠 )2
Here Here,
‘+’ is for lagging power factor ‘-‘ is for lagging power factor
‘-‘ is for leading power factor ‘+’ is for leading power factor

69 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Voltage regulation –
|𝐸| − |𝑉|
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
|𝑉|

Condition for zero voltage regulation

−𝑰𝒂 𝒁𝒔
𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝜽 + 𝝓) = or
𝟐𝑽

𝜽 + 𝝓 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎

Condition for maximum voltage regulation

θ=ϕ
where,
𝜃 = Impedance angle
𝜙= Power factor angle

NOTE –
Voltage regulation in descending order is -
EMF method >ASA>ZPF > MMF

• Synchronous generator tests –

Resistance (in per phase) test
Ra = 0.5 Rm ; For Star connected Generator
Ra = 1.5 Rm ; For Star connected Generator
Where, Rm = Measured value of resistance

• Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) –

If for rated open circuit voltage
SCR =
If for rated short circuit current
ISC
SCR =
Irated
1
SCR =
X s(saturated)p.u.
NOTE -
Xs(saturated) < X s(unsaturated)
1
SCR ∝
Armature reaction
1
SCR ∝
Voltage regulation

• Power flow equations of Alternator –

70 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝐸𝑉 𝑉2 NOTE -
Output Real power 𝑃 = cos(𝜃 − 𝛿 ) − cos 𝜃
𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑠
complex power output S = P + jQ
𝐸𝑉 𝑉2
Output Reactive power 𝑄 = sin(𝜃 − 𝛿 ) − sin 𝜃
𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑠 If Ra = 0 ⇒ Zs = Xs ; θ = 90°
Developed Real Power
𝐸𝑉
𝐸2 𝐸𝑉 Then, 𝑃= sin 𝛿
𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑣 = |𝑍 | cos(𝜃) − |𝑍 | cos(𝜃 + 𝛿) 𝑋𝑠
𝑠 𝑠

Developed Reactive Power 𝑉

𝑄= [𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 − 𝑉 ]
𝐸2 𝐸𝑉 𝑋𝑠
𝑄𝑑𝑒𝑣 = |𝑍 | sin(𝜃) − |𝑍 | sin(𝜃 + 𝛿)
𝑠 𝑠

• Condition for maximum power output -

Impedance angle (θ) = load angle (δ)

𝐸𝑉 𝑉 2
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − cos 𝜃
𝑍𝑠 𝑍𝑠
• Condition for maximum developed power -
load angle (δ)= 180 - Impedance angle (θ)

• Power flow equations of Motor –

NOTE -
𝑉2 𝐸𝑉 complex power output S = P + jQ
Input Real power 𝑃 = cos(𝜃) − |𝑍 | cos(𝜃 + 𝛿)
|𝑍𝑠 | 𝑠
If Ra = 0 ⇒ Zs = Xs ; θ = 90°
𝑉2 𝑉2
Input Reactive power 𝑄 = sin(𝜃) − |𝑍 | cos(𝜃 + 𝛿)
|𝑍 |
𝑠 𝑠 𝐸𝑉
Then, 𝑃= sin 𝛿
𝑋𝑠

• Condition for maximum input power -

𝑉
load angle (δ)= 180 - Impedance angle (θ) 𝑄= [𝑉 − 𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛿 ]
𝑋𝑠
• V curve –

The variation of armature current with the changes in field current for fixed power.

For synchronous motor For synchronous Generator

71 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Under excited motor works at the lagging power Under excited alternator works at the leading power
factor factor
The normal excited motor works at the unity power The normal excited alternator works at the unity
factor power factor
The over excited motor works at leading power The over excited alternator works at lagging power
factor factor

• Inverted V – curve –
Inverted V -curve for synchronous generator or alternator is shown below.

Effect of change in steam input (or) mechanical power input (excitation is kept constant):
Leading power factor Lagging power factor
1 (1) Power factor ∝ steam input
(1) Power factor ∝ 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
(2) Qabs ∝ steam input ∝ load 1 1
(2) 𝑄𝑑𝑒𝑙 ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∝ 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
(3) Ia ∝ Steam-input ∝ load (3) Ia ∝ steam input ∝ load
(4) δ ∝ steam input ∝ load (4) δ ∝ steam input ∝ load
(5) P ∝ steam input ∝ load (5) P ∝ steam input ∝ load

• Synchronous motor connected to busbar -

Excitation Alternator Synchronous motor

Over Excitation Delivers ‘Q’ and operates at lagging power Delivers ‘Q’ and operates at leading power
factor factor
Under Absorb ‘Q’ and operates at leading power Absorbs ‘Q’ and operates at lagging power
excitation factor factor
Normal Neither absorbs nor delivers ‘Q’ and Neither absorbs nor delivers ‘Q’ and
excitation operates UPF operates at UPF

• LAMP method –
Flickering rate – The rate at which lamp is flickering i.e., switching Off or On.
ωg −ωI
f= or f = fg − fI
2π

72 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

• Droop Characteristics –

𝑓𝑁𝐿 − 𝑓𝐿
𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝 = ( ) × 100%
𝑓𝐹𝐿

• Two Reaction Theory –

This is valid for salient pole synchronous machine

Xad ≈ (1.5 - 2) Xaq
Ψ=ϕ±δ
Where,
“+” is for lagging power factor and UPF
“-“ is for leading power factor.
Id = Ia sin Ψ → direct axis armature current
Iq = Ia cos Ψ → Quadrature axis armature current.
𝑉 sin 𝜙±𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞
tan Ψ =
𝑉 cos 𝜙+𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎

𝐸 = 𝑉 cos 𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑅𝑎 ± 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑

For MOTOR –
Ψ=ϕ∓δ
Where,
‘-‘is for lagging power factor
‘+’ is for leading power factor and UPF
𝑉 sin 𝜙∓𝐼𝑎 𝑋𝑞
tan Ψ =
𝑉 cos 𝜙−𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Id = Ia sin Ψ and Iq = Ia cos Ψ
E = V cos δ – IqRa ∓ IqXd
Where,
Ψ = internal pf angle by which Ia lags E
δ = Load angle between E and V
𝜙 = Power factor angle between Va and Ia

𝐸𝑉 𝑉2 1 1
Per phase real power 𝑃 = sin 𝛿 + (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) sin 2𝛿
𝑋𝑑 2 𝑞 𝑑

Where,
𝐸𝑉
sin 𝛿 is the electromagnetic power (Pem)
𝑋𝑑

73 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑉2 1 1
( − ) sin 2𝛿 is the reluctance power (Prel) [ This power is generated only when machine
2 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
is connected to or operating on infinite bus bar ]

• Power angle curves P v/s δ –

Cylindrical rotor synchronous machine Salient pole synchronous machine

𝐸𝑉 𝐸𝑉 𝑉2 1 1
𝑃= sin 𝛿 = 𝑃𝑚 sin 𝛿 𝑃= sin 𝛿 + ( − ) sin 2 𝛿
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑑 2 𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑

Pmax is obtained for load angle δ < 30° (i.e. in between

60° to 70°)
P v/s δ curve is non-sinusoidal
Steady state stability is more for salient pole
synchronous machine due to extra reluctance power.
𝑑𝑃
For Max power , =0
𝑑𝛿

𝐸𝑓 𝐸𝑓 2 𝑋 2
− 𝑉 + √( 𝑉 ) + 8 (𝑋𝑑 − 1)
𝑡 𝑡 𝑞
cos(𝛿 ) =
𝑋
4 (𝑋𝑑 − 1)
𝑞

• Slip–Test - It is used for measuring Xd and Xq in salient pole machine.

From the slip Test

Vmax/ph
Xd = Imin/ph

Vmin/ph
Xq = Imax/ph

• Power relationship -
Mechanical power input to the generator 𝑃𝑖𝑛,𝑚 = 𝑇𝑠 𝜔𝑠
D.C. power input to a wound rotor Pin,e = Vf If

74 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Total power input Pin = Ts ωs + Vf If
Power output of a synchronous Generator P0 = 3Va Ia cos (∅)
Copper losses in the armature winding Pcu = 3Ia2 R a

• Power Flow Diagram –

(i) Generator

Total power input to synchronous generator:

2
Pin = 3Va Ia cos(∅) + 3Ia Ra + Pr + Pst + Vf If
Where,
Pr = Rotational losses
Pst = Stray load losses
Constant losses (Pc) = Pr + Pst + VfIf
Variable losses = 3Ia2Ra

Efficiency of the generator:

3Va Ia cosϕ
η = 3V 2
a Ia cosϕ+Pc +3Ia Ra

Maximum efficiency condition:

Constant losses = Variable losses
Pr + Pst + VfIf = 3Ia2Ra

(ii) Motor

75 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Total input power, (Pin) = 3VaIacosϕ + VfIf
Total copper loss, Pcu = 3Ia2Ra
Power developed, Pdev = 3VaIacosϕ – 3Ia2Ra - VfIf – Stray load loss

• Synchronous power co-efficient – It is also called as stability factor (or) Rigidity factor (or) stiffness of
coupling (Psy).
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝑉
𝑃𝑠𝑦 = = cos 𝛿
𝑑𝛿 𝑋𝑠
• For salient pole synchronous machine.
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝑉 1 1
𝑃𝑠𝑦 = 𝑑𝛿 = 𝑋 cos 𝛿 + 𝑉 2 (𝑋 − 𝑋 ) cos 2𝛿
𝑑 𝑞 𝑑

Over-excitation machine is more stable as compared to under & critical

excited machine

• Synchronizing power -
𝐸𝑉
Synchronizing power = 𝑃𝑠𝑦 Δ𝛿 = cos 𝛿 𝑑𝛿
𝑋𝑠

Where,
Δδ is the change in load angle due to disturbance in electrical radians.

• Synchronizing torque -
𝑃𝑠𝑦 𝑚 𝑑𝑝
Synchronizing torque = 𝑇𝑠𝑦 = =
𝜔𝑠 𝜔𝑠 𝑑𝛿
Where, m = Number of phases

SPECIAL MACHINES

• Single-Phase Induction Motors –

Whenever one supply line is disconnected from a three phase induction motor then only single phase
remains and the motor behaves as a single phase Induction motor i.e., only one single winding is
present.

• As per the Double Field Theory –

If rotor rotates at Nr (rpm) in forward direction.

𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟
Forward slip = = 𝑠𝐹
𝑁𝑠

76 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 −𝑁𝑠 −𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑠 +𝑁𝑟
Backward slip = = = 2 − 𝑠𝐹
−𝑁𝑠 𝑁𝑠

sb = 2 - sF

• Rotor Circuits –

Rotor circuits with respect to forward field Rotor circuit with respect to backward field

𝑠𝐸2 𝑠𝑋2
𝐼2𝑓 = ∠ − tan−1 ( ) (2 − 𝑠)𝐸2 (2 − 𝑠)𝑋2
√𝑟22 + (𝑠𝑋2 )2 𝑟2
𝐼2𝑏 = ∠ − tan−1
√𝑟22 + (2 − 𝑠)2 𝑋22 𝑟2

• Torque –

Forward torque Backward torque

𝐹𝑚 𝐹2𝑏
𝐹𝑚 𝐹2𝑓 𝑇𝑏 = cos(𝜃2𝑏 )
𝑇𝑓 = cos 𝜃2𝑓 2
2

• At Starting -
Slip = 1
sF = 1, sb = 1
𝐸2
𝐼2𝑓 = = 𝐼2𝑏
√𝑟2 + 𝑋22
2

77 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑋2
𝜃2𝑓 = tan−1 ( ) = 𝜃2 𝑏
𝑟2
⇒ MMF (forward) = MMF (backward)
Hence,
Tf = Tb
Net torque = Tf - Tb = 0
That’s why single phase induction motor is not self-starting.
• If we give a push to rotor in forward direction, then
Sf < 1, sb = (2 – s) > 1
⇒ I2f cos θ2f > I2b cos θ2b
⇒ Tf > Tb
Now, motor experience a not torque in forward direction and motor start to accelerate.

• Equivalent Circuit –

At Standstill At normal operating Condition

sF = 1, 2 – sf = 1

• Application of single phase Motor -

Single Phase Motor Application

Split-phase motor Small drill presses, shop grinders, small-bet drive,

conveyors’, washing machine, centrifugal pump,
office equipment , blowers
Capacitor-start motor Compressors, conveyors, pumps, certain machine
tools, refrigeration, air-conditioning equipment.

78 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

For maximum torque, α should be 90°. So, the capacitor
value is chosen to give α = 90°

𝑅𝑚 𝑅𝑎
𝑋𝑐 = 𝑋𝑎 +
𝑋𝑚
Where,
a → Auxiliary
m → main
Capacitor-run motor Ceiling fans, compressors, air-circulators, blowers

Capacitor start capacitor run motor Refrigerators, compressors

A. C. series motor Sewing machines, kitchen appliances, table fans,
food mixers

ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENT

INDEX
● Electromechanical Measuring Instruments
● Bridges
● Cathode Ray Oscilloscope
ELECTROMECHANICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Analog Instruments
Based on Quantity to be measure Based on Based on
principle representation
Voltage by Voltmeter Electromagnetic Indicating type
Current by Ammeter Electrostatic Recording type
Power by Wattmeter Thermal Integrating type
Energy by Energy meter Induction Null type
Power factor by Power Factor meter
● Sensitivity-

79 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity
being measured.
It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛥 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝛥 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

● Types of torques in indicating instruments –

Deflecting torque (Td) Controlling torque (Tc) Damping torque

Torque required to move the Torque responsible for Torque required to reduce the
pointer from its initial opposing the deflecting number of oscillations or
position. torque. damp out the oscillations.

Deflecting torque is Controlling torque produced Damping torque can be

proportional to the quantity output must be proportional created by various means like
being measured. to Input. Air Friction damping, fluid
friction damping, eddy current
It brings the pointer back to its damping.
original position in the
absence of Input.
At steady state |Td| = |Tc|

NOTE
● Order of priority-
Eddy current damping > Air friction damping > Fluid friction damping
● Order of effectiveness
Eddy current damping > fluid friction damping > Air friction damping

● Permanent Magnet moving coil (PMMC) Instruments -

The PMMC instrument uses two permanent magnets to create a stationary magnetic fields.

● It consists of ‘U’ shaped permanent magnets or Concave shape prepared by ALNICO or ALCOMAX.
● Iron core is used to make magnetic field radial.

80 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 ● Aluminum former is used to provide eddy currents.
● Copper coil is used to carry current and to provide deflecting torque.
● Deflecting torque (Td) = NBIA
Where,
N = turns in the coil
A = Area of cross-section of coil
NBA = G = Galvanometer constant
So,
Td = GI or Td ∝ I

At Steady state
|Td| = |Tc|
⇒ GI = Kθ
𝐺
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝐾𝐼
⇒θ∝I
i.e, Linear scale
𝛥𝜃(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡)
● Sensitivity =
𝛥𝐼(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡)
𝛥𝜃
● Current sensitivity = 𝛥𝐼
𝛥𝜃 𝜃 𝐵𝐴𝑁
𝑆= = =
𝛥𝐼 𝐼 𝐾𝑐

Observation S ↑ ∝ B ↑, S ↑ ∝ A ↑, ↑ S ∝ N ↑
1
But ↑ 𝑆 ∝
𝐾𝑐↓
Hence, PMMC has high sensitivity.

● Enhancement of PMMC –

Extension range of PMMC Ammeter Extension range of PMMC voltmeter

In this, we connect very, small resistance is in parallel In this we connect resistance in series with PMMC.
with PMMC

81 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑉
Rm : meter resistance 𝑚 = 𝑉 = multiplication factor
𝑚
Rsh : shunt resistance
𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ = Rs = Rm (m – 1)
𝑚−1
Where,
m is multiplication factor Always, m > 1
𝐼
𝑚= Therefore,
𝐼𝑚
Always, m > 1 Rs is in kΩ
Therefore, Rsh in mΩ

● Rectifier type instrument –

Half wave rectifier meter Full wave rectifier meter

2𝐼𝑚 2√2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝜋 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑓 )𝜋
0.9 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) =
𝐴𝐶 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 2𝑅𝑓 )

With D. C. Input
𝑉𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = =
𝐷𝐶 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 2𝑅𝑓 ) (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 2𝑅𝑓 )

𝐼𝑚 √2 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 Hence,
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = =
𝜋 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑓 )𝜋 (Iavg)AC = 0.9 (Iavg)DC
0.45 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 SAC = 0.9 SDC
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) =
𝐴𝐶 (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑓 )𝜋
Where,
𝑉𝑑𝑐 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 s is sensitivity
𝐼𝑑𝑐 = =
(𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑓 ) (𝑅𝑠 + 𝑅𝑚 + 𝑅𝑓 ) Form factor = 1.11

Hence, Hence,
(𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) = 0.45 (𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 )𝐷𝐶 Reading of FWR = 1.11 × PMMC reading
𝐴𝐶
(S)AC = 0.45 (S)DC

82 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜋
Form factor = 𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 2.22
√2
Hence,

Reading of HWR type instrument =2.22 ×

PMMC reading

● Error due to calibration of instruments -

(𝐹𝐹 )𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 − (𝐹𝐹 )𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100%
(𝐹𝐹 )𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
Here, FF is form factor.

● Moving Iron Instruments (MI) –

In MI instruments, the deflecting torque is given by

1 𝑑𝐿
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐼2
2 𝑑𝜃
Where,
I = operating current (in Ampere)
L = Inductance (in Henry)
θ = deflecting angle (in radians)
● As the operating torque is directly proportionally to the square of the operating current, Hence, this
instrument possesses high operating torque.
● At steady state condition-
|Tc| = |Td|
1 𝑑𝐿
𝐾𝜃 = 2 𝐼2 𝑑𝜃
⇒ θ ∝ I2 Non-linear scale.

● Electrodynamometer type Instrument-

As the moving coil rotates, the angle between the fixed coil & moving coil will change. Hence, mutual inductance
(M) will change. i.e., M = f(θ)
Deflecting Torque

Deflecting Torque (Td) is given by,

𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝜃
Where,
I1 = current through fixed (current) coil
I2 = current through moving (potential) coil
θ = Angle between I1 & I2
M = Mutual inductance

If A.C. current,
Then
𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠1 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
𝑑𝜃

83 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Note:
BPMMC > BMI > BEMMC
𝑇𝑑 𝑇 𝑇
( )
𝑊 𝑃𝑀𝑀𝐶
> ( 𝑊𝑑 ) > ( 𝑊𝑑 )
𝑀𝐼 𝐸𝑀𝑀𝐶
SPMMC > SMI > SEMMC
Here, B is operating field & S is sensitivity

● Two – wattmeter method -

Star connected load

The reading of the wattmeter connected in
B – phase is W1 = VLIL cos(30 – ϕ)
R – phase is W2 = VLIL cos (30 + ϕ)
● Total active power-
P3 - ϕ = √3 VLIL cos ϕ = W1 + W2

● Total reactive power-

Q3 – ϕ = W1 – W2 = √3 VLIL sin ϕ

● Power factor-
√3(𝑊1 − 𝑊2 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 {𝜙 } =
(𝑊1 + 𝑊2 )
● Errors in Wattmeter –

MC connection LC connection

𝑃𝑚 − 𝑃𝑇 𝐼𝐿2 𝑅𝑐 𝑉2
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100 = × 100 ( 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑃𝑇 𝑃𝑇 % 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑠
× 100
𝑃𝑇
This connection is preferable for low values of load This connection is preferable for High values of load
current. current.

● Error due to potential coil inductance -

84 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Pm = VLIL cos β cos (ϕ – β)
% Error = ± tan ϕ tan β × 100
Where,
𝜔𝐿𝑝
𝛽=( )
𝑅𝑠
+ for lag load
- for lead load
𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
● Multiplying factor of wattmeter = 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
● With decrease in power factor (or increase in ϕ), error increases.

● Low power factor (LPF) wattmeter –

Ordinary dynamometer is suitable for high factor load & to measure the power in low power factor load, Low
power factor wattmeter is used.
𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑑𝑀
𝑇𝑑 = .
𝑅𝑠 𝑑𝜃

● Integrating type instruments -

These instruments record the consumption of the total quantity of electricity, energy, etc. during a particular
period of time.

Energy meter
● Energy meter works on the principle of theory of induction instruments.
∵ speed (N) ∝ power

⇒∫ 𝑁∝∫ 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

⇒ (No. of revolution) displacement ∝ Energy

i.e., Energy is proportional to a number of revolution
Measured power (Pm) = VI sin(Δ – ϕ)
True power (PT) = VI cos ϕ
● Error = Pm – PT = VI [sin (Δ – ϕ) – cos ϕ]
● Shading ring improves the power factor of potential coil or increase Δ up to 90°. So,
that Error reduced or, shading ring provides addition lagging flux.
● Shading coil & shading ring are made up of copper.
2
● Braking torque (TB) = 𝐾𝜙𝑚 𝑁𝑑
85 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
 𝑇𝐵 1
⇒𝑁= 2 ∝
𝐾𝜙𝑚 𝑑 𝑑
Here, N = speed of the disc.
d = distance between center of the disc to the permanent magnet.
Hence, for increasing the speed, the permanent magnet is kept closer to the center of the disc.
● Energy constant -
The number of revolutions made by the disc to consumed 1 kWhr of energy known as the meter constant (K).

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟)
𝐸𝑚 − 𝐸𝑇
% 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝐸𝑇
Where,
𝑉𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 𝑡
𝐸𝑇 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = × 𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟
1000 3600
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐸𝑚 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

● Creeping Error -
𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟) 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
% 𝐶𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑟𝑒𝑣 × 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 (𝑘𝑊ℎ𝑟) 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
● Thermo-couple meter -

The thermo-couple produces a voltage proportional to the temperature differences.

VDC = K1(T1 – T2) + K2(T1 – T2)2 + ….
i.e., VDC ∝ K ΔT
It is also measure by both A.C. & D.C.
It can also be used as a high frequency.
● Electrostatic meter –
1 𝑑𝑐
𝑇𝑑 = 2 𝑉 2 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝑐
Condition for linearity: 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

● Enhancement of voltmeter -

𝐶𝑚
𝐶𝑠 =
(𝑚 − 1)
Where,
Cm = meter capacitance
Cs = series multiplier capacitance

BRIDGES
● The A.C. Bridges are used for the measurement of Capacitance, Inductance, Mutual inductance and frequency
while D.C. Bridges are used for the measurement of Resistance only.
● Bridge Balanced condition -
86 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES
 D.C. A.C.

𝑃 𝑅 |𝑍2 ||𝑍3 |
= |𝑍1 | =
𝑄 𝑆 |𝑍4 |
i.e., Only magnitude Balanced Condition
∠(θ1 = ∠(θ2 + θ3 – θ4)
For A.C. bridge circuits, two balance
equations are always obtained. One is the
magnitude and the other is phase equation.
Note:
If θ1 = 0° ⇒ Pure resistor
If θ1 = 90° ⇒ Pure inductor
If θ1 = 0° to 90° ⇒ R & L
If θ1 = -90° ⇒ Pure Capacitor
If θ1 = -90° to 0° ⇒ R & C

● Quality factor and Dissipation factor -

1
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝑄) =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 (𝐷)
& D = tan δ (also called loss tangent)
Here, δ = loss Angle

Note:
Connection Q D
𝜔𝐿 𝑅
𝑅 𝜔𝐿

𝑅 𝜔𝐿
𝜔𝐿 𝑅

1
ωRC
𝜔𝑅𝐶

1
ωRC
𝜔𝑅𝐶

87 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

● Measurement of self-Inductance –

Bridge Balance Condition Points to remember

Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

● Balance equation are

independent of frequency
𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅1 = ● Cost is less because of
𝑅4
absence of variable
𝐿2 𝐿3
𝐿1 = capacitor
𝑅4
● Bridge cannot estimate Q-
factor

Maxwell’s Inductance Capacitor Bridge

● Balance equation are

𝑅2 𝑅3 independent of frequency.
𝑅1 =
𝑅4 ● Suitable for medium Q (1
L1 = R2R3C4 < Q < 10)
● Costly
● Q = ωC4R4

Hay’s Bridge

● Balance equation are

𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶4 dependent of frequency
𝐿1 =
1 + 𝜔 2 𝑅42 𝐶42 ● Suitable for high Q (Q >
𝜔2 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 𝐶42 10)
𝑅1 = ● Costly
1 + 𝜔 2 𝑅42 𝐶42
1
● 𝑄 = 𝜔𝑅
4 𝐶4

𝐶4 ● Balance equation are

𝑅1 = 𝑅3
𝐶2 independent of frequency.
Owen’s Bridge
L1 = R2R3C4 ● Q = ωR2C2
● Suitable for medium Q

88 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Modified Owen’s Bridge

L1 = R2R3C4

𝐿1 𝑅2 ● This bridge is used for the

′ = 𝑢𝑟 = ′
𝐿1 𝑅2 measurement of relative
permeability.
L1 = with iron core
L1’ = with Air core

Anderson’s Bridge

● Balance equation
𝑅2 𝑅3 independent of frequency
𝑅1 = − 𝑟1
𝑅4 ● Shielding of Bridge is
𝐶𝑅3 difficult to reduce external
𝐿1 = [𝑟(𝑅2 + 𝑅4 ) + 𝑅2 𝑅3 ]
𝑅4 magnetic field effect.
● Suitable for low Q (Q < 1)

● These are used for

𝑅4
𝐶1 = 𝐶 measurement of
𝑅3 2
𝑅3 Capacitance
De Sauty’s Bridge 𝑅1 = (𝑅2 + 𝑟2 ) − 𝑟1
𝑅4
Where r1 = Internal resistance
1
of C1 𝑄=
𝜔𝐶1 𝑟1

89 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 Schering Bridge ● This bridge is used for
measurement of unknown
capacitance & relative
permittivity of dielectric
𝑅4 𝐶2 medium
𝐶1 =
𝑅3 ● Used to measure
𝑅3 𝐶4 dielectric power loss,
𝑅1 =
𝐶2 capacitance of
underground cable, lossy
p.f & loss angle also.
1
● 𝑄=
𝜔𝑅4𝐶4

● Measurement of relative permittivity -

𝑡
∈𝑟 =
𝑡−𝑥
Where,
t = thickness of dielectric
x = distance adjusted for balance

● Measurement of frequency -

Wien’s Bridge Oscillator

1
𝜔=
√𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
Condition for balancing:
𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅3
+ =
𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑅4
● Wien bridge is used for measurement of frequency in MHz range.
● Whenever a signal contains harmonics, bridge will be unbalanced.

90 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO) -

CRO is an electronic equipment, which display a voltage waveform.

Deflecting sensitivity -

𝐿𝑙𝑑𝑉𝑦
Deflection (D) = 2𝑑𝑉 𝑚𝑚
𝑎
𝐷 𝐿𝑙𝑑 𝑚𝑚
𝑆= =
𝑉𝑦 2𝑑𝑉𝑎 𝑉
Scaling factor or Deflection factor
1 𝑉
(G) = 𝑆 𝑚𝑚
Where,
Vy = Potential applied to
vertical deflection plates
ld = length of vertical deflection plates
L = Distance of screen from center of vertical deflection plates
d = distance between vertical deflection plates
D = Height above center of screen where e- strikes the screen

● Lissajous Pattern –

If both Horizontal & vertical plates are applied with test signals, then the pattern appearing on the screen is
termed as Lissajous pattern.

Phase difference Pattern

ϕ = 0° or 360° Straight line passing through origin in 1st & 3rd

quadrants
0° < ϕ < 90° Ellipse in clockwise orientation in 1st & 3rd quadrants

270° < ϕ < 360° Ellipse in Anti-clockwise orientation in 1st & 3rd
quadrants
ϕ = 90° Circle in Clockwise orientation

ϕ = 270° Circle in Anti-clockwise orientation

Φ = 180° Straight line passing through origin in 2nd & 4th

quadrants
90° < ϕ < 180° Ellipse in clockwise orientation in 2nd & 4th quadrants

180° < ϕ < 270° Ellipse in Anti-clockwise orientation in 2nd & 4th
quadrants

(i) Measurement of frequency

𝜔𝑦 𝑓𝑦 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
= =
𝜔𝑥 𝑓𝑥 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

91 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

SOME SPECIAL CASES

𝑓𝑚 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑝𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒

=
𝑓𝜙 1
Where,
fm = modulated frequency
fϕ = Deflecting plate frequency

𝑓𝑦 1
=
𝑓𝑥 4

𝑓𝑦 1
=
𝑓𝑥 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟

Points to remember –

● CRO always peak to peak voltage.

Total time on x-axis = t = (x – division) X total number of horizontal division on x-axis.

Amplitude = (y – division) X (total number of vertical division on y-axis)

92 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑥−𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
● No. of cycles of waveform displayed on CRO = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚
● Bandwidth × tr(rise time) = 0.35

DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

INDEX

1. Number System and Binary Codes

2. Logic Gates
3. Combinational Circuits
4. Sequential Circuits

NUMBER SYSTEM AND BINARY CODES

Signed magnitude representation uses the most significant bit (MSB) a sign bit.
• If the sign bit is ‘0’ then the number is positive.
• If the sign bit is ‘1’ then the number is negative.
1's complement of Binary:
1's complement of a Binary number is defined by the value obtained by inverting all the bit, i.e, 0 as 1 and 1 as 0.
2's complement of Binary:
It is the sum of 1's complement of Binary number and 1 to the least significant bit (LSB).
∴ 2's complement = 1's complement + 1 (LSB)

Binary to gray conversion:

g3 = b3
g2 = b3 ⊕ b2
g1 = b2 ⊕ b1
g0 = b1 ⊕ b0

Gray code to Binary conversion:

93 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

b3 = g3 → MSB is same in both
b2 = b3 ⊕ g2
b1 = b2 ⊕ g1
b0 = b1 ⊕ g0

LOGIC GATES

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of a digital system.

• A logic gate works on the principle of a Boolean function which is a logical operation performed using one
or more binary inputs that produce a single binary output.
• The Boolean function uses only two variables - zero or one.
• The relationship between these inputs and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on this, logic
gates are given names.
• A few logic gates along with their symbol and truth table are as follows:

94 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

All Boolean algebra laws are shown below:
Name AND Form OR Form
Identity law 1.A = A 0+A=A
Null Law 0.A = 0 1+A=1
Idempotent Law A. A = A A+A=A
Inverse Law AA’ = 0 A + A’ = 1

Commutative Law AB = BA A+B=B+A

Associative Law (AB) C (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

Distributive Law A + BC = (A + B) (A + C) A (B + C) = AB + AC
Absorption Law A (A + B) = A A + AB = A

De Morgan’s Law (AB)’ = A’ + B’ (A + B)’ = A’B’

COMBINATIONAL CIRCUITS
Half Adder:
Half Adder is an arithmetic combinational circuit that adds two numbers and produces a sum bit (s) and carry bit
(C) as the output.
If A and B are the input bits, then sum bit (s) is the XOR of A and B and the carry bit (C) will be the AND of A and B.

Truth table of Half Adder is given below

Input Output
A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

Full Adder:
Full Adder is the adder that adds three inputs and produces two outputs. The first two inputs are P and Q and the
third input R is an input carry.
It is the advantage of full adder over half adder that it can take three inputs together and third input can be an
input carry.

95 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Full Adder Circuit:

Full Adder Truth Table:

Inputs Outputs
A B C-N Sum C - out
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Half Subtractor:
A half subtractor is a combinational circuit that is used to perform the subtraction of two single-bit words, i.e. it
requires 2 input bits.
It subtracts two single-bits A & B and produces difference d & borrow b.

The equation for half subtractor is:

d = A'B + AB' or A ⊕ B
b = A'B

Truth Table for half subtractor:

A B Difference Borrow
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0

Full Subtractor:
A binary full-subtractor contains two half-subtractors and one OR gate.

96 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

Full subtractor performs subtraction of two bits, one is minuend and other is subtrahend. In full subtractor, ‘1’ is
borrowed by the previous adjacent lower minuend bit. Hence three bits are considered at the input of a full
subtractor.
There are two outputs, that are DIFFERENCE output D and BORROW output Bo. The BORROW output indicates that
the minuend bit requires borrow ‘1’ from the next minuend bit.

Truth table for the full- subtractor is

A B Bin M N
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1

Difference(D) = A̅ B̅ Bin + A̅ B B̅in + AB̅ B̅in + ABBin

D = Bin ⊕ (A ⊕ B)
Borrow(B) = A̅ B̅ Bin + A̅ B B̅in + A̅ B Bin + ABBin
B = (A̅ B̅ + AB)Bin + A̅ B
B = (A̅ ⊕ B)Bin + A̅ B

Multiplexer (MUX):
Multiplexer (MUX) is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one of several input lives through a single
common output line by application of control signal.

Output expression of 4:1 Mux is

Q = a̅ b̅ A + a̅ b B + a b̅ C + a b D

97 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

De-multiplexer:
• The demultiplexer is a combinational logic circuit designed to switch one common input line to one of
several separate output lines.
• The data distributor, known as a Demultiplexer or “Demux”, works in just the opposite way to that of the
Multiplexer.
• The demultiplexer takes one single input data line and then switches it to any one of a number of individual
output lines one at a time.
• A demultiplexer circuit is a decoder circuit with enable input.

The block diagram is as shown:

Truth table:
Selection Inputs Outputs
S1 S0 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0

Decoder
• A decoder is a combinational logic constructed with logic gates.
• It is the reverse of the encoder.
• A decoder circuit is used to transform a set of digital input signals into an equivalent decimal code of its
output. For ‘n’ inputs a decoder gives ‘2n’ outputs.
• Block diagram of the Decoder is shown below:

98 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

 SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS:
D flipflop

Truth Table of D flipflop will be:

D Q(n+1) = D State
0 0 Reset
1 1 Set

SR flipflop

Truth Table of SR flipflop will be:

S R Q(n+1) State
0 0 Q(n) Hold
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
Undesirable
1 1 if NOR gates XX
used.

JK flipflop:

Truth Table of JK flipflop will be:

J K Q(n+1) State
0 0 Q(n) Hold
0 1 0 Reset
1 0 1 Set
1 1 ̅
𝑄(𝑛) Toggle

99 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES

T flipflop:

Truth Table of T flipflop will be:

T Q(n+1) State
0 Q(n) Hold
1 𝑄̅(𝑛) Toggle

Characteristic Equations for Flipflops

Flipflop Characteristic Equation
SR Flipflop 𝑄𝑛+1 = 𝑆 + 𝑅̅𝑄𝑛
JK Flipflop 𝑄𝑛+1 = 𝐽𝑄̅𝑛 + 𝐾̅𝑄𝑛
T Flipflop 𝑄𝑛+1 = 𝑇𝑄̅𝑛 + 𝑇̅ 𝑄𝑛
D Flipflop 𝑄𝑛+1 = 𝐷

Flipflop Conversion Table

Required Flipflop
Given Flipflop SR Flipflop JK Flipflop T Flipflop D Flipflop
SR Flipflop - 𝑆 = 𝐽𝑄̅ 𝑆 = 𝑇𝑄̅ 𝑆=𝐷
- 𝑅 = 𝐾𝑄 𝑅 = 𝑇𝑄 𝑅=𝐷 ̅
JK Flipflop 𝐽=𝑆 - 𝐽=𝑇 𝐽=𝐷
𝐾=𝑅 - 𝐾=𝑇 𝐾=𝐷̅
T Flipflop 𝑇 = 𝑆𝑄̅ + 𝑅𝑄 𝑇 = 𝐽𝑄̅ + 𝐾𝑄 - 𝑇 =𝐷⊕𝑄
D Flipflop 𝐷 = 𝑆 + 𝑅̅ 𝑄 ̅ ̅
𝐷 = 𝐽𝑄 + 𝐾 𝑄 𝐷=𝑇⊕𝑄 -

100 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING FORMULAE NOTES