ECOLOGY

Synopsis

Ecosystem; Community; Populations; Species; Niche (Producers, Consumers and Decomposers);

Habitat; Energy Flow; Food Chains; Trophic Levels; Food Webs; Ecological Pyramids; Nutrient
Cycles; Effects of Human Activities on Ecosystems (Pollution, Deforestation, Desertification
and Conservation); Biodiversity; Populations

Ecology is the study of interactions of living things with each other and the environment. The
following terms are associated with the study of ecology:

• Ecosystem- a definable area made of communities of living things that interact with each
other and their non living environment e.g. a pond, Game Park.

• Community- a group of populations found in the same area and interact with each other.

• Population- a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time.

• Species- a group of living things that have similar features and can inter-breed to produce
fertile offspring.

• Habitat- a place where an organism lives. Examples of habitats are aquatic habitats
(found in water), terrestrial habitats (found on land)

• Niche- the specific role a given organism plays in an ecosystem e.g. some organisms
such as algae and green plants are producers; other such as animals are consumers; and
other such as bacteria and fungi are decomposers.

Energy Flow

The principal source of energy for ecosystems is the sun. Energy from the sun is called solar
energy. Solar energy is captured by green plants during the process of photosynthesis and
converted to chemical energy (food) which living organisms are able to use. Because of their
capacity to produce food for other living organisms in an ecosystem, plants are called producers.
Animals that feed on plants are called primary consumers or herbivores. Those that feed on

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primary consumers are called secondary consumers and those that feed on secondary consumers
are called tertiary consumers.

The flow of energy from the sun is non-cyclic (the energy can never be returned to the sun).

The following diagram illustrates an energy flow chain:

Food Chains and Food Webs

A food chain is a sequence of feeding relationships that begins with the producers and involves
at least three organisms. The feeding level of an organism in a food chain is called the trophic
level. In every food chain the producers occupy the first trophic level; the primary consumers
occupy the second trophic level; the secondary consumers occupy the third trophic level and so
on. In a food chain the organisms are linked by a series of arrows which always point towards
the organism that is feeding on another. An example of a food chain is given below:

Food chains can rarely go beyond the fourth trophic level. This is because only 10% of the
energy present in one trophic level is passed on to the next. 90% of the energy is lost through
respiration, egestion and excretion. By the time a food chain reaches the fourth trophic level
there is very little energy available for any higher trophic level. There is more energy gained by
feeding on vegetation than feeding on meat.

Food Webs

This is a group of interlinked food chains. The following diagram illustrates a food web:

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The following table compares a food web to a food chain:

Food chain Food web

One sequence of feeding relationships Several inter-linked sequences of feeding

relationships

Each organism occupies only one trophic Each organism may occupy more than one
level trophic level except the producer

Usually involves fewer organisms than a food Usually involves more organisms than a food
web chain

Ecological Pyramids

These are diagrammatic ways of showing feeding relationships in an ecosystem. Each ecological
pyramid is made of a pile of rectangular blocks on top of each other. There are three types of
ecological pyramids which are:

 Pyramids of numbers,

 Pyramids of biomass

 Pyramids of energy

Pyramids of numbers

This shows the numbers of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each
rectangular block is proportional to the number of organisms at the trophic level it represents.
For example the following pyramid of numbers may represent an ecosystem where there are 5
producers, 10 primary consumers, 150 secondary consumers and 5 tertiary consumers

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Pyramids of numbers are not always upright but maybe inverted. This results when a small
number of large organisms is supplying food to a large number of small organisms e.g. Parasites
feeding on a host.

Pyramids of Biomass

This shows the biomass of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. Biomass is the total
dry mass of an organism. It is also defined as the total amount of organic matter in an organism.
It is measured in kilograms (Kg). The length of each rectangular block is proportional to the
biomass of organisms at the trophic level it represents.

Example

Construct a pyramid of biomass for an ecosystem where the producers have a biomass of
1000Kg, primary consumers 750Kg, secondary consumers 850 Kg and Tertiary consumers 500
Kg.

Pyramids of biomass are usually upright but may sometimes be inverted. This is because the
measurements used for constructing the pyramids are based on the standing crop, rather than the
total biomass per growing season.

Pyramids of Energy

This shows the energy of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain. The length of each
rectangular block is proportional to the energy of organisms at the trophic level it represents. The
units used for measuring energy are Joules (J) or Kilojoules (KJ). This is the best way of
showing feeding relationships as the pyramids are always upright.

Food cycles

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A food cycle is a food chain or food web that includes decomposers. The decomposers break
down complex organic molecules to simple inorganic molecules that can be used by producers
hence completing the cycle.

Nutrient Cycles

A nutrient cycle shows the different forms of a particular element or nutrient in different parts of
the environment and the processes involved in converting it from one form to another.

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:

 Atmosphere (in the form of nitrogen gas)

 Soil (in the form of ammonia/ammonium ions, nitrite and nitrate)

 Plants (in the form of proteins and nucleic acids)

 Animals (in the form of proteins, amino acids, urea and nucleic acids)

Note: Nucleic acids are molecules responsible for storage of genetic information i.e.
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

The processes involved in converting nitrogen from one form to another are summarised in the
following diagram of the nitrogen cycle.

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Bacteria are involved in the following processes of the nitrogen cycle:

 Nitrogen fixation: The process by which nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is converted
to absorbable nitrogen compounds by the action of nitrogen fixing bacteria such as
Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Clostridium and Anabaena. Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacterium
found in the root nodules of leguminous plants such as beans, peas, groundnuts and
clover. Clostridium and Azotobacter are free-living in the soil while Anabaena is aquatic.
All nitrogen-fixing bacteria contain an enzyme called nitrogenase which catalyses the
reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen to form ammonia.

 Nitrification: The process by which ammonia is oxidised to form nitrite (NO -2) by the
bacterium Nitrosomonas and nitrite is oxidised to form nitrate (NO -3) by the bacterium
Nitrobacter. Oxygen is required in order for nitrification to take place. The bacteria that
carry out nitrification are called nitrifying bacteria.

 Decomposition: The process by which complex organic molecules are broken down into
simple inorganic molecules by the action of micro-organisms known as decomposers.
Decomposers include not only bacteria but also fungi. The decomposition of nitrogen-
containing organic compounds is also called ammonification because it leads to the
formation of ammonia or ammonium ions.

 Denitrification: The process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas by

denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas denitrificans and Thiobacillus denitrificans.
The process occurs in water-logged soils, lacking oxygen. It makes the soil less fertile
and adds nitrogen gas to the atmosphere.

Other processes that have an effect on the nitrogen cycle discussed below:

 Lightning: This carries out nitrogen fixation by causing nitrogen to react with oxygen to
form nitrogen oxides. The nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water to form nitric acid which
has nitrate that the plants are able to absorb.

 Harber Process: This is an artificial process where nitrogen gas and hydrogen are made
to react with each other at high temperature and pressure to form ammonia. It reduces the
amount of nitrogen gas in the atmosphere.

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  Application of nitrogen-containing fertilisers increases the amount of nitrogen-
containing compounds in the soil.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon occurs in the following parts and forms in the environment:

 Atmosphere (in the form of carbon dioxide gas)

 Plants (in the form of organic molecules)

 Animals (in the form of organic molecules)

 Soil (in the form of fossil fuels and carbonates)

The processes involved in converting carbon from one form to another are summarised in the
following diagram of the carbon cycle.

Water Cycle

Water exists in three states, namely solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (water vapour). The
processes that take place during the water cycle are summarised in the following diagram:

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Effects of Human Activity on the Environment

Human activities such as agriculture, construction, waste disposal, industrialization and burning
of fossil fuels have produced negative effects on the environment. These negative effects include
pollution, deforestation and desertification. One way humans try to address some of these
effects is through conservation.

Agriculture and the Soil

Agriculture

Agriculture may be defined as the use of land for growing crops. The type of agriculture where
only one type of crop is grown is called monoculture. Some advantages of agriculture are:

 It ensures that there is enough food and cash crops for increasing populations of human
beings.

 It makes it possible for newly developed varieties of crops and breeds of livestock to be
nurtured with little competition from wild types.

Some disadvantages of agriculture are:

 It contributes to deforestation as forests are cleared to make room for growth of crops or
rearing of livestock.

 The clearance of forests for agriculture leads to reduction in biodiversity

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  Some chemicals used in agriculture e.g. herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers cause
pollution of the environment

 Mechanised agriculture relies on combustion of fossil fuels which cause more pollution.

Soil

Soil is the weathered top layer of the earth’s crust. The components of soil are divided into two
groups, namely inorganic components and organic components. The inorganic components of
soil are:

 Mineral particles: These are particles formed from surface rocks by the process of
weathering and have diameters ranging from 0.002 mm to 2 mm. They are classified into
four types, namely clay, silt, sand and gravel, depending on their size. The following
table shows the diameters of the different types of mineral particles found in soil:

Type of Mineral Particle Diameter (mm)

Clay < 0.002

Silt 0.002-0.02

Sand 0.02-2.0

Gravel >2.0

 Water

 Air

 Dissolved mineral salts and PH

Pollution

This is the contamination of the environment with substances that are harmful to living
organisms. Any substance that causes pollution of the environment is called a pollutant. There
are three types of pollution, namely land, air (atmospheric) and water pollution.

(i) Land pollution

The following table discusses some pollutants of the land, their sources and effects:

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 Name of Source(s) Effects
Pollutant

Non- -Disposable -They make the soil less fertile

biodegradable packaging for a
materials: number of man-
materials that made products
can’t be
decomposed by
microorganisms
e.g. plastic

Garbage/ -Domestic and -Act as breeding sites for pathogens and their vectors
Refuse/ industrial waste
-May contain poisonous substances
Rubbish
-Giving the air an unpleasant smell

Heavy metals: -Industrial -They cannot be excreted by bodies organisms and are
metals with a emissions poisonous when they reach certain levels.
relative atomic
- Bioaccumulation (a substance becoming more
mass higher
concentrated in higher trophic levels of a food chain)
than 100 e.g.
may result, leading to death of higher predators.
lead and
mercury

(ii) Air Pollution

The following table discusses some pollutants of the atmosphere, their sources and effects:

Name of Source(s) Effects

Pollutant

Sulphur dioxide -Burning of fossil Dissolves in rain water forming sulphurous acid and
fuels sulphuric acid. Such rain is called acid rain. The

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 effects of acid rain are:

-It breaks down the waxy cuticle on plant leaves,

leading to excessive transpiration and leaching of
nutrients. This may lead to death of trees and
destruction of forests.

-It destroys the root hairs of plants, leading to reduced

uptake of nutrients and water.

-It kills or inhibits the activity of soil organisms,

thereby slowing down decomposition of organic
matter

-It mobilises ions that are normally bound to soil

particles, leading to leaching of such ions. When some
of the leached ions flow into rivers, they may
accumulate to toxic levels.

-It corrodes and damages buildings

Carbon dioxide -Burning of fossil -It contributes to the greenhouse effect i.e. it slows
fuels and organic down the escape of heat (long-wave radiation) from
matter. the atmosphere into space. This has led to an effect
known as global warming i.e. a rise in global
-Deforestation
temperatures. Global warming is believed to cause
promotes increase
drastic climatic changes, resulting in droughts and
in CO2
floods.
concentrations
because it reduces NB: There are other greenhouse gases besides carbon
the number of dioxide. Examples are methane, water vapour,
plants carrying out chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)and nitrous oxide (N2O)
photosynthesis

NB: The gas is

also added to the

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 atmosphere
naturally by
respiration and
volcanoes

Carbon -Incomplete -When inhaled, it gets into the blood and combines
monoxide combustion of irreversibly with haemoglobin to form
fossil fuels and carboxyhaemoglobin. This reduces the capacity of
organic matter. the blood to transport oxygen. This may cause
breathlessness, headache and suffocation to death in
humans.

-Babies born from mothers that have been frequently

exposed to the gas have a low birth weight.

Nitrogen oxides -Exhaust fumes -Formation of acid rain (refer to effects of acid rain
under sulphur dioxide)
-Industrial fumes
-Formation of photochemical smog, which reduces
In both cases the
visibility and may lead to road and air traffic
nitrogen is initially
accidents.
from the
atmosphere, but
reacts with oxygen
under intense heat
to form oxides.

NB: oxides of
nitrogen are
formed naturally
when there is
lightning

(iii)Water Pollution

The following table discusses some pollutants of water, their sources and effects:

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 Name of Source(s) Effects
Pollutant

Raw (untreated) -Leaking of sewer -Some microorganisms present in sewage are

sewage: This is pipes. pathogenic and may cause diseases such as cholera,
a mixture of dysentery and typhoid
-Direct discharge
human faeces,
of untreated -Decomposition of the organic components of sewage
urine kitchen
sewage into water leads to high levels of phosphates and nitrates. The
waste and
bodies i.e. rivers presence of high levels of phosphates and nitrates in
detergents
and lakes. water is called eutrophication. It leads to algal
blooms (the rapid multiplication of algae in water) and
multiplication of water weeds. The algae use up a lot
of oxygen for respiration and during their
decomposition after death. This lowers the amount of
oxygen in water and may result in death of fish. In
addition, nitrates are poisonous to both fish and
humans.

-Suspended particles present in the sewage reduce

penetration of light, slowing down photosynthesis in
aquatic plants.

-Detergents in sewage lead to formation of foams

which block oxygen and light from getting into the
water.

Agricultural -Farms located -Fertilisers in water cause eutrophication (see

run-off near water bodies explanation above)
containing
-Herbicides and pesticides are poisonous to aquatic
fertilisers,
organisms and to humans who may drink the water.
herbicides and
pesticides.

Oil spills: These -Accidental -Oil floats on top of water, thereby blocking oxygen

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 normally affect spillages from supply to aquatic organisms.
marine water tankers
-It kills aquatic organisms
bodies i.e. seas
and oceans -It sticks to the feathers of some aquatic birds, making
it difficult for them to swim.

Deforestation

This is defined as the permanent removal of trees and their undergrowth from a forest.

Some causes of deforestation are:

 Clearance of land for agriculture

 Use of trees in the paper-making industry

 Harvesting timber for construction

 Clearance of land for construction of human settlements, roads, rail lines, and dams

 Destruction of forest trees by acid rain.

 Late forest fires

The effects of deforestation on the environment are:

 Reduction in biodiversity

 It interferes with the carbon cycle because there is reduced photosynthesis, leading to
accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This in turn contributes to the
greenhouse effect.

 It interferes with the nitrogen cycle because some of the trees removed are legumes that
harbour nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

 It promotes soil erosion by wind and rain water. The soil eroded by water is often
deposited in rivers, leading to flooding.

 It promotes leaching of nutrients

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  It promotes desertification

Desertification

This is the degradation of arid and semi-arid land to form a desert. Causes of desertification
include:

 Deforestation

 Overgrazing

 Trampling of the ground by animals

 Overpopulation

Effects of Desertification

 Land becomes less productive because it cannot support growth of plants. People staying
on desert land are in danger of starvation and famine

 Desert lands are prone to extremes of temperature (very high temperatures during day
time and very low temperatures during night time)

 Very low rainfall

 Low biodiversity

Conservation

Conservation is the protection of species, their habitats and ecosystems from extinction.
Extinction is the end of a species or group of taxa. The moment of extinction is generally
considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed
and recover may have been lost before this point).

Examples of conservation efforts made by human beings include:

 Creation of game reserves to conserve wild animals

 Creation of forest reserves to conserve forests

 Creation of botanical gardens and zoos

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  Fishing and hunting bans during the breeding seasons of animals

 Creation of gene banks, seed banks and sperm banks for endangered species

 Formulation of legislation (laws) that govern the utilization of natural resources

 Recycling of products made from natural resources

Populations

A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time.

Population size is the number of organisms in a population.7

Population density is the number of organisms of the same species per unit area.

Population growth rate is the increase in the size of a population per unit time. Population
growth of organisms follows an S-shaped pattern (sigmoid curve). This curve is made of three
phases:

 Lag phase (this is when there is very little increase in population size because the
organisms are not yet fully adapted to the environment)

 Exponential/logarithmic phase (this is when the organisms are fully adapted to the
environment and are reproducing at a fast rate)

 Stationary phase (this is when the birth rate equals the death rate). At this point the
carrying capacity of the environment has been reached. The carrying capacity is the
maximum number of organisms an environment can support.

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Note: A decline phase may be experienced after the stationary phase if there is an increase in
factors like competition, disease, pollutants/toxins. Such factors limit increase in population size
and are called environmental resistance.

Factors Affecting Population Growth Rate

The growth rate of a population is affected by the following factors:

 Birth rate: the number of births per unit number of adults in a population.

 Immigration: the movement of more organisms into a population.

 Death rate: the number of deaths per unit number of adults in a population.

 Emigration: the movement of organisms out of a population.

These four factors are affected by two sets of factors called biotic factors and abiotic factors.
The biotic factors include food availability, predators, parasites, disease and competition. The
abiotic factors include climate change, availability of water, oxygen, light and pollutants.
Suggest how each of these biotic and abiotic factors affect the four factors mentioned above.

A high birth rate and high rate of immigration leads to a positive population growth rate
(increase in the size of a population per unit time). A high death rate and high rate of
emigration leads to a negative population growth rate (decrease in the size of a population per
unit time).

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