I2Z = 52 I’P IP Es Io g γ IS(ZS + Zb)

If rated burden be PVA at rated secondary current IS amperes, the ohmic impedance of the burden
Zb can be calculated as follows:
P VA
Z b= 2
ohms
Is

If burden power factor is cos ϕ, the values of resistance and reactance of the burden can be
calculated as follows:
Rb =Z b cos ∅

X b=√ Z b2−R b2

The impedance of the relay coil changes with current setting. The values of power consumption
of relays, trip coil etc. are given by their manufacturers. The CT of suitable burden can be
selected after calculating the total burden on the CT.
When the relay is set to operate at current different from the rated secondary current of the CT,
the effective burden of the relay can be calculated as follows:

()
2
Is
Pe =Pr
Ir

where, Pe = Effective VA burden of the relay on CT

Pr = VA burden of relay at given current setting Ir
Is = Rated secondary current of CT
Ir = Current setting of the relay
The rated VA output of the CT selected should be the higher standard value nearest to the
calculated value. If the VA rating of the CT selected is very much in excess of the burden, it
makes the choice uneconomical and the CT becomes unduly large.
Rp, Xp = Primary resistance and leakage reactance respectively.
Rs and Xs = secondary resistance and leakage reactance
R’p and X’p = Primary resistance and leakage reactance as referred to the secondary side
Ip and Is = Primary and secondary currents
I’P = Ip/N = Primary current as referred to secondary side
Es = Secondary induced voltage
Vs = Secondary terminal voltage
Ep = Primary induced voltage
I0 = CT secondary excitation current
Is = I’p – I0 = Ip/N – I0 = Secondary current delivered to the burden (load)
Im = Magnetising component of the exciting current I0 required to produce flux.
Ic = Iron (core) loss component of the exciting current I0 supplying core losses (eddy current and
hysteresis)
ϕm = Main core flux
δ = Phase angle due to secondary winding
γ = Phase angle due to burden
θs = Total secondary phase angle (θ s = δ + γ ) phase angle between secondary current and
secondary induced voltage.
α = Loss angle due to core excitation
β = Phase angle between primary and reversed secondary current
Zb = Load impedance (burden on the CT)

Continuity Test
This is a quick audible alarm test using a digital multimeter to determine whether an electrical
circuit or wire is complete or broken.

This test can be applied to a circuit as a whole or in sections—on individual components or

sections of wiring. A break in continuity can be caused by mechanical damage, corrosion of
components, or simply a switch being left open.

Follow these steps to complete the continuity test procedure with an autorange digital meter:

1. Make sure all power is off in the circuit you are testing.
2. Set the selector dial to Ω (audible alarm symbol).
3. Connect the test lead and probes on the load terminals as shown (Figure 5). The
audible alarm will indicate continuity without a need for taking your eyes off the work.
4. Touch the probes together to check the leads, connections, and battery life. The audible
alarm should sound. With the leads apart the meter should display OL or I, depending
on the manufacturer.
5. If this is the last test you are doing, turn the meter to “off” and store it in a safe place.
Figure 5: Wiring for a Continuity Test

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Previous: Testing Resistance (Ohms) with a Digital Multimeter
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Multimeters 101: Basic Operation, Care and Maintenance and Advanced Troubleshooting for the
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LEARN ABOUT CONTINUITY TESTING

AND HOW TO DO IT
A continuity test verifies that current will flow in an electrical circuit (i.e. that the circuit is
continuous). The test is performed by placing a small voltage between 2 or more endpoints of the
circuit. The flow of current can be verified qualitatively, by observing a light or buzzer in series
with the circuit actuates or quantitatively, using a multimeter to measure the resistance between
the endpoint.
In continuity testing the resistance between two points is measured. Low resistance means that
the circuit is closed and there is electrical continuity. High resistance means that the circuit is
open and continuity is lacking. Continuity testing can also help determine if two points are
connected that should not be.

Why Continuity Testing is Done?

Regulation 610.1 of BS 7671:2008 IEE Wiring Regulations Seventeenth Edition requires that
every installation shall, during erection and on completion before being put into service,
be inspected and tested to verify that the requirements of the Regulations have been met. The
purpose of this test is to verify that the CPC forms a continuous path around the circuit under
test.
A continuity test is an important test in determining the damaged components or broken
conductors in a circuit. It can also help in determining if the soldering is good, if the resistance is
too high for flow of current or if the electrical wire is broken between two points. A continuity
test can also help in verifying or reverse-engineering an electrical circuit or connection.
Continuity testing can be used to detect cold solder connections and problems with wire and
cable products. In field applications, handheld multimeters with dual probes are used. In
addition, this form of electrical testing can be used to check connections between the pads and
traces on printed circuit boards (PCBs).

What is Done During Continuity Testing?

The most common and basic way of performing a continuity test is with the help of a resistance
tester (any simple Multimeter with this function will do). This is because the resistance of
conductors between the two ends is usually very small (less than 100 ohm).
Continuity tester has two leads connected to a small battery, and when you touch the leads
together to complete the circuit, the meter should register 0 resistance or if you have a dedicated
continuity tester, the light should come on. If you’re using a digital multimeter, the device may
also beep.
Continuity of protective conductors including main and supplementary equipotential bonding.
Every protective conductor, including circuit protective conductors, the earthing conductor, main
and supplementary bonding conductors should be tested to verify that all bonding conductors are
connected to the supply earth. Tests are made between the main earthing terminal (this may be
the earth bar in the consumer unit where there is no distribution board present) and the ends of
each bonding conductor.

How to do Continuity Testing?

Measuring Continuity in an Electrical Device:
This method is used for testing continuity is an easy and reliable way to determine whether a
switch or outlet has internal damage. If you’re using a multimeter, set it to the “Continuity”
function, or select a midrange resistance setting, in ohms.
Step 1: Turn Off the Breaker That Controls the Circuit
The power needs to be off when testing continuity. Verify that no electricity is flowing by using
a noncontact circuit tester.
Step 2: Check the Tester
Check the tester by putting the leads together and ensuring that the device lights up, beeps or
registers 0 ohms of resistance.
Step 3: Touch Lead to Terminal
Touch one lead on one of the hot terminals of the device, identified by a brass screw.
Step 4: Touch Other Lead to Terminal
Place the other lead on any other terminal except the green ground terminal. If the tester lights
up, beeps or shows 0 resistance, it means that electricity can flow freely between those terminals,
and in most cases, that means that the device is good. If the device is a switch, the tester should
go off and on when you flip the switch.
You can use this technique to check appliance switches, thermostats and fuses. Be sure the
power is off, then touch the leads to the terminals of the device in question.

Continuity of Circuit Protective Conductors (CPC)

The test is carried out as follows:

1. Temporarily link the line conductor to the CPC in the Consumer Unit.
2. Test between the line and the CPC at each accessory point e.g. a ceiling rose, switch or
socket outlet. The reading obtained at each accessory point should be a low resistance
value. The resistance measured at the extremity of the circuit is the sum of the resistances of
the line conductor and protective conductor (R1 + R2).

When we talk about Continuity Testing within the Inspection and Testing Procedure then
we apply the same principle, but with a bit more detail.
Step 1: Select the circuit to be tested in the distribution board and remove the Line conductor
from the MCB
Step 2: Connect the Line conductor to the Earth conductor (for simplicity, connect it to one of
the spare terminals on the Earth bar). This way you will form a circuit which is half made up of
the Line conductor and half made of the Earth conductor (provided that the terminations within
the electrical accessories such as wall sockets are correct).
Step 3: Select the correct test function on the test equipment, which is the low reading ohm
meter function (Megger 1553).
Step 4:. Do not forget to null the test instrument if required (you can do this by connecting the
two test leads together and pressing the TEST button until the measured value on the display
becomes zero ohm`s)
Step 5: Measure between Line and Earth terminals at each outlet in the circuit. The highest
reading should be recorded on the Schedule of Test Results as the value of (R1+R2).
Step 6:.Return the Line conductor back in to the MCB

Continuity Testing Overview

 Continuity is the presence of a complete path for current flow. A circuit is complete when
its switch is closed.
 A digital multimeter’s Continuity Test mode can be used to test switches, fuses, electrical
connections, conductors and other components. A good fuse, for example, should have
continuity.
 A DMM emits an audible response (a beep) when it detects a complete path.
  The beep, an audible indicator, permits technicians to focus on testing procedures without
looking at the multimeter display.
 When testing for continuity, a multimeter beeps based on the resistance of the component
being tested. That resistance is determined by the range setting of the multimeter.
Examples:
 If the range is set to 400.0 Ω, a multimeter typically beeps if the component has a resistance
of 40 Ω or less.
 If the range is set 4.000 kΩ, a multimeter typically beeps if the component has a resistance
of 200 Ω or less.
 The lowest range setting should be used when testing circuit components that should have
low-resistance value such as electrical connections or switch contacts.

Important Things to Remember

 Do not forget that with the lighting circuits the intermediate switch should be switched to
all available positions so that all the conductors could be tested for continuity.
 Do not forget to link out the dimmer switch on the other lighting circuit, otherwise you will
get wrong test results.
 Remember, that by doing these steps you will also confirm the correct polarity of the
conductors, so there is no need to do polarity dead tests again.
 Remember to constantly inspect the installation for faults and signs of damages.

Multimeters and ohmmeters are normally used for continuity tests. Specialized continuity testers
are also available which are more basic in nature, inexpensive and have a light bulb which glows
in the case of current flow. The continuity test is performed on an electrical circuit when it is not
powered and with help of the testing device.
Can an electronic circuit which is passing currents be tested by a multi-meter’s continuity
test? Would it be meaningful or harmful? Why?
A continuity test is like a simplified resistance/ohms measurement. A basic method is to apply a
voltage across the resistor and measure the current OR apply a current and measure the voltage.
Then through R = V/I you can calculate the resistance.
Imagine you applied 100 V DC but your meter can only handle 10 V when in the continuity test
mode. Such a test is completely meaningless, and potentially damaging to the meter. If you want
to test continuity or resistance, remove all sources of power, and discharge any stored energy
sources.
The meter is sourcing a (usually low) test voltage. If you connect it to something that is already
powered, you are connecting the two sources together, and the meter isn’t designed to handle
external sources in continuity or resistance (or capacitance, or inductance, or any other passive)
mode..

Risks of Introducing a Voltage Through the Multimeter Leads

  There is a risk of certain parts being damaged, especially parts that cannot tolerate the 1 to 9
volts that a multimeter might deliver across the probes in continuity mode.
 The above is especially true when the component (or other components on connected traces,
which will also be affected) is not powered. Many parts can tolerate voltages when powered
but not otherwise.
 To minimize the voltage, an option is to use the multimeter in resistance mode, at the lowest
resistance setting – The higher resistance scales work on higher probe voltage, going by a
quick check on a couple of multimeters at my desk.
 Note that basic multimeters often combine continuity and diode testing modes, so the
voltage is at minimum sufficient to forward bias silicon diodes and perhaps LEDs. This
means a voltage of 2 to 3 volts.

Benefits of Continuity Testing

 Return of that investment is a long-term one and it will also save time.
 Tests can be done 24/7.
 Fewer human resources are required.
 Reusability: The scripts are reusable. You don’t need new scripts all the time.
 Reliability: It is more reliable and quicker way when running boring repetitive standardized
tests which cannot be skipped.
 It not only checks for continuity but also for shorts.

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Continuity test
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In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see

if current flows (that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by
placing a small voltage (wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such
as a piezoelectric speaker) across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by
broken conductors, damaged components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".
Devices that can be used to perform continuity tests include multimeters which measure
current and specialized continuity testers which are cheaper, more basic devices,
generally with a simple light bulb that lights up when current flows.
Usage[edit]
A continuity test can be used to test switches, fuses, electrical connections, conductors
and other components. A good fuse, for example, should have continuity.[1]
An important application is the continuity test of a bundle of wires so as to find the two
ends belonging to a particular one of these wires; there will be a negligible resistance
between the "right" ends, and only between the "right" ends.

References[edit]
1. ^ "How to Test for Continuity with a Digital Multimeter". www.fluke.com. Retrieved 2021-03-
24.

How to Test for Continuity with a Digital Multimeter

Multimeters, 101 Learning

1. Turn the dial to Continuity Test mode. It will likely share a spot
on the dial with one or more functions, usually resistance (Ω).
With the test probes separated, the multimeter’s display may
show OL and Ω.
2. If required, press the continuity button.

1. First insert the black test lead into the COM jack.
2. Then insert the red lead into the VΩ jack. When finished, remove
the leads in reverse order: red first, then black.
 3. With the circuit de-energized, connect the test leads across the
component being tested. The position of the test leads is
arbitrary. Note that the component may need to be isolated from
other components in the circuit.
4. The digital multimeter (DMM) beeps if a complete path
(continuity) is detected. If the circuit is open (the switch is in the
OFF position), the DMM will not beep.
5. When finished, turn the multimeter OFF to preserve battery life.

Continuity testing overview

 Continuity is the presence of a complete path for current flow. A
circuit is complete when its switch is closed.
 A digital multimeter’s Continuity Test mode can be used to test
switches, fuses, electrical connections, conductors and other
components. A good fuse, for example, should have continuity.
 A DMM emits an audible response (a beep) when it detects a
complete path.
 The beep, an audible indicator, permits technicians to focus on
testing procedures without looking at the multimeter display.
 When testing for continuity, a multimeter beeps based on the
resistance of the component being tested. That resistance is
determined by the range setting of the multimeter. Examples:
o If the range is set to 400.0 Ω, a multimeter typically beeps if
the component has a resistance of 40 Ω or less.
o If the range is set 4.000 kΩ, a multimeter typically beeps if
the component has a resistance of 200 Ω or less.
 The lowest range setting should be used when testing circuit
components that should have low-resistance value such as
electrical connections or switch contacts.

Related resources
 How to test diodes with a digital multimeter
 How to measure current with a clamp accessory