PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION

Semester V Course Code: 171PT5T08

UNIT NO-05
Flow Meters and Process Instrumentation
Flow Meters:
 Head Flow Meters
 Area Flow Meters
 Open Channel Meters
 Velocity Meters
 Quantity Meters
 Flow of Dry Materials
 Viscosity Measurement
Process Instrumentation:
 Recording Instruments
 Indicating and Signaling Instruments
 Transmission of Instrument Readings
 Control Center
 Instrumentation Diagram
 Process Analysis
 Digital Instrumentation, SCADA systems
Flow Meters
o The measurement of the flow rate and flow quantity of materials is made primarily for the
purpose of determining the proportions of materials introduced to a manufacturing
process and the amount of materials evolved by the process.
o Flow measurements are made for the purpose of cost accounting usually for steam and
water services.
o Measurement of flow rate and quantity is the oldest art in the science of instrumentation;
its history comes from the hydraulic and public engineering works of the Romans.
o The scientists Archimedes, Toricelli, Pascal, Euler, Bernoulli, Stokes, Reynolds and
Prandtl associations were brought about by a great complexity of problems in fluid flow.
o Flow of fluids in closed pipes can successfully be measured by a number of methods:
1. The head meter is the most common and operates by measuring the pressure
differential across a suitable restriction to flow.
2. Area meters are very often employed and they operate from the variation in the area
of the fluid stream.
3. Velocity meters also are used to measure the flow rate.
4. Quantity meters are a different type which primarily measure the quantity of fluid
passed at a given point (the time integral of flow rate).
o Flow of fluids in open channels or flumes is measured by weirs and by hydraulic flumes.
o Flow of Incompressible Fluids in Pipes:
 If a restriction such as an orifice is introduced into a pipe line, the relation
between pressure and velocity can be found from the law of conservation of
energy. For the flow on incompressible ideal fluids, Bernoulli’s equation is used:

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o Flow of Compressible Fluids in Pipes:
 The relation between pressure and velocity for flow of a compressible fluid
through an orifice can be found from the law of conservation of energy as
employed in thermodynamics.
 Assuming no heat flow to or from the fluid (adiabatic flow) and no external work
done on or by the fluid, and neglecting the very small datum level difference (Z 1-
Z2), we have

o Orifice Installations:
 The restriction to flow in the pipe line most often takes the form of a thin plate
square edge orifice.
 Orifice plate types are illustrated in figure.

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  The concentric orifice is by far the most widely used. The segmental and eccentric
orifices are used for measuring flow of fluids containing solids.
 The orifice plate is located so that the bottom of the hole is nearly flush with the
bottom inside of the pipe.
 The segmental and eccentric orifices require special calibration since the standard
flow coefficients are usable only for standard thin plate, concentric orifices.
The Concentric Orifice:
 The orifice plate is made of flat metal sheet with a circular hole, and it is installed
in the pipe line with the hole or orifice concentric to the pipe.
 Orifice plates are made from Steel, Stainless Steel, Monel, Phosphor bronze, or
almost any metal that will withstand the corrosive effects of the fluid.
 Its thickness is only sufficient to withstand the buckling forces caused by the
pressure differential.
 The circular hole or orifice is carefully made with 90 0, square, sharp edge
upstream because this type can be manufactured more uniformly than one with
round edges.
 Wear and abrasion of this sharp edge greatly affect the accuracy of the orifice
flow measurement.
 The necessary of selecting an orifice plate material that will withstand the erosive
effects caused by the fluid.

 The
orifice
with
flange
taps is

constructed so that the taps for measuring pressure differential are an integral part
of the orifice assembly.
 The taps are usually located 1 in. either side of the orifice plate. The advantages
that the orifice assembly is easily replaceable, no alterations in the pipes are
required, and the pressure taps are accurately located.
 The orifice with pipe taps are made directly in the side of the pipe: the upstream
tap located 2.5 pipe diameters from the orifice, and the downstream tap located 8
pipe diameters from the orifice.
 Pipe taps are commonly used in measuring the flow of gases.
 The orifice with vena contracta taps is arranged so that the downstream pressure
tap is located a variable distance from the orifice, depending on the pipe and
orifice size.
 The taps are made directly in the pipe with the upstream tap one pipe diameter
from the orifice and the downstream tap at the vena contracta.

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 
The

vena contracta tap arrangement has the advantages that standard flanges may be
used for the orifice plate, and the pressure differential is a maximum for a given
flow.

o Venturi Tube:
 The venture tube is most often used design is Herschel standard design.
 The short venture is particularly adapted to installation in pipe lines not having
long, unobstructed runs.

 The flow of fluid through the venture tube establishes the pressure differential,
which can be then be measured and related to the flow rate.
 The venture tube is usually made of cast iron or steel.
 In many cases the throat is made a separate assembly of bronze so that it can be
easily replaced.
 Very large venturi tubes may be made of smooth, poured concrete.
 The entrance section of the standard venture has about 20 0 included angles and the
exit section about 70 included angles.
 The diameter ratio of the venture tube is the ratio of the throat diameter to the
pipeline diameter usually between 0.25 and 0.50.
 It has the highest accuracy of all pressure differential flow elements when it is
properly installed and calibrated.
 The venture tube can be employed for measurement of extremely large water flow
rates 5000000 gal per hour and higher.

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  The venture tube should be installed in a straight run of the pipe with no pipe
fittings, valves, or obstructions less than 5 pipe diameters upstream.
 Discharge coefficient of venturi is greater than 0.9 and 1.0
o Pitot Tube:
 The pitot tube is primarily a device for
measuring fluid velocity.
 The principles employed in the pitot tube are
in figure.
 A flow stream in the pipe line has a given
velocity V and a given static pressure p1 in a
stream tube directly in line with a solid body
which is held stationary in the pipe.
 As the fluid in the stream tube approaches the
body, the fluid particles are decelerated until, at a point directly in front of the
body the velocity is zero. This point is called the stagnation point.
 The sketch of the pitot tube is shows a type often used for flow of liquids.
 It consists simply of a tube supported in the pipe with the impact opening of about
1/8 to ¼ in. diameter arranged to point directly toward the oncoming fluid.
 This is called the impact opening and is used to measure the stagnation pressure.
 The static pressure is measured through the ordinary pressure tap or through a
piezometer ring in the side of the pipe line.
 A combined pitot tube is shown in figure. The static pressure openings are made
directly in the pitot tube assembly, the stagnation pressure being measured
through the inside tube and the static pressure through the outside tube.
 The static pressure measurement made at the pitot tube may be slightly in error
because of eddies around the pitot tube assembly.

 The main advantage of the pitot tubes are that installation is relatively simple and

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 they are readily adaptable for flow measurements made in very large pipes or
ducts.
 They can be employed in either open channel streams or pipes. The pressure loss
caused by the pitot tube is of course very small.
 The pitot tube is about the only means by which a velocity traverse of a large pipe
or duct can be made.
 The main disadvantage of the pitot tube is that it cannot be used in fluids
containing solid particles.

o Head Flow Meters:

 The head flow meter consists of a primary element such as an orifice, venture or
pitot tube used with a differential pressure meter to measure the differential head
caused by the flowing fluid at the primary element.
 Differential pressure meter may be any of the various meters such as the enlarged
leg mercury manometer, the bell gage, the bellows gage, the diaphragm gage, the
ring gage, or the tilting U-tube gage.
 The most common used as the enlarged leg mercury manometer.
 The differential
and

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 installation.
 It must be remembered that the meter is used for the purpose of measuring
differential pressure not the flow in the range of an inch or two of mercury head or
even less.

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  LeDoux Bell Meter:
 Here square root compensation is achieved by controlling the amount of
mercury displaced from the
inside of the bell of a bell
type differential pressure
meter.
 By shaping the inside of the
bell to parabolic form, the
flow calibration of the meter
can be made linear.
 The electrical resistance type
differential pressure meter of
the Republic Flow Meters
Company has square root
compensation through
suitable vertical spacing of
the contact rods. At low
differential pressure the contact rods are spaced more closely.
 The ring type manometer or tilting U-tube manometer may have square
root compensation by a suitable cam arrangement which simply magnifies
the lower portion of the scale to linear magnitude.
 The advantage of the square root compensation in an orifice head meter is
simply that the scale is made more readable, especially to unskilled
operators.
 No amount of manipulation will improve the accuracy of the measurement
of the actual differential pressure.
 Flow meter Integrator:
 Automatic integrator may be used with orifice head meters and the meters
are supplied with counters for indicating total flow units.
 An integrator of the wheel and cam type is shown in figure.

 A synchronous motor drives the cam continuously. The meter float

positions the integrator arm near the cam: high off the cam at low flow and
close to the cam at high flow.
 When the cam comes in contact with the integrator arm, the arm is made to
rotate and drive a mechanical counter through gears.
 The amount of rotation given the counter depends on the height of
positioning the arm, the position of the float, the differential pressure, and
Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 8
 the flow rate.
 The total flow is directly proportional to the time integral of the square
root of the pressure differential.
 Mechanical integrators usually operate on 15 sec cycles; that is the
summation of the intervals occur every 15 sec.
o Area Flow Meters:
 The area flow meter operates on the principle
that the variation in area of the flow stream
required to produce a constant differential at a
restriction to fluid flow is proportional to the
flow rate.
Rotameter:
 Rotameter is one type of the area flow meter.
The flowing fluid enters the bottom passes
upward through the metering tube and around
the float and exits at the top.
 The metering tube is hollow, usually made of
glass and has tapered sides, so that the cross
section area at the top is greater than at the
bottom.
 Metering tube has protruding vertical ridges
at the inside diameter, for guiding the float in
its travel up and down the tube.
 The tube must be installed vertically it must
be plumb to within about 2 geometrical degrees, because the float must center
itself in the fluid stream.
 At a high flow rates the float assumes a position toward the top of the metering
tube, and at a low flow rates the float positions itself lower in the tube.
 The float is static equilibrium at a given flow rate because of gravity and buoyant
forces.
 The flow rate is read by noting the position of the float against a calibrated scale
etched on the glass.

 The coefficient of discharge is generally about 0.60 to 0.80. Float materials such
as silver, lead or tantalum used.

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  Viscosity compensation in area flow meters can be provided by suitably shaping
the float.

 The reason for changes in viscosity affecting the calibration of the area meter is
that the viscous drag acting on the float disturbs the static equilibrium position of
the float for a given flow rate.
 Force of viscous drag will naturally vary with fluid viscosity.
 The float can be shaped so as to provide a constant viscous drag at all flow rates,
the operation of the area meter is made independent of viscosity.
 The rotameter contains all the necessary metering elements in one assembly there
is negligible effect due to any type of valves, fittings, and so on placed
immediately before or after the meter.
 The simple indicating rotameter is constructed with a glass metering tube, and the
flow is read by noting the location of the float against a scale etched on the glass.
 Armored rotameters are used for high pressure service.
Recording Rotameter:
 Rotameters for indicating and recording purposes employ various methods for
transmitting the motion of the float.
 An inductance bridge recording
rotameter instrument is shown in figure.
 A non-magnetic tube at the bottom of
the rotameter allows an iron armature to
be suspended from the float.
 A double solenoid mounted on the
outside of the non-magnetic tube is
connected into the inductance bridge of
an automatic balance instrument similar
to a potentiometer in many physical
respects.
 The instrument can then be calibrated in
terms of rotameter float position.
 The rotameter has many advantages in
industrial service.
 The meter can handle almost any
corrosive fluid encountered in industrial
processing plants.
 A rotameter has quite good accuracy, particularly
at low flows.

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 Cylinder and Piston type area meter:
 The operation is in many respects similar to that of a rotameter; the difference is
that the area for fluid flow is provided by a series of reamed holes in the walls of
the cylinder.
 These holes are spaced helically around the cylinder in rows so that the variation
in area for various heights of the piston is continuous.
 The pressure differential is constant, because the weight of the piston is constant.
 By properly spacing the holes in the cylinder the calibration of the instrument for
flow rate is made linear.
 An area meter of similar principles is made by the Bailey Meter Company, the
helical row of holes being replaced by two vertical rectangular slots.
 A similar meter is the Hays-Cochrane area meter, which utilizes a flat bottom float
in a tapered throat installed in a vertical body.
 Generally area meters employ the inductance bridge system for remote indication
and recording of flow rate.
 The cylinder and piston area meter is most often used for measuring flow of fuel
oils, Bunker-C fuel oil, tar, chemical liquor and other such high viscosity fluids.
o Open Channel Meters:
 Head area meters such as weirs, nozzles, and flumes are used in open channels for
liquid flow measurement.
 The current meter is used in large and open streams.
 Open channel meters are employed in central power stations, hydraulic power
generating stations, municipal water works, sewage disposal units and water irrigation
projects for measuring the flow of water, sewage sludge, chemical wastes and other
semi fluids.
Rectangular notch weir:
 It is most often employed
for measuring large flow
rates. The velocity is
proportional to the depth
at the weir,

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  Since the actual flow is less than the ideal because of the contraction of the jet

, where, CRW is the flow

coefficient
V-notch or Thomson Weir:
 It is used with the apex of the triangle downward and is
generally more useful in measuring small flow rates and
where good accuracy is desired.
 Its flow relation can be developed as

Trapezoidal notch or Cipoletti weir:

 In this weir the slope of the sides is such as to compensate for side contraction and the
included angle ɵ is made 2tan-1(1/4).
 If the side contraction is compensated, then,

Hydraulic Flumes:
 Hydraulic flumes are used in open streams where sufficient fall or head cannot be
obtained to use a weir.
 Flumes are used for greater flow rates than can be accommodated by a weir.
1. Parshall Flume:
 A common type of flume is shown in figure.
 These types are used in throat
sizes from about 6 in. to 8 ft for
flows ranging from 1 to 70
million gal per day.
 The head is measured at the
single point about one third the
distances downstream from the
inlet in the entrance section.
 The head may vary from 6 to
30 in.
2. Parabolic Flume:

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  A simple open nozzle having a gradual transition from a circular to a vertical
parabolic cross section.
 This nozzle is open at the top for cleaning and the flow area of the nozzle has
no obstructions.
 The capacity of the nozzle for inlet diameters from 6 to 36 in. is 0.208 to 19.07
million gal per day.
Open Nozzles:
 These are used for measuring open flow of raw sewage, raw and digested
sludge, and industrial waste in partially filled pipes and channels.
Kennison nozzle:
 It shows in figure. The cross section shape of the nozzle produces a nearly
linear relationship
between head and
flow.
 The capacity of the
nozzle for inlet
diameters from 6 to
36 in. is 0.275 to
18.2 million gal per
day.

 The head measurement for weirs, flumes and open channel nozzles is preferably
performed in a still well, which is an open standpipe connected by a pressure line to
the piezometer opening in the side or bottom of the weir, flume or nozzle.

Current Meter:
 It consists of a propeller turning free on
a shaft and arranged to operate a
revolution counter.
 The shaft operates a tachometer so that a
recording instrument can be used for
indicating flow rate and flow quantity.
 The velocity of the fluid stream at the
point of measurement is proportional to
the speed of rotation of the propeller.
 Actually friction exits in the propeller
bearings, and these meters do not
indicate very small stream velocities.

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  A current meter can be calibrated by a towing test in still water.
 In order to calibrate the current meter for flow rate of a whole stream, it is
often necessary to make a velocity transverse of the cross section of the
stream.
 The stream flow rates usually graphically calculated.
o Velocity Meters:
 Many meters for measuring flow operate by determining the velocity in one part of
the flow stream and are calibrated to indicate either the flow rate or the flow quantity
for the whole stream.
 Such meters are the propeller meter and the thermal meter. It is of interest to note that
the pitot tube head meter is actually a velocity meter.
Propeller Meter:
 It is normally used for measuring flow of liquids, is indicated in figure.
 Other types of propeller meters employ a turbine type impeller with the
geometric axis of the impeller perpendicular to the axis of the pipe.
 The propeller or impeller of the meter is continuously rotated by the motion of
the stream and is connected by gearing to a register calibrated to read in total
flow quantity.
 The meter is arranged to transmit the readings by electrical means to a remote
receiver, where both total flow and flow rate may be indicated.

 Propeller speed should be linearly related to velocity of flow if the propeller

and gearing in the meter were completely frictionless.
 Because of unavoidable friction there is a small stream velocity below which
the propeller is not turned.
 The propeller meter operates best therefore when the stream velocity is
continuously above the velocity threshold.
 The accuracy of the propeller meter is generally about 2%.
 The main factors influencing calibration are the velocity distribution in the
pipe, and the density and viscosity of the flowing fluid.
 The advantage of the propeller meter
is that it has almost no upper limit to
capacity, it causes very little pressure
loss, and it can be used for liquids
containing abrasive materials.
Cup anemometer:
 It employs virtually the same
principles as the propeller meter.
 The familiar cup anemometer as
used at weather stations for
indicating wind speed can be made

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 to indicate air speeds from about 150 up to 10000 fpm.
 Generally electric tachometer system is employed to transmit readings to the
desired point of indication.
 Cup anemometers are not accurate when measuring flow rate or flow quantity
because of the large number of variables affecting calibration.
Deflecting vane anemometer:
 It is a mechanical instrument, which operates by allowing a jet of air or gas to
impinge directly on a pivoted vane.
 The vane is mounted on jewel bearings, may be damped magnetically, and
carries a pointer for indicating stream velocity.
 The deflection of vane and pointer is opposed by the force of a hairspring
much as in mV.
 This meter requires special calibration for indicating flow rate.
 It is relatively inexpensive and is widely used in measuring duct velocities in
ventilating and air-conditioning work.

Vane anemometer Helicoid propeller hand held Digital Handheld

Anemometer low speed Anemometer
Anemometer
Hot wire anemometer:
 It consists of small resistance wire inserted in the fluid stream and heated by electric
current.
 The heat loss from the wire depends on the mass velocity and specific heat of the
fluid.
 There are three methods of determining velocity of flow.
1. The temperature of the wire can be maintained constant by adjusting the current
flow to the wire. The velocity of flow is then proportional to current through the
resistance wire.
2. The temperature difference in the flowing fluid before and after the resistance
element can be maintained constant by adjusting the current flow to the element.
This temperature difference is usually 1 or 2 0F. The velocity of flow is then
proportional to the current to the element.
3. The current to the resistance wire can be maintained constant, and the
temperature, and therefore the resistance, of the wire is measured.
 An indicating milli-ammeter or an indicating Wheatstone bridge instrument is used
with the hot-wire anemometer.
 All hot wire anemometers require special calibration in flow rate or flow quantity
measurement.

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o
Quantity Meters:
 Quantity meters operate by passing the fluid being measured through the meter in
separate and distinct increments by filling and emptying containers of known
weight or volumetric capacity.
 The quantity of flow is determined simply by totalizing the number of increments.
 There are two basic kinds of quantity meters:
1. Those that weigh discrete increments of fluid
2. Those that pass discrete volumes of fluid
Weighing meters:
 Weighing meters for measuring liquid flow are not commonly used.
 The true weighing meter operates on the beam balance principle and determines
weight quantity of flow.
 Tilting tap meters operate by
gravity, so that the trap is
automatically upset when the
center of gravity passes over the
stable equilibrium point.
 They are mechanically arranged
for continuous flow by employing
two tilting traps or by temporarily
diverting the liquid to a holding
chamber during the dumping
operation.
Volumetric meters:
 The quantity meter operating on a volumetric basis is found in several types. Most
of them resemble hydraulic piston pumps, gear pumps or vane pumps, which
when operated “backward” become motors.

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 Where ρ = weight density of flowing fluid

 Flow of liquids is given by gal per hour and the flow of gases in cubic feet per
hour.
 Reciprocating Piston Meter:
 It is suitable for measuring flow of
liquids. The piston reciprocates and
passes the liquid alternatively through
each end of the cylinder from the inlet to
the outlet.
 The piston operates the slide valve
controlling the inlet and outlet ports and
also operates a counter mechanism.
Actually such meters have 2 to 4
pistons, all operating on a center crank
arm.
 The crank arm operates a rotary valve
mechanism, which opens and closes the inlet and exhaust valves at proper
points in the piston stroke.
 The crank also operates a register for indicating total quantity.
 The pressure differential required to operate the motor at low speeds
against own friction is kept small by selecting pistons of large diameter
and operating them over a short stroke.
 If the meter has no friction and if it has no slip (leakage or blow-by) then
volume measurement is perfect.
 Piston meter will indicate low flow with reasonable accuracy. The
accuracy of the most piston meters is 0.2 to 0.3 %.
 The piston meter is limited to use with noncorrosive and light (low
viscosity) liquids. It can handle flow rates of about 10 to 1000 gpm.
 Nutating Disk Meter:
 It is widely used for measuring flow quantity of liquids and is one form of
the domestic water meter.
 The nutating disk meter has the
advantages of simplicity, compactness
and relatively low cost.
 Nutating disk meter is shows in figure it
indicates that the circular disk is pivoted
at its geometric center and it does not
rotate but “nutates” in a circular
chamber with a conical roof and conical
floor.
 The vertical shaft of the disk generates
a cone with the apex downward.
 Thus liquid enters the chamber and by
the action of the differential pressure
causes the disk to roll this quantity of
fluid around to the outlet.
 The inlet and outlet chambers are separated by a partition, which fits into a
slot in the disk.
 This meter is suitable for almost any reasonable static pressure and
temperature.

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  The effect of density and viscosity on volume flow measurement is usually
small, but not negligible, because the clearance at the disk is appreciable,
and a small amount of fluid is by-passed.
 The static error of the nutating disk meter is usually less than 1%. This
meter is used for flow rates from about 15 to 500 gpm.
 Rotary Vane Meter:
 It is one example of a number of
rotary chamber meters.
 Here drum rotates about its own
center, which is eccentric to the
meter body.
 As the drum rotates the vanes are
pushed outward by springs to
form separate sealed chambers.
 The drum rotates by virtue of the
differential pressure across the
meter.
 A register on the drum shaft indicates total flow quantity.
 Since clearance is small or zero, effects of density and viscosity changes
are negligible.
 The accuracy of the meter is therefore in the region of 0.2 to 0.3%.
 Sealed Drum Meter:
 It is used for measuring gas flow is
shown in figure.
 It consists of a motor with spiral like
vanes contained in a horizontal
cylindrical drum.
 The meter is filled with water to a
height slightly over the center hub.
 The gas enters through the rotor hub
and passes through the water to the
chamber above formed by adjacent
spiral vanes.
 When the vane is emerges from
water the gas is released to the outlet.
 The accuracy of the meter is about
0.5 %.
 Serious error may be caused by improper water level and by mounting the
meter so that it is not level.
 Accurate indication of flow rate depends on the temperature and pressure
of the gas.
 The water should be at gas temperature and should be saturated with the
gas passing through it.
 Lobed Impeller Meter:
 It has two rotors, each having lobes
arranged to mesh very much like gears
as shown in figure.
 The impeller rotates in close fitting
chambers.
 The fluid is trapped in the space
between lobes and is passed from inlet

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 18

 to outlet.
 These meters may be used for either liquids or gases.
 The two rotor type with two lobes on each rotor is commonly employed
for gas flow.
 Bellows Meter:
 It is used only in gas flow measurement.
 In construction it is simply a diaphragm pump operated as motor and thus
is quite similar to the reciprocating piston meter.
 There are two bellows of oiled sheepskin alternatively filled and emptied
through passages controlled by slide valves, which are operated by the
motion of the bellows.
 A register for indicating total flow is operated by the valve mechanism.
 Bellows meters may be used up to 500 psi static pressure.
 When in good condition a bellows meter is accurate to about 1%.

o Flow of Dry Materials:

 Continuous determination of flow rate of dry materials such as coal, cement,
powered chemicals, paper and fruit is necessary in many industrial processes.
 Meters of measuring flow of dry materials are essentially of the weighing type, in
that they determine the weight of the material passing a given point.
 Weighing meters are of many kinds, each developed for a particular kind of
material flowing either in pipes or on open conveyers.
 Meters similar to the propeller meter for liquids are sometimes used for measuring

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 19

 flow of dry powdered or granular materials in closed pipes.
 Meters similar to the tilting trap meter for liquids are used for some free flowing
dry materials.
 The latter maters operate on the weigh beam principle with suitable latches and
gates for controlling the filling and dumping operations.
Conveyer-flow meter:

 It is for dry materials may operate by weighing a section of the conveyer.

 Here the use of a spring balance is indicated and flow is measured in
weight units such as tons per hour.
 If the conveyer belt is sufficiently flexible, the accuracy of flow
measurement is usually within 1% and sometimes 0.5 %.
 Integrators are used for determining total flow and most such metes are
compensated for conveyer belt speed.
 Other conveyer meters employ the automatic weighing scales of either the
electric or pneumatic type instead of the spring balance.
o Viscosity Measurement:
 Measurement of viscosity of fluids is difficult in continuous industrial operations.
 Viscosity is a characteristic sometimes called fluid friction; it can measure by
measuring friction or actually shear force.
Brabender Corporation Viscosity Meter:
 Viscosity Meter or Viscograph or
Brabender viscometer as shown in
figure.
 A bowl containing the liquid is
rotated at constant speed by the
motor.
 A paddle wheel is supported in the
bowl and is free to turn with the
liquid, the rotation of the paddle
wheel opposed by the spring.
 For low viscosity fluids the shear or
drag forces are low, and the pointer
deflects a small amount.
 For high viscosity fluids the forces
are greater, and the pointer is
deflected a large amount.
 Since viscosity is greatly affected by
temperature the bowl is enclosed by a housing which has thermostatic

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 20

 temperature control.
Fischer & Porter Company Viscosity Meter:
 Flow rate of a fluid in an area meter (Rota meter) is dependent on viscosity;
this fact is used to measure viscosity.
 A tapered tube through which
the fluid flows contains two
floats. The lower float is
shaped so as to be immune to
viscosity changes.
 The flow rate through the tube
is controlled to a constant
value so that the lower float
remains at the flow setting
mark.
 Since the flow is constant, the
upper float which is sensitive
to viscosity changes or actually
is acted on bye the viscosity
drag forces; changes position
which changing fluid viscosity.
 The distance between the floats
is proportional to the viscosity
of the fluid at the existing
temperature.
 This instrument is made as a
recorder by electrically
transmitting the position of the
upper float to a recorder.
Process Instrumentation
 The modern industrial plant relies on instrumentation as a regular part of its
production equipment and it is simple.
 Instrumentation is more elaborate and in an increasing number of processes complete
instrumentation is necessity without the plant cannot operate efficiently.
 Recording Instruments:
 A recording instrument should be employed when a permanent record of the
variable is desirable.
 A record is useful for three reasons:
1. The process operator may refer to the instrument to observe the trend of
the variable as a guide to process operation
2. The record may be useful in locating the trouble on job
3. The record may be required for reference to past performance
 A recording instrument should not be used when any of the foregoing functions
are not required and when a simple indicator will suffice.
 Recording instruments are more expensive and require more maintenance than
indicating types.
 A recording instrument without a chart in place is not useful as an indicator.
 Industrial instruments of the recording type employ two difference styles of
recording charts:
1. The circular recording chart

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 21

 2. The strip recording chart
Circular Recording Chart:
 The circular chart is used on
almost every kind of industrial
instrument- flow, pressure,
temperature and level.
 This chart is based essentially
on polar coordinates with the
exceptions that the zero is
moved away from the
geometric center and the time
lines are segments of an arc
instead of straight lines.
 The period of rotation of
circular chart is usually 8 hr, 24
hr, or 7 days.
 Mechanical clocks can also be used where electricity is not available or
not desirable.
 Circular recording charts are made in basically two sizes: an 8-in.
diameter and 12-in diameter.
 12-in chart is by far the most common in industrial work. The 8-in chart
is used in recording instrument ambient temperature and humidity and
in recording temperature of heated vats.
 The circular chart is most advantageously used to record a mildly
fluctuating variable at about 50% of scale span where the process period
is not greater than 24 hr.
 Circular charts are printed under carefully controlled temperature and
humidity conditions on a high grade paper.
 The 12-in circular chart has the following advantages compared to a
strip chart.
1. The entire record of one process period (4, 8, 12 hr etc.) is available
at a glance.
2. Long chart length (about 22in. at 60% calibration circumference) is
available for one process period.
3. It is easily filed for future reference.
 It has the following limitations:
1. Time values toward the center are difficult to read.
2. The chart must be changed once every process period (4, 8, 12 hr
etc.).
Strip Recording Chart:
 The strip chart is generally used on the potentiometer type instrument or
on the resistance thermometer.
 The chart is driven from the supply roll to the reroll by motor.
 The speed of movement of the paper is usually given in inches per hour,
1, 2, and 4-in. per hour being very common. Speed up to 20 in. per hour
is available.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 22

  The strip recording chart used with the recording pyrometer and
resistance thermometer type instruments has rectangular coordinates
and width of approximately 10 inch.
 Strip recording charts for a galvanometer type instruments are not so
common in recent years and width usually about 6 in. and time lines
consist of arc segments instead of straight lines because the pen on such
an instrument is generally arranged to move in an arc.
 The strip chart has the following advantages compared to a circular
chart.
1. It does not require frequent changing.
2. Long process periods (24 hr or longer) are easily recorded.
3. Readability is the same at all values of scale span.
 It has the following limitations:
1. A limited length of the chart is visible (usually about 8 in)
2. It is difficult to file and not easily used for reference.
 The strip chart is most advantageously used to record a variable
changing between wide limits and to record a variable over very long
process periods.
Note:
 Recording instruments may also include an indicating scale. The
circular chart recording instrument includes concentric indicating scale
as shown in above figure.
 The strip recording instrument usually is arranged with linear indicating
scale as shown in above figure.
 Indicating and Signaling Instruments:
 An indicating instrument is used when only the present value of the variable has
meaning and the past record is of no consequence.
 The indicating scales are three types:
1. Eccentric scale
2. Concentric scale
3. Linear scale
 The eccentric scale is commonly used on mechanical instruments such as
pressure thermometers, flow meters and pressure gauges. The scale length is

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 23

 usually about 8 in but may be much smaller.
 The concentric scale is used for nearly all kinds of instruments. The scale
length is usually about 25 in in the precision type instrument. In simple dial
type pressure gauges and thermometers the scale length may be as small as 3
in.
 The linear scale is commonly used only on the potentiometer resistance
thermometer type instrument. For such instruments an indicator is made simply
by omitting the strip chart, chart drive, and pen. Galvanometer type milli-
voltmeters employ a linear scale in a curved form.

  Signaling
instruments are
very effective
when it is only
necessary to
indicate that the
variable is within
certain limits.
 This is accomplished by electric contacts or switches suitably operated from a
measuring means such as thermometer pressure spring, liquid level float or
thermocouple pyrometer.
 Signal lights or horns are used for visual or audible signal. Signaling systems
should be positive.
 Common signaling systems are shown in figure. These are:
1. Hi-Low system
2. Hi-Low-Neutral system
3. 5-Position system

 T h e h i - l o w s y

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 24

 given point.
 The hi-low-neutral system which is widely used to indicate that a process
operation may proceed only when amber light is on.
 The 5-position system which provides more information on the value of the
variable.
 For example, some process operations may proceed when the amber light only
is on, and some operations may proceed when the amber and either red or green
lights are on.
 Transmission of instrument Readings:
 It is very often necessary to measure a variable at one point and to indicate its
value at another point located a considerable distance from the first.
 The distance involved varies from a few feet up to several thousand feet.
 For mechanical instruments transmission of readings must be considered at
distances greater than 50ft, because the additional measuring lag and the
possibility of ambient temperature errors increase rapidly with distance.
 The manometer differential pressure instrument (as in flow meters) should not
be used with connecting lines longer than about 50ft. long lines causes
considerable difficulty with spurious liquid heads, and resulting errors may be
large.
 A pressure spring thermometer with a capillary greater than 150ft in length is
costly, and instrument is then subjected to ambient temperature errors.
Pressure gage connecting lines should be short because long lines introduce
considerable damping.
 Pneumatic transmission is generally operated on transmitted pressure of about
0 to 20 psig. The receiver is simply a pressure gauge of 0 to 20 psi calibration.
The pneumatic transmission is used up to 2000 ft distance.
 Electric Transmission with electric instruments there is theoretically no
limitation to distance between measuring element and instrument. The
distance of transmission is unlimited (telephone signal).
 Control Center:
 Instrumentation equipment is generally grouped at one location near the
processing unit or manufacturing operation which they serve. This group of
instrumentation equipment may be termed a control center since it controls or
aids an operator in controlling the process operation.
 A fundamental purpose of instrumentation is control of production quality or
quantity.
 Control center may include only a single instrument hung on the process
equipment or it may consist of hundreds of instruments and controllers housed
in a separate building.
 The control center for an open hearth furnace is shown in figure.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 25

  In any event control center must have the following characteristics:

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 26

 1.Clean and dry atmosphere
2.Relatively constant temperature and humidity
3.No vibration
4.Adequate light
5.Unfailing source of electric power free of surges in voltage and frequency
6.Unfailing source of clean dry air of constant pressure and required
capacity.
 Control center should be located near the processing operation for close
cooperation between process and control center.
 Because of the physical size of some plants it is necessary to consider two
types of plant and instrument layout:
1. Central layout
2. Unit layout
Central Layout:
 Central layout is illustrated in hypothetical plant in figure, where the control
center is common to all operations.

 The instrumentation for all plant operations (material storage, material treatment,
first refining, second refining, separation and product storage) is included in the
control center.
 The control center then becomes the operating center of the plant.
 For a plant of any reasonable size the control center will probably include from
50 to 500 instruments.
 At the control center the instrumentation equipment is conveniently grouped on
panel boards around the control center room. This room is completely enclosed,
air conditioned, properly lighted and clean.
 The advantages of central layout are that the coordination of all plant operations
is greatly facilitated and service and maintenance of instrumentation equipment
are quickly and easily accomplished.
Unit Layout:
 Unit layout is shown in figure for another hypothetical plant.


Separate

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 27

 control centers for each operation may be used because of the physical size of
the whole plant or because the operations require no coordination.
 The control centers in this case may be located in separate enclosures or is
common when the plant is inside a building, open panel boards are set up near
each unit.
 A type of unit control center is shown in figure below. It is often employed in
steel mills and cement plants where extra protection from dirt and damage is
desirable.
 The house is usually constructed of concrete or cinder block with a window on
one side.
 The window faces the process unit or operation floor, so that the process
operator or supervisor may readily check on various operations without entering
the enclosure.
 The unit layout is advantages that the control center is close to the processing
unit and coordination between processing unit and control center is improved.


Instrumentation Diagram:
 The purpose of instrumentation diagram is to provide information quickly for
use in process analysis, production control, specification of equipment, and
preparation of equipment requisitions.
 The instrumentation diagram is constructed on the basis of process flow
diagram.
 It is intended to show the schematic layout of the process and plant equipment,
together with the instrumentation equipment used with the process.
 The instrumentation diagram does not show the scale of the equipment or the
technical specifications of the equipment.
 With regard to instrumentation equipment the diagram should show all major
items; in some cases minor items may be omitted.
 Instrumentation diagram should indicate:
1. The variable being measured
2. Whether indication, recording, or other service is required
3. Whether control or alarm functions are required
4. The auxiliary features of the instrument or controller
5. The type of connecting lines
6. The approximate location of the point of measurement and point of control
7. Which instrumentation is to be included in the control center and which is
to remain at the processing unit
 The symbols for instrumentation diagrams are shown in figure.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 28

  The specifications for instrumentation diagrams are given in below table.

 The following notes pertain to the use of the symbols in instrumentation

diagram.
1. Primary measuring elements have the same identification as the instruments
to which they connect. Where an element does not connect to any
instrument, it carries separate identification. Where more than one element
connects to the same instrument they can be identified by suffix numbers
after the item number.
2. Each element of any combination instrument that includes more than one
service should have its own identification.
3. For remote transmission both the receiver and transmitter are identified in
accordance with the combined service of the item.
4. Each control valve has the same identification as the controller to which it
is connected. Where more than one valve is connected to the same
controller they can be identified by suffix letters added to the number of the
item.
 An instrumentation diagram is given for a rayon slashing operation.
 The rayon cloth passes through the size box at the left of the diagram where
it becomes saturated with size.
 The cloth then passes over the drying cylinders to the reel. The cloth must
be dried to a closely controlled value of moisture content.
 The instrumentation diagram shows the following equipment.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 29

  A moisture recorder controller (MRC-1) measures the moisture of the cloth
at the reel by electric means and controls electricity the variable speed drive
unit.
 Separate non-indicating temperature controllers (TC) are used at each drying
cylinder. The controllers are pressure spring thermometers with pneumatic
control.
 The level in the size box is controlled by a non-indicating level controller
(LC-1) with electrical measuring means and pneumatic control.
 The temperature of the size box is controlled by non-indicating pressure
spring thermometer with pneumatic control.
 The drying cylinder temperature controllers are mounted on the unit. The
moisture controller, the size-level controller and the size-temperature
controller are located at the control center.
 An instrumentation diagram for a more complicated process (desulfurization unit) is
shown in figure.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 30

  The material being treated passes through the desulfurizer and then to
the catalyst chambers.
 Steam is superheated in the heater and is passed to the catalyst
chambers.
 Air at high pressure is also introduced to the catalyst chambers.
 The treated product leaves the catalyst chambers and passes on to the
next process.
 Each of the instruments and controllers can identify by means of the
standard symbols.
 Diagrammatic Control Center:
 The diagrammatic control center is a means of obtaining better
coordination of plant operation.
 This arrangement of the control center includes two sections:
1. An operation panel
2. A record panel
 The operation panel is made by reproducing the instrumentation diagram
on a metal panel board in the control center.
 All the instruments and controllers placed in appropriate positions on the
diagram and arranged to indicate or signal the actual magnitude of the
corresponding variable at the processing unit.
 The record panel arranged on a separate panel board, includes all the
necessary recorders and indicators for gathering more complete data than it
is necessary to provide at the operation panel.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 31

  Process Analysis:
 In applying instrumentation to a process it is first necessary to determine what
variables in the process operation are of significance.
 In other words, it is necessary to decide what is to be measured and what it
means.
 Instrumentation must be considered early in the design of the plant.
 The efficiency or the economy depends on the accuracy of performance of the
instrumentation.
 Research and Development on the process operations then need to be
concentrated on the performance of the instrumentation equipment.
 A procedure for analyzing a process and applying instrumentation can be
given as follows:
1. Divide the plant function into the smallest operation elements or operation
units.
2. List all variables (temperature, pressure, flow rate, compositions, etc.) that
may affect each process operation element.
3. Add to this list ambient temperature, ambient humidity, barometric
pressure, sun and wind conditions.
4. Divide this list of variables into four groups:
a. Variables to be controlled automatically
b. Variables to be measured continuously
c. Variables to be measured periodically
d. Variables neither measured nor controlled
5. For each variable of the automatic control group, select:
a. A method of measurement that will provide data most indicative of
the desired process performance
b. A location for the controller- at the control center or on the unit
c. A style of controller – non-indicating, indicating, or recording
d. A mode of control that will provide the desired performance in
view of the process dynamics.
6. For each variable of the continuous measurement group, decide:
a. What method of measurement will provide data most indicative of
the desired process performance
b. Whether signaling, indication, or recording is most desirable
c. Whether the signal device, indicator or recorder is to be located at
the control center or at the unit

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 32

 7. For each variable of the periodic measurement group, decide on a method
of performing the measurement and the frequency with which the
measurement must be made.
8. Construct an instrumentation diagram.
 Instrumentation in the Modern Plant:

 The supervision of instrumentation within the organization of modern plants

is the responsibility of the factory manager or works manager.
 The operation or use of the instrumentation equipment is usually separated
from the service or maintenance of the instrumentation equipment.
 The instrumentation equipment in a plant is used as a part of the regular
production equipment.
 The operating departments of the plant are responsible for its efficient
operation.
 The servicing and maintenance of instrumentation equipment is the
responsibility of the maintenance center of the plant.
 The organization chart is shown in figure is typical of many average size
plants.
 The instrument department, as it is generally called, consists of all the
personnel involved in the servicing and maintenance of instrumentation
equipment.
 Direct authority for this function is delegated by the factory manager
through a plant engineer.
 The relations have become necessary because of the complex and technical
nature of instrumentation equipment.
 Instrumentation engineer responsibility is to guide the selection of
instrumentation equipment for new manufacturing and processing
operations.
 The instrument engineer therefore is primarily concerned with the process

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 33

 design, process layout, and the control center via instrumentation diagram.
 In the purchase and specifications for instrumentation equipment the
instrument department acts directly with the purchasing agent.
 The director of personnel cooperates directly with the instrument
department in obtaining the technical personnel and the specialized and
skilled workers.
 The instrument department is generally divided into sections, the number
of which depends on the magnitude of the production operations and the
amount of instrumentation equipment in use. There is usually an engineering
section, repair section, a file and stores section and field service section.
 The engineering section is called on for detailed orifice calculations; flow
calculations; electric circuit engineering; design of instrument air, water, oil,
and electricity power supplies; and all such functions of engineering on the
job.
 The repair section takes on all the repair, maintenance, calibration, and
testing of instrumentation equipment that can be brought into the
maintenance center. There is usually being an electrical technician; a
mechanical technician; specialists in valves, orifices and electronics; and the
skilled machinists.
 The file and stores section is necessary, first to maintain complete records
of equipment, and second, to control the use of supplies. An orderly system
insures that periodic service is properly performed and provides ready
information on localized failures of equipment.
 The field service section is responsible for repairs, service, maintenance,
and installation of equipment at the processing plant or unit. Field service is
required when local failure, that is, any abnormal operation of the
instrumentation equipment occurs.
 The instrument department may be located at the control center building if
the central control center layout is used. This is desirable so that
maintenance can be performed quickly. In unit control center layout the
instrument department should be located conveniently in relation to the plant
and processing operations.
 The instrument department is vitally concerned with the testing and
calibration standards for instrument and automatic control equipment. The
standards for temperature, pressure, and voltage are the most important.
 Digital Instrumentation:
 The instrument which represents the measured value in the form of the digital
number is known as the digital instruments.
 It works on the principle of quantization. The quantization is the process of
converting the continuous input signal into a countable output signal.
 The construction of the digital instrument is very complex, and their cost is
also very high.
 The digital instruments consume very less power as compared to analogue
instruments.
 The digital multi-meter, digital voltmeter, digital frequency meter, etc. are the
examples of the digital instruments.
 Important characteristic of Digital Instruments:
 The digital devices have following important features.
1. The accuracy of the digital electronic instrument is very much high.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 34

 2. The digital instrument consists of sensitive elements which are easily
reacted with the surrounding temperature and humidity.
3. The input impedance of the digital instrument is very high because of
which it can draw very less power.
4. The digital instrument is less portable.
5. The cost of the instrument is high.
6. The instrument is free from the parallax error.
Note:
 In analogue instruments, the pointer is used for indicating the
measuring voltage because of which the parallax error occurs.
 While in digital instruments the output is display on the screen.
Thus, the chances of errors are less on it.
 Construction of Digital Instrument:
 The construction of the digital instrument is shown in the figure below.
The transducer, signal modifier and the display devices are the
important part of the digital instrument.

 Transducer – The transducer is used for converting the non-electrical or

physical quantities (temperature, displacement etc.) into an electrical quantity
like voltage, current etc. which is easily measured by the meter. The
transducer is not required for the electrical input.
 Signal Modifier – It is used for modifying the input signal of very weak
strength.
 Display Device – The display device is used for showing the measured
quantities in the numeric form. Mostly, LED or LCD is used as a digital
display.
 Advantages of Digital Instrument
1. The digital instruments display the reading in the numeric form which
reduces the error.
2. The digital output is obtained by the instrument which acts as an input for
the memorable devices like floppy, recorder, printer etc.
3. The power consumption is less in the digital instruments.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 35

  Disadvantages of Digital Instruments
1. The overloading capacity of the instrument is low.
2. It is a temperature sensitive device. The digital instrument is made by the
very delicate element which is easily affected by the atmospheric
condition.
3. The effect of noise is more on digital electronics as compared to the
analogue instruments.

Process Instrumentation_ Ch.China SubbaraoPage 36