A360 22w Aisc Ansi
A360 22w Aisc Ansi
Specification for
Structural
Steel Buildings
August 1, 2022
Specification for
Structural
Steel Buildings
August 1, 2022
© AISC 2022
by
The information presented in this publication has been prepared by a balanced commit-
tee following American National Standards Institute (ANSI) consensus procedures and
recognized principles of design and construction. While it is believed to be accurate, this
information should not be used or relied upon for any specific application without compe-
tent professional examination and verification of its accuracy, suitability, and applicability
by a licensed engineer or architect. The publication of this information is not a representa-
tion or warranty on the part of the American Institute of Steel Construction, its officers,
agents, employees, or committee members, or of any other person named herein, that this
information is suitable for any general or particular use, or of freedom from infringement
of any patent or patents. All representations or warranties, express or implied, other than as
stated above, are specifically disclaimed. Anyone making use of the information presented
in this publication assumes all liability arising from such use.
Caution must be exercised when relying upon standards and guidelines developed by
other bodies and incorporated by reference herein since such material may be modified or
amended from time to time subsequent to the printing of this edition. The American Institute
of Steel Construction bears no responsibility for such material other than to refer to it and
incorporate it by reference at the time of the initial publication of this edition.
DEDICATION
This edition of the AISC Specification is dedicated to Dr. Theodore (Ted) V. Galambos,
a long-time member of the AISC Committee on Specifications and several of its Task
Committees. His pivotal research and publications on the load and resistance factor design
(LRFD) method transformed the AISC Specification. This method of designing steel build-
ings was first introduced in the 1986 AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification
for Structural Steel Buildings. Ted led the effort to adopt this new method and helped main-
tain it through numerous editions of the Specification. Ted was also the co-author of the
Development of a Probability Based Load Criterion for American National Standard, the
document on which ASCE/SEI 7 is based. For his contributions to research, development, and
teaching of behavior, analysis, and design of steel structures, and application of probabilistic
methods, Ted was elected as a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1979 and
as a Distinguished Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) in 1990.
In addition to his work on code committees, Ted has been directly involved with numer-
ous other publications that have promoted the state-of-the-art of structural steel design and
construction, including as author of Structural Members and Frames (1968) and senior
author of Basic Steel Design with LRFD (1996), as well as serving as editor of the 4th and
5th editions of the Guide to Stability Design Criteria for Metal Structures (1988, 1998). He
has also continually demonstrated a commitment to the practice of engineering by serving
as a consultant to industry through his activities with AISC, the Steel Joist Institute, and the
American Iron and Steel Institute.
After receiving his doctorate from Lehigh University in 1959, Ted became a Research
Assistant Professor at Lehigh University. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, his research
focused on the stability behavior and plastic design of steel beam-columns and multistory
steel frames. While at Lehigh, he conducted fundamental tests on the inelastic behavior of
steel wide-flange members. In 1965, Ted moved to Washington University in St. Louis as the
first holder of the Harold D. Jolley Professorship, and he served as Department Chair from
1970 to 1978. At this time, Ted also began his ground-breaking research on LRFD of struc-
tures. Ted was appointed the James L. Record Professor of Civil Engineering at the University
of Minnesota in 1981, where he continued a distinguished record of research, teaching, and
service through professional committee activities, including ASCE, the Structural Stability
Research Council, the Transportation Research Board, and the International Association for
Bridge and Structural Engineering.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
As a professor, Ted is a beloved teacher who instructed many future engineers in steel
design with an exemplary blending of theory and practice. Ted’s commitment to sharing
his knowledge, his willingness to mentor several generations of young researchers, and his
strong ethical standards have made him one of the giants of his generation. His contributions
on the behavior of steel structures will have a lasting impact on the structural engineering
profession.
PREFACE
(This Preface is not part of ANSI/AISC 360-22, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings,
but is included for informational purposes only.)
This Specification is based upon past successful usage, advances in the state of knowl-
edge, and changes in design practice. The 2022 American Institute of Steel Construction’s
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings provides an integrated treatment of allowable
strength design (ASD) and load and resistance factor design (LRFD), and replaces earlier
Specifications. As indicated in Chapter B of the Specification, designs can be made accord-
ing to either ASD or LRFD provisions.
This ANSI-approved Specification has been developed as a consensus document using
ANSI-accredited procedures to provide a uniform practice in the design of steel-framed
buildings and other structures. The intention is to provide design criteria for routine use and
not to provide specific criteria for infrequently encountered problems that occur in the full
range of structural design.
This Specification is the result of the consensus deliberations of a committee of structural
engineers with wide experience and high professional standing, representing a wide geo-
graphical distribution throughout the United States. The committee includes approximately
equal numbers of engineers in private practice and code agencies, engineers involved in
research and teaching, and engineers employed by steel fabricating and producing compa-
nies. The contributions and assistance of more than 50 additional professional volunteers
working in task committees are also hereby acknowledged.
The Symbols, Glossary, Abbreviations, and Appendices to this Specification are an
integral part of the Specification. A nonmandatory Commentary has been prepared to pro-
vide background for the Specification provisions and the user is encouraged to consult it.
Additionally, nonmandatory User Notes are interspersed throughout the Specification to
provide concise and practical guidance in the application of the provisions.
A number of significant technical modifications have also been made since the 2016 edi-
tion of the Specification, including the following:
• A new table is incorporated into Section A3 that lists allowable grades and strengths and
other specific limitations of referenced materials.
• Section J3 adopts ASTM F3148 bolts that provide a strength of 144 ksi. A new combined
installation method is incorporated into Chapter J applicable to these bolts by reference
to the RCSC Specification.
• Section A4 provides a detailed list related to what information must be provided on
structural design documents. These criteria have been moved from the Code of Standard
Practice for Structural Steel Buildings.
• A new Section A5, Approvals, is added to specifically address the review and approval
of approval documents.
• A new Section B8, Dimensional Tolerances, is added to clarify that the provisions of the
Specification are based on specific tolerances provided in the Code of Standard Practice
and referenced ASTM standards.
• Provisions are added in Section E4 for doubly symmetric I-shaped compression members
to address lateral bracing that is offset from the shear center.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
• For flexural strength of members with holes in the tension flange, it is clarified that the
Section F13.1 provisions apply only to bolt holes.
• Provisions are added to Chapter G to permit tension field action in end panels.
• Provisions are added to Chapter H for HSS subjected to combined forces, to include
biaxial bending and shear.
• Provisions are added to Chapter I for longitudinal and transverse reinforcing steel require-
ments for filled composite columns and for both encased composite and filled composite
beams.
• Chapter I now includes additional stiffness and strength provisions for concrete filled
composite plate shear walls consisting of two steel plates connected by tie bars.
• Provisions for the design of rectangular filled composite members constructed from mate-
rials with strengths above the limits noted in Chapter I are added in a new Appendix 2.
• Section J2 provides revised requirements to qualify partial-joint-penetration groove welds
with effective throats larger than those prescribed in AWS D1.1/D1.1M.
• Requirements regarding the use of low-hydrogen electrodes as they relate to minimum
size fillet welds are revised in Table J2.4.
• The directional strength increase for transversely loaded fillet welds is rewritten and pro-
hibited for use in the ends of rectangular HSS.
• An alternative bolt tensile strength based on the net tensile area of bolts is added.
• Added limit states for rectangular HSS moment connections in Chapter K.
• Section N4 now addresses coating inspection personnel requirements.
• A new Section N8, Minimum Requirements for Shop or Field Applied Coatings, is added.
• Appendix 2, Design for Ponding, is removed and replaced with updated guidance on this
topic in Section B3.10.
• Appendix 3 clarifies hole forming provisions for elements subjected to fatigue.
• Appendix 4 incorporates temperature-dependent stress-strain equations from the Eurocode
to provide material properties for steel at elevated temperatures.
• Prescriptive steel fire-protection design equations and related information based on stan-
dard ASTM E119 fire tests are incorporated into Appendix 4.
• Appendix 4, Section 4.4d, Design by Simple Methods of Analysis, includes provisions for
compressive strength in filled composite columns and for compression in filled composite
plate shear walls.
• Provisions for calculating rivet strength are added in Appendix 5.
This Specification was approved by the Committee on Specifications:
James O. Malley, Chair Bruce R. Ellingwood, Emeritus
Scott F. Armbrust, Vice Chair Michael D. Engelhardt
Allen Adams Shu-Jin Fang, Emeritus
Taha D. Al-Shawaf James M. Fisher, Emeritus
William F. Baker John W. Fisher, Emeritus
John M. Barsom, Emeritus Theodore V. Galambos, Emeritus
Roger L. Brockenbrough, Emeritus Michael E. Gase
Susan B. Burmeister Louis F. Geschwindner
Gregory G. Deierlein Ramon E. Gilsanz
Bo Dowswell Lawrence G. Griffis
Carol J. Drucker Jerome F. Hajjar
W. Samuel Easterling Ronald O. Hamburger
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SYMBOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxxi
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
ABBREVIATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lxv
A. GENERAL PROVISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A1. Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. Seismic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Nuclear Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A2. Referenced Specifications, Codes, and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
A3. Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1. Structural Steel Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1a. Listed Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1b. Other Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1c. Unidentified Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1d. Rolled Heavy Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1e. Built-Up Heavy Shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Steel Castings and Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3. Bolts, Washers, and Nuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4. Anchor Rods and Threaded Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5. Consumables for Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. Headed Stud Anchors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A4. Structural Design Documents and Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1. Structural Design Documents and Specifications Issued for
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2. Structural Design Documents and Specifications Issued for
Any Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
A5. Approvals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B1. General Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B2. Loads and Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B3. Design Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. Design for Strength Using Allowable Strength Design (ASD) . . . . . . . . 16
3. Required Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4. Design of Connections and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4a. Simple Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4b. Moment Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5. Design of Diaphragms and Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6. Design of Anchorages to Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7. Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7.
Tensile and Shear Strength of Bolts and Threaded Parts. . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.
Combined Tension and Shear in Bearing-Type Connections . . . . . . . . . 141
9.
High-Strength Bolts in Slip-Critical Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
10.
Combined Tension and Shear in Slip-Critical Connections. . . . . . . . . . 143
11.
Bearing and Tearout Strength at Bolt Holes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
11a.
Snug-Tightened or Pretensioned High-Strength Bolted
Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
11b. Connections Made Using Bolts or Rods That Pass Completely
Through an Unstiffened Box Member or HSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
12. Special Fasteners. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
13. Wall Strength at Tension Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
J4. Affected Elements of Members and Connecting Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1. Strength of Elements in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
2. Strength of Elements in Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3. Block Shear Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4. Strength of Elements in Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
5. Strength of Elements in Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
J5. Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1. Fillers in Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1a. Thin Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1b. Thick Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2. Fillers in Bolted Bearing-Type Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
J6. Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
J7. Bearing Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
J8. Column Bases and Bearing on Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
J9. Anchor Rods and Embedments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
J10. Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1. Flange Local Bending. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2. Web Local Yielding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3. Web Local Crippling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4. Web Sidesway Buckling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5. Web Compression Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6. Web Panel-Zone Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
7. Unframed Ends of Beams and Girders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8. Additional Stiffener Requirements for Concentrated Forces . . . . . . . . . 155
9. Additional Doubler Plate Requirements for Concentrated Forces. . . . . 155
10. Transverse Forces on Plate Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
K. ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HSS AND BOX-SECTION
CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
K1. General Provisions and Parameters for HSS Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1. Definitions of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2. Rectangular HSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2a. Effective Width for Connections to Rectangular HSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3. Chord-Stress Interaction Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4. End Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
K2. Concentrated Forces on HSS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
G4. Rectangular HSS, Box Sections, and Other Singly and Doubly
Symmetric Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
G5. Round HSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
G6. Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric Members Subjected to
Minor-Axis Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
G7. Beams and Girders with Web Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
H. DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMBINED FORCES AND TORSION . . . . . 404
H1. Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subjected to Flexure and
Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
1. Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subjected to
Flexure and Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
2. Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subjected to
Flexure and Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
3. Doubly Symmetric Rolled Compact Members Subjected to
Single-Axis Flexure and Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
H2. Unsymmetric and Other Members Subjected to Flexure and Axial Force. . . 410
H3. Members Subjected to Torsion and Combined Torsion, Flexure,
Shear, and/or Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
1. Round and Rectangular HSS Subjected to Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
2. HSS Subjected to Combined Torsion, Shear, Flexure, and
Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
3. Non-HSS Members Subjected to Torsion and Combined Stress. . . . . . 416
H4. Rupture of Flanges with Bolt Holes and Subjected to Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . 417
I. DESIGN OF COMPOSITE MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
I1. General Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
1. Concrete and Steel Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
2. Nominal Strength of Composite Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
2a. Plastic Stress Distribution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
2b. Strain-Compatibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
2c. Elastic Stress Distribution Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
2d. Effective Stress-Strain Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
3. Material Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
4. Classification of Filled Composite Sections for Local Buckling . . . . . . 422
5. Stiffness for Calculation of Required Strengths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
6. Requirements for Composite Plate Shear Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
6a. Slenderness Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
6b. Tie Bar Requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
I2. Axial Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
1. Encased Composite Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
1a. Limitations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
1b. Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
1c. Tensile Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
2. Filled Composite Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
2a. Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
2b. Compressive Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
SYMBOLS
Definitions for the symbols used in this standard are provided here and reflect the defini-
tions provided in the body of this standard. Some symbols may be used and defined multiple
times throughout the document. The section or table number shown in the right-hand
column of the list identifies the first time the symbol is used in this document. Symbols
without text definitions are omitted.
GLOSSARY
Notes:
(1) Terms designated with † are common AISI-AISC terms that are coordinated between
the two standards development organizations.
(2) Terms designated with * are usually qualified by the type of load effect, for example,
nominal tensile strength, available compressive strength, and design flexural strength.
(3) Terms designated with ** are usually qualified by the type of component, for example,
web local buckling and flange local bending.
Active fire protection. Building materials and systems that are activated by a fire to mitigate
adverse effects or to notify people to take action to mitigate adverse effects.
Allowable strength*†. Nominal strength divided by the safety factor, Rn Ω.
Allowable stress*. Allowable strength divided by the applicable section property, such as
section modulus or cross-sectional area.
Anchor bolt. See Anchor rod.
Anchor rod. A mechanical device that is either cast in concrete or drilled and chemically
adhered, grouted, or wedged into concrete and/or masonry for the purpose of the subse-
quent attachment of structural steel.
Applicable building code†. Building code under which the structure is designed.
Approval documents. The structural steel shop drawings, erection drawings, and embedment
drawings, or where the parties have agreed in the contract documents to provide digital
model(s), the fabrication and erection models. Approval documents may include a com-
bination of drawings and digital models.
ASD (allowable strength design)†. Method of proportioning structural components such that
the allowable strength equals or exceeds the required strength of the component under the
action of the ASD load combinations.
ASD load combination†. Load combination in the applicable building code intended for
allowable strength design (allowable stress design).
Authority having jurisdiction (AHJ). Organization, political subdivision, office, or indi-
vidual charged with the responsibility of administering and enforcing the provisions of
this Specification.
Available strength*†. Design strength or allowable strength, as applicable.
Available stress*. Design stress or allowable stress, as applicable.
Average rib width. In a formed steel deck, average width of the rib of a corrugation.
Beam. Nominally horizontal structural member that has the primary function of resisting
bending moments.
Beam-column. Structural member that resists both axial force and bending moment.
Bearing (local compressive yielding)†. Limit state of local compressive yielding due to the
action of a member bearing against another member or surface.
Bearing-type connection. Bolted connection where shear forces are transmitted by the bolt
bearing against the connection elements.
Block shear rupture†. In a connection, limit state of tension rupture along one path and shear
yielding or shear rupture along another path.
Bolting assembly. An assembly of bolting components that is installed as a unit.
Bolting component. Bolt, nut, washer, direct tension indicator, or other element used as a
part of a bolting assembly.
Box section. Square or rectangular doubly symmetric member made with four plates welded
together at the corners such that it behaves as a single member.
Braced frame†. Essentially vertical truss system that provides resistance to lateral forces and
provides stability for the structural system.
Bracing. Member or system that provides stiffness and strength to limit the out-of-plane
movement of another member at a brace point.
Branch member. In an HSS connection, member that terminates at a chord member or main
member.
Buckling†. Limit state of sudden change in the geometry of a structure or any of its elements
under a critical loading condition.
Buckling strength. Strength for instability limit states.
Built-up member, cross section, section, shape. Member, cross section, section, or shape
fabricated from structural steel elements that are welded or bolted together.
Camber. Curvature fabricated into a beam or truss so as to compensate for deflection in-
duced by loads.
Charpy V-notch impact test. Standard dynamic test measuring notch toughness of a specimen.
Chord member. In an HSS connection, primary member that extends through a truss
connection.
Cladding. Exterior covering of structure.
Cold-formed steel structural member†. Shape manufactured by press-braking blanks
sheared from sheets, cut lengths of coils or plates, or by roll forming cold- or hot-rolled
coils or sheets; both forming operations being performed at ambient room temperature,
that is, without manifest addition of heat such as would be required for hot forming.
Collector. Also known as drag strut; member that serves to transfer loads between floor
diaphragms and the members of the lateral force-resisting system.
Column. Nominally vertical structural member that has the primary function of resisting
axial compressive force.
Column base. Assemblage of structural shapes, plates, connectors, bolts, and rods at the base
of a column used to transmit forces between the steel superstructure and the foundation.
Combined method. Pretensioning procedure incorporating the application of a prescribed
initial torque or tension, followed by the application of a prescribed relative rotation
between the bolt and nut.
Compact composite section. Filled composite section that can reach the plastic axial com-
pressive strength or plastic moment before local buckling of the steel elements occurs as
defined by the steel element width-to-thickness ratios less than or equal to λp.
Compact section. Section that can reach the plastic moment before local buckling occurs as
defined by the element width-to-thickness ratio less than or equal to λp.
Compartmentation. Enclosure of a building space with elements that have a specific fire
endurance.
Complete-joint-penetration (CJP) groove weld. Groove weld in which weld metal extends
through the joint thickness, except as permitted for HSS connections.
Composite. Condition in which steel and concrete elements and members work as a unit in
the distribution of internal forces.
Composite beam. Structural steel beam in contact with and acting compositely with a rein-
forced concrete slab.
Composite component. Member, connecting element, or assemblage in which steel and con-
crete elements work as a unit in the distribution of internal forces, with the exception of
the special case of composite beams where steel anchors are embedded in a solid concrete
slab or in a slab cast on formed steel deck.
Composite plate shear wall. Composite wall composed of structural steel plates, ties, steel
anchors, and structural concrete acting together.
Concrete breakout surface. The surface delineating a volume of concrete surrounding a steel
headed stud anchor that separates from the remaining concrete.
Concrete crushing. Limit state of compressive failure in concrete having reached the ulti-
mate strain.
Concrete-encased beam. Beam totally encased in concrete cast integrally with the slab.
Concrete haunch. In a composite floor system constructed using a formed steel deck, the
section of solid concrete that results from stopping the deck on each side of the girder.
Connection†. Combination of structural elements and joints used to transmit forces between
two or more members.
Construction documents. Written, graphic, and pictorial documents prepared or assembled
for describing the design (including the structural system), location, and physical charac-
teristics of the elements of a building necessary to obtain a building permit and construct
a building.
Contract documents. The documents that define the responsibilities of the parties that are
involved in bidding, fabricating, and erecting structural steel. Contract documents include
the design documents, the specifications, and the contract.
Cope. Cutout made in a structural member to remove a flange and conform to the shape of
an intersecting member.
Cover plate. Plate welded or bolted to the flange of a member to increase cross-sectional
area, section modulus, or moment of inertia.
Cross-connection. HSS connection in which forces in branch members or connecting ele-
ments transverse to the main member are primarily equilibrated by forces in other branch
members or connecting elements on the opposite side of the main member.
Cyclic loading. Repeated transient loading of sufficient frequency and magnitude of stress
which could result in fatigue crack initiation and propagation.
Design. The process of establishing the physical and other properties of a structure for the
purpose of achieving the desired strength, serviceability, durability, constructability,
economy, and other desired characteristics. Design for strength, as used in this Specifica-
tion, includes analysis to determine required strength and proportioning to have adequate
available strength.
Design-basis fire. Set of conditions that define the development of a fire and the spread of
combustion products throughout a building or portion thereof.
Design documents. Design drawings, design model, or a combination of drawings and
models. In this Specification, reference to these design documents indicates design docu-
ments that are issued for construction as defined in Section A4.
Design drawings. Graphic and pictorial portions of the design documents showing the
design, location, and dimensions of the work. Design drawings generally include, but
are not necessarily limited to, plans, elevations, sections, details, schedules, diagrams,
and notes.
Design load†. Applied load determined in accordance with either LRFD load combinations
or ASD load combinations, as applicable.
Design model. Three-dimensional digital model of the structure that conveys the structural
steel requirements as specified in Section A4.
Design strength*†. Resistance factor multiplied by the nominal strength, φRn .
Design wall thickness. HSS wall thickness assumed in the determination of section
properties.
Diagonal stiffener. Web stiffener at column panel zone oriented diagonally to the flanges,
on one or both sides of the web.
Diaphragm†. Roof, floor, or other membrane or bracing system that transfers in-plane
forces to the lateral force-resisting system.
Direct bond interaction. In a composite section, mechanism by which force is transferred
between steel and concrete by bond stress.
Distortional failure. Limit state of an HSS truss connection based on distortion of a rectan-
gular HSS chord member into a rhomboidal shape.
Distortional stiffness. Out-of-plane flexural stiffness of web.
Double-concentrated forces. Two equal and opposite forces applied normal to the same
flange, forming a couple.
Double curvature. Deformed shape of a beam with one or more inflection points within the
span.
Doubler. Plate added to, and parallel with, a beam or column web to increase strength at
locations of concentrated forces.
Drift. Lateral deflection of structure.
Effective length. Length of an otherwise identical compression member with the same
strength when analyzed with simple end conditions.
Effective length factor, K. Ratio between the effective length and the unbraced length of
the member.
Effective net area. Net area modified to account for the effect of shear lag.
Effective section modulus. Section modulus reduced to account for buckling of slender
compression elements.
Effective width. Reduced width of a plate or slab with an assumed uniform stress distribution
which produces the same effect on the behavior of a structural member as the actual plate
or slab width with its nonuniform stress distribution.
Elastic analysis. Structural analysis based on the assumption that the structure returns to its
original geometry on removal of the load.
Elevated temperatures. Heating conditions experienced by building elements or structures
as a result of fire which are in excess of the anticipated ambient conditions.
Encased composite member. Composite member consisting of a structural concrete member
and one or more embedded steel shapes.
End panel. Web panel with an adjacent panel on one side only.
End return. Length of fillet weld that continues around a corner in the same plane.
Engineer of record. Licensed professional responsible for sealing the design documents and
specifications.
Erection documents. The field-installation or member-placement drawings that are prepared
by the fabricator to show the location and attachment of the individual structural steel
shipping pieces. Where the parties have agreed in the contract documents to provide
digital model(s), a dimensionally accurate 3D digital model produced to convey the
information necessary to erect the structural steel, which may be the same digital model
as the fabrication model. Erection documents may include a combination of drawings
and digital models.
Expansion rocker. Support with curved surface on which a member bears that is able to tilt
to accommodate expansion.
Expansion roller. Round steel bar on which a member bears that is able to roll to accom-
modate expansion.
Eyebar. Pin-connected tension member of uniform thickness, with forged or thermally
cut head of greater width than the body, proportioned to provide approximately equal
strength in the head and body.
Fabrication documents. The shop drawings of the individual structural steel shipping pieces
that are to be produced in the fabrication shop. Where the parties have agreed in the con-
tract documents to provide digital model(s), a dimensionally accurate 3D digital model
produced to convey the information necessary to fabricate the structural steel, which may
be the same digital model as the erection model. Fabrication documents may include a
combination of drawings and digital models.
Factored load†. Product of a load factor and the nominal load.
Fastener. Generic term for bolts, rivets, or other connecting devices.
Fatigue†. Limit state of crack initiation and growth resulting from repeated application of
live loads.
Faying surface. Contact surface of connection elements transmitting a shear force.
Filled composite member. Composite member consisting of an HSS or box section filled
with structural concrete.
Member imperfection. Initial displacement of points along the length of individual members
(between points of intersection of members) from their nominal locations, such as the
out-of-straightness of members due to manufacturing and fabrication.
Mill scale. Oxide surface coating on steel formed by the hot rolling process.
Moment connection. Connection that transmits bending moment between connected members.
Moment frame†. Framing system that provides resistance to lateral loads and provides
stability to the structural system, primarily by shear and flexure of the framing members
and their connections.
Negative flexural strength. Flexural strength of a composite beam in regions with tension
due to flexure on the top surface.
Net area. Gross area reduced to account for removed material.
Nominal dimension. Designated or theoretical dimension, as in tables of section properties.
Nominal load†. Magnitude of the load specified by the applicable building code.
Nominal rib height. In a formed steel deck, height of deck measured from the underside of
the lowest point to the top of the highest point.
Nominal strength*†. Strength of a structure or component (without the resistance factor
or safety factor applied) to resist load effects, as determined in accordance with this
Specification.
Noncompact composite section. Filled composite section that is not able to reach the plastic
axial compressive strength or plastic moment due to insufficient confinement of the infill
concrete, as defined by the steel element width-to-thickness ratio greater than λp and less
than or equal to λr .
Noncompact section. Section that is not able to reach the plastic moment before inelastic
local buckling occurs as defined by the element width-to-thickness ratio greater than λp
and less than or equal to λr .
Nondestructive testing. Inspection procedure wherein no material is destroyed and the integ-
rity of the material or component is not affected.
Notch toughness. Energy absorbed at a specified temperature as measured in the Charpy
V-notch impact test.
Notional load. Virtual load applied in a structural analysis to account for destabilizing
effects that are not otherwise accounted for in the design provisions.
Out-of-plane buckling†. Limit state of a beam, column, or beam-column involving lateral
or lateral-torsional buckling.
Overlapped connection. HSS truss connection in which intersecting branch members overlap.
Panel brace. Brace that limits the relative movement of two adjacent brace points along the
length of a beam or column or the relative lateral displacement of two stories in a frame.
Panel zone. Web area of beam-to-column connection delineated by the extension of beam
and column flanges through the connection, transmitting moment through a shear panel.
Partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove weld. Groove weld in which the penetration is inten-
tionally less than the complete thickness of the connected element.
Partially restrained moment connection. Connection capable of transferring moment with
rotation between connected members that is not negligible.
Serviceability limit state†. Limiting condition affecting the ability of a structure to pre-
serve its appearance, maintainability, durability, comfort of its occupants, or function of
machinery, under typical usage.
Service load†. Load under which serviceability limit states are evaluated.
Service load combination. Load combination under which serviceability limit states are
evaluated.
Shear buckling†. Buckling mode in which a plate element, such as the web of a beam, de-
forms under pure shear applied in the plane of the plate.
Shear lag. Nonuniform tensile stress distribution in a member or connecting element in the
vicinity of a connection.
Shear wall†. Wall that provides resistance to lateral loads in the plane of the wall and pro-
vides stability for the structural system.
Shear yielding (punching). In an HSS connection, limit state based on out-of-plane shear
strength of the chord wall to which branch members are attached.
Sheet steel. In a composite floor system, steel used for closure plates or miscellaneous trim-
ming in a formed steel deck.
Shim. Thin layer of material used to fill a space between faying or bearing surfaces.
Shop drawings. Drawings of the individual structural steel pieces that are to be produced in
the fabrication shop.
Sidesway buckling (frame). Stability limit state involving lateral sidesway instability of a
frame.
Simple connection. Connection that transmits negligible bending moment between con-
nected members.
Single-concentrated force. Tensile or compressive force applied normal to the flange of a
member.
Single curvature. Deformed shape of a beam with no inflection point within the span.
Slender-element composite section. Filled composite section that is able to only reach
an axial or flexural strength limited by local buckling of a steel element, and by not
adequately confining the infill concrete to reach the confined compressive strength, as
defined by the steel element width-to-thickness ratio greater than λr .
Slender-element section. Section that is able to only reach a strength limited by local buck-
ling of an element defined by element width-to-thickness ratio greater than λr .
Slip. In a bolted connection, limit state of relative motion of connected parts prior to the
attainment of the available strength of the connection.
Slip-critical connection. Bolted connection designed to resist movement by friction on the
faying surface of the connection under the clamping force of the bolts.
Slot weld. Weld made in an elongated hole fusing an element to another element.
Specifications. The portion of the construction documents and the contract documents that
consist of the written requirements for materials, standards, and workmanship.
Specified minimum tensile strength. Lower limit of tensile strength specified for a material
as defined by ASTM.
Specified minimum yield stress†. Lower limit of yield stress specified for a material as
defined by ASTM.
Splice. Connection between two structural elements joined at their ends to form a single,
longer element.
Stability. Condition in the loading of a structural component, frame, or structure in which a
slight disturbance in the loads or geometry does not produce large displacements.
Steel anchor. Headed stud or hot rolled channel welded to a steel member and embedded in
the concrete of a composite member to transmit shear, tension, or a combination of shear
and tension, at the interface of the two materials.
Stiffened element. Flat compression element with adjoining out-of-plane elements along
both edges parallel to the direction of loading.
Stiffener. Structural element, typically an angle or plate, attached to a member to distribute
load, transfer shear, or prevent buckling.
Stiffness. Resistance to deformation of a member or structure, measured by the ratio of the
applied force (or moment) to the corresponding displacement (or rotation).
Story drift. Horizontal deflection at the top of the story relative to the bottom of the story.
Story drift ratio. Story drift divided by the story height.
Strain compatibility method. In a composite member, method for determining the stresses
considering the stress-strain relationships of each material and its location with respect to
the neutral axis of the cross section.
Strength limit state†. Limiting condition in which the maximum strength of a structure or
its components is reached.
Stress. Force per unit area caused by axial force, moment, shear, or torsion.
Stress concentration. Localized stress considerably higher than average due to abrupt
changes in geometry or localized loading.
Stress range. The magnitude of the change in stress due to the application, reversal, or
removal of the applied cyclic load.
Strong axis. Major principal centroidal axis of a cross section.
Structural analysis†. Determination of load effects on members and connections based on
principles of structural mechanics.
Structural component†. Member, connector, connecting element, or assemblage.
Structural integrity. Performance characteristic of a structure indicating resistance to cata-
strophic failure.
Structural steel. Steel elements as defined in the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel
Buildings and Bridges Section 2.1.
Structural system. An assemblage of load-carrying components that are joined together to
provide interaction or interdependence.
Substantiating connection information. Information submitted by the fabricator in support
of connections either selected by the steel detailer or designed by the licensed engineer
working for the fabricator.
System imperfection. Initial displacement of points of intersection of members from their
nominal locations, such as the out-of-plumbness of columns due to erection tolerances.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
T-connection. HSS connection in which the branch member or connecting element is per-
pendicular to the main member and in which forces transverse to the main member are
primarily equilibrated by shear in the main member.
Tensile strength (of material)†. Maximum tensile stress that a material is capable of sustain-
ing as defined by ASTM.
Tensile strength (of member). Maximum tension force that a member is capable of sustaining.
Tension and shear rupture†. In a bolt or other type of mechanical fastener, limit state of
rupture due to simultaneous tension and shear force.
Tension field action. Behavior of a panel under shear in which diagonal tensile forces
develop in the web and compressive forces develop in the transverse stiffeners in a
manner similar to a Pratt truss.
Thermally cut. Cut with gas, plasma, or laser.
Tie plate. Plate element used to join two parallel components of a built-up column, girder,
or strut rigidly connected to the parallel components and designed to transmit shear
between them.
Toe of fillet. Junction of a fillet weld face and base metal. Tangent point of a fillet in a rolled
shape.
Torsional bracing. Bracing resisting twist of a beam or column.
Torsional buckling†. Buckling mode in which a compression member twists about its shear
center axis.
Transverse reinforcement. In an encased composite column, steel reinforcement in the form
of closed ties or welded wire fabric providing confinement for the concrete surrounding
the steel shape.
Transverse stiffener. Web stiffener oriented perpendicular to the flanges, attached to the web.
Tubing. See HSS.
Turn-of-nut method. Procedure whereby the specified pretension in high-strength bolts is
controlled by rotating the fastener component a predetermined amount after the bolt has
been snug tightened.
Unbraced length. Distance between braced points of a member, measured between the cen-
ters of gravity of the bracing members.
Uneven load distribution. In an HSS connection, condition in which the stress is not distrib-
uted uniformly through the cross section of connected elements.
Unframed end. The end of a member not restrained against rotation by stiffeners or con-
nection elements.
Unrestrained construction. Floor and roof assemblies and individual beams in buildings that
are assumed to be free to rotate and expand throughout the range of anticipated elevated
temperatures.
Unstiffened element. Flat compression element with an adjoining out-of-plane element
along one edge parallel to the direction of loading.
Weak axis. Minor principal centroidal axis of a cross section.
Weathering steel. High-strength, low-alloy steel that, with sufficient precautions, is able to
be used in typical atmospheric exposures (not marine) without protective paint coating.
Web local crippling†. Limit state of local failure of web plate in the immediate vicinity of
a concentrated load or reaction.
Web sidesway buckling. Limit state of lateral buckling of the tension flange opposite the
location of a concentrated compression force.
Weld access hole. An opening that permits access for welding, backgouging, or for insertion
of backing.
Weld metal. Portion of a fusion weld that has been completely melted during welding. Weld
metal has elements of filler metal and base metal melted in the weld thermal cycle.
Weld root. See Root of joint.
Y-connection. HSS connection in which the branch member or connecting element is not
perpendicular to the main member and in which forces transverse to the main member
are primarily equilibrated by shear in the main member.
Yield moment†. In a member subjected to bending, the moment at which the extreme outer
fiber first attains the yield stress.
Yield point†. First stress in a material at which an increase in strain occurs without an
increase in stress as defined by ASTM.
Yield strength†. Stress at which a material exhibits a specified limiting deviation from the
proportionality of stress to strain as defined by ASTM.
Yield stress†. Generic term to denote either yield point or yield strength, as applicable for
the material.
Yielding†. Limit state of inelastic deformation that occurs when the yield stress is reached.
Yielding (plastic moment)†. Yielding throughout the cross section of a member as the
moment reaches the plastic moment.
Yielding (yield moment)†. Yielding at the extreme fiber on the cross section of a member
when the moment reaches the yield moment.
ABBREVIATIONS
QC (quality control)
QCI (quality control inspector)
QCP (quality control program)
RCSC (Research Council on Structural Connections)
RT (radiographic testing)
SAW (submerged arc welding)
SEI (Structural Engineering Institute)
SFPE (Society of Fire Protection Engineers)
SMAW (shielded metal arc welding)
SWI (senior welding inspector)
UNC (Unified National Coarse)
UT (ultrasonic testing)
WI (welding inspector)
WPQR (welder performance qualification records)
WPS (welding procedure specification)
CHAPTER A
GENERAL PROVISIONS
This chapter states the scope of this Specification, lists referenced specifications, codes, and
standards, and provides requirements for materials and structural design documents.
The chapter is organized as follows:
A1. Scope
A2. Referenced Specifications, Codes, and Standards
A3. Material
A4. Structural Design Documents and Specifications
A5. Approvals
A1. SCOPE
The Specification for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 360), hereafter referred
to as this Specification, shall apply to the design, fabrication, erection, and quality of
the structural steel system or systems with structural steel acting compositely with
reinforced concrete, where the steel elements are defined in Section 2.1 of the AISC
Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges (ANSI/AISC 303), here-
after referred to as the Code of Standard Practice.
This Specification includes the Symbols, Glossary, Abbreviations, Chapters A
through N, and Appendices 1 through 8. The Commentary to this Specification and
the User Notes interspersed throughout are not part of this Specification. The phrases
“is permitted” and “are permitted” in this document identify provisions that comply
with this Specification, but are not mandatory.
User Note: User notes are intended to provide concise and practical guidance in
the application of the Specification provisions.
This Specification sets forth criteria for the design, fabrication, and erection of
structural steel buildings and other structures, where other structures are defined as
structures designed, fabricated, and erected in a manner similar to buildings, with
building-like vertical and lateral load-resisting elements.
Wherever this Specification refers to the applicable building code and there is
none, the loads, load combinations, system limitations, and general design require-
ments shall be those in ASCE Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for
Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE/SEI 7).
Where conditions are not covered by this Specification, designs are permitted to be
based on tests or analysis, subject to the approval of the authority having jurisdic-
tion (AHJ). Alternative methods of analysis and design are permitted, provided such
alternative methods or criteria are acceptable to the AHJ.
User Note: For the design of cold-formed steel structural members, the provi-
sions in the AISI North American Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed
Steel Structural Members, with Supplement 2 (AISI S100-16w/S2-20) are recom-
mended, except for cold-formed hollow structural sections (HSS), which are
designed in accordance with this Specification.
1. Seismic Applications
The AISC Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings (ANSI/AISC 341) shall
apply to the design, fabrication, erection, and quality of seismic force-resisting
systems of structural steel or of structural steel acting compositely with reinforced
concrete, unless specifically exempted by the applicable building code.
2. Nuclear Applications
The design, fabrication, erection, and quality of safety-related nuclear structures
shall comply with the provisions of this Specification as modified by the require-
ments of the AISC Specification for Safety-Related Steel Structures for Nuclear
Facilities (ANSI/AISC N690).
A449-14(2020) Standard Specification for Hex Cap Screws, Bolts and Studs,
Steel, Heat Treated, 120/105/90 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, General Use
User Note: ASTM F1554 is the most commonly referenced specification for
anchor rods. Grade and weldability must be specified.
User Note: ASTM F1852 and F2280 are grades within ASTM F3125/F3125M.
F3043-15 Standard Specification for “Twist Off” Type Tension Control Struc-
tural Bolt/Nut/Washer Assemblies, Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, 200 ksi Mini-
mum Tensile Strength
F3111-16 Standard Specification for Heavy Hex Structural Bolt/Nut/Washer
Assemblies, Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, 200 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength
F3125/F3125M-19e2 Standard Specification for High Strength Structural Bolts
and Assemblies, Steel and Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, Inch Dimensions 120 ksi
and 150 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, and Metric Dimensions 830 MPa and
1040 MPa Minimum Tensile Strength
F3148-17a Standard Specification for High Strength Structural Bolt Assemblies,
Steel and Alloy Steel, Heat Treated, 144 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength, Inch
Dimensions
(h) American Welding Society (AWS)
AWS A5.1/A5.1M:2012 Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding
AWS A5.5/A5.5M:2014 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Shielded
Metal Arc Welding
A3. MATERIAL
TABLE A3.1
Listed Materials
Standard Permissible
Other Limitations
Designation Grades/Strengths
(a) Hot-Rolled Shapes
ASTM A36/A36M − −
ASTM A529/A529M Gr. 50 [345] or Gr. 55 [380] −
ASTM A572/A572M Gr. 42 [290], Gr. 50 [345], Gr. 55 [380], Type 1, 2, or 3
Gr. 60 [415], or Gr. 65 [450]
ASTM A588/A588M − −
ASTM A709/A709M Gr. 36 [250], Gr. 50 [345], Gr. 50S [345S],
Gr. 50W [345W], QST 50 [QST345],
−
QST 50S [QST345S], QST 65 [QST450], or
QST 70 [QST485]
ASTM A913/A913M Gr. 50 [345], Gr. 60 [415], Gr. 65 [450],
−
Gr. 70 [485], or Gr. 80 [550]
ASTM A992/A992M − −
ASTM A1043/A1043M Gr. 36 [250] or Gr. 50 [345] −
(b) Hollow Structural Sections (HSS)
ASTM A53/A53M Gr. B −
ASTM A500/A500M Gr. B, Gr. C, or Gr. D −
ASTM A501/A501M Gr. B ERW or seamless
ASTM A618/A618M Gr. Ia, Gr. Ib, Gr. II, or Gr. III ERW or seamless
ASTM A847/A847M – –
ASTM A1065/A1065M Gr. 50 [345] or Gr. 50W [345W] A572, A588, or A709
HPS 50W [345W]
ASTM A1085/ Gr. A
−
A1085M[a]
(c) Plates
ASTM A36/A36M − −
ASTM A283/A283M Gr. C or Gr. D −
ASTM A514/A514M – See Note [b].
ASTM A529/A529M Gr. 50 [345] or Gr. 55 [380] –
ASTM A572/A572M Gr. 42 [290], Gr. 50 [345], Gr. 55 [380], Type 1, 2, or 3
Gr. 60 [415], or Gr. 65 [450]
ASTM A588/A588M − −
ASTM A709/A709M Gr. 36 [250], Gr. 50 [345], Gr. 50W
[345W], HPS 50W [HPS345W], HPS 70W −
[HPS485W], or HPS 100W [HPS 690W]
− indicates no restriction applicable on grades/strengths or there are no limitations, as applicable
ERW = electric resistance welded
[a]ASTM A1085/A1085M material is only available in Grade A, therefore it is permitted to specify ASTM A1085/
maximum preheat limits, and minimum and maximum heat input limits.
User Note: Plates, sheets, strips, and bars are different products; however, design
rules do not make a differentiation between these products. The most common
differences among these products are their physical dimensions of width and
thickness.
User Note: Unidentified steel may be used for details where the precise mechani-
cal properties and weldability are not of concern. These are commonly curb
plates, shims, and other similar pieces.
User Note: Additional requirements for rolled heavy-shape welded joints are
given in Sections J1.5, J1.6, J2.6, and M2.2.
User Note: Additional requirements for built-up heavy-shape welded joints are
given in Sections J1.5, J1.6, J2.6, and M2.2.
(a) Bolts
ASTM A307
ASTM A354
ASTM A449
ASTM F3043
ASTM F3111
ASTM F3125/F3125M
ASTM F3148
(b) Nuts
ASTM A194/A194M
ASTM A563/A563M
(c) Washers
ASTM F436/F436M
ASTM F844
(d) Compressible-Washer-Type Direct Tension Indicators
ASTM F959/F959M
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with
the standards.
User Note: ASTM F1554 is the preferred material specification for anchor rods.
ASTM A449 material is permitted for high-strength anchor rods and threaded rods
of any diameter.
Threads on anchor rods and threaded rods shall conform to Class 2A, Unified Coarse
Thread Series of ASME B1.1, except for anchor rods over 1 in. (25 mm) diameter
which are permitted to conform to Class 2A, 8UN Thread Series.
Manufacturer’s certification shall constitute sufficient evidence of conformity with
the standards.
When structural steel connection design is delegated, the design documents and
specifications shall include the following:
(a) Design requirements for the delegated design
(b) Requirements for substantiating connection information
User Note: For projects that require consideration of seismic provisions, addi-
tional requirements for information to be shown on the structural design
documents and specifications are contained in Section A4 of the AISC Seismic
Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings. For safety-related steel structures for
nuclear facilities, additional requirements for information to be shown are con-
tained in ANSI/AISC N690, Section NA4.
User Note: The intent of the information required to be shown on design docu-
ments issued for construction as identified in Section A4 is to ensure that these
items are documented and addressed by the EOR prior to construction. Some
information may be contained in deferred submittals prepared by a specialty
structural engineer and approved by the registered design professional in
responsible charge. Additional information regarding design documents and
submittals pertaining to metal buildings and steel joists can be found in the
Common Industry Practices published by the Metal Building Manufacturers
Association (MBMA) and the Code of Standard Practice for Steel Joists and
Joist Girders published by the Steel Joist Institute (SJI), respectively. Steel
(open-web) joists and steel joist girders are not structural steel per the Code
of Standard Practice Section 2.2 and therefore fall outside the scope of this
Specification.
User Note: The terminology now used in this Specification and the Code of
Standard Practice is that structural design documents and specifications are
“issued” by the EOR for a designated purpose as shown in the documents and
“released” by any other party to a contract (e.g., owner, general contractor, con-
struction manager, etc.). The documents that are released must be labeled with the
EOR’s purpose and date of issuance.
A5. APPROVALS
The engineer of record (EOR) or registered design professional in responsible
charge, as applicable, shall require submission of approval documents and shall
review and approve, reject, or provide review comments on the approval documents.
CHAPTER B
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
This chapter addresses general requirements for the design of steel structures applicable to
all chapters and appendices of this Specification.
The chapter is organized as follows:
B1. General Provisions
B2. Loads and Load Combinations
B3. Design Basis
B4. Member Properties
B5. Fabrication and Erection
B6. Quality Control and Quality Assurance
B7. Evaluation of Existing Structures
B8. Dimensional Tolerances
User Note: When using ASCE/SEI 7 for design according to Section B3.1
(LRFD), the load combinations in ASCE/SEI 7, Section 2.3, apply. For design,
according to Section B3.2 (ASD), the load combinations in ASCE/SEI 7, Section
2.4, apply.
User Note: The term “design,” as used in this Specification, is defined in the
Glossary.
1. Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Design according to the provisions for load and resistance factor design (LRFD)
satisfies the requirements of this Specification when the design strength of each
structural component equals or exceeds the required strength determined on the basis
of the LRFD load combinations. All provisions of this Specification, except for those
in Section B3.2, shall apply.
Design shall be performed in accordance with Equation B3-1:
Ru ≤ φRn (B3-1)
where
Ru = required strength using LRFD load combinations
Rn = nominal strength
φ = resistance factor
φRn = design strength
The nominal strength, Rn, and the resistance factor, φ, for the applicable limit states
are specified in Chapters D through K.
The nominal strength, Rn, and the safety factor, Ω, for the applicable limit states are
specified in Chapters D through K.
3. Required Strength
The required strength of structural members and connections shall be determined by
structural analysis for the applicable load combinations, as stipulated in Section B2.
Design by elastic or inelastic analysis is permitted. Requirements for analysis are
stipulated in Chapter C and Appendix 1.
The nominal strength and resistance or safety factors for the applicable limit states
are specified in Chapters D through K.
one or more compression elements exceeds λp , but does not exceed λr from Table
B4.1b, the section is noncompact. If the width-to-thickness ratio of any compression
element exceeds λr , the section is a slender-element section.
For cases where the web and flange are not continuously attached, consideration of
element slenderness shall account for the unattached length of the elements and the
appropriate plate buckling boundary conditions.
User Note: The Commentary discusses element slenderness when the web and
flange are not continuously attached.
User Note: Refer to Table B4.1 for the graphic representation of unstiffened ele-
ment dimensions.
TABLE B4.1a
Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements
Members Subjected to Axial Compression
Limiting
Width-to-
Case
4 Stems of tees E
dt 0. 75
Fy
9 Round HSS
E
Dt 0. 11
Fy
TABLE B4.1b
Width-to-Thickness Ratios: Compression Elements
Members Subjected to Flexure
Limiting
Width-to-Thickness
Ratio
Case
λp λr
Width-to- (compact/ (non-
Description of Thickness noncom- compact/
Element Ratio pact) slender) Examples
10 (1) F langes of
rolled I-shaped
sections E E
bt 0. 38 1. 0
(2) Flanges of Fy Fy
channels
(3) Flanges of tees
11 Flanges of doubly [a] [b]
and singly
symmetric E kc E
bt 0. 95
Unstiffened Elements
0. 38
I-shaped built-up Fy FL
sections
12 Legs of single
angles E E
bt 0. 54 0. 91
Fy Fy
13 Flanges of all
I-shaped sections E E
and channels in bt 0. 38 1. 0
flexure about the Fy Fy
minor axis
14 Stems of tees
E E
dt 0. 84 1. 52
Fy Fy
(d) For flanges of rectangular hollow structural sections (HSS), the width, b, is the
clear distance between webs less the inside corner radius on each side. For webs
of rectangular HSS, h is the clear distance between the flanges less the inside
corner radius on each side. If the corner radius is not known, b and h shall be
taken as the corresponding outside dimension minus three times the thickness.
The thickness, t, shall be taken as the design wall thickness, per Section B4.2.
(e) For flanges or webs of box sections and other stiffened elements, the width, b, is
the clear distance between the elements providing stiffening.
(f) For perforated cover plates, b is the transverse distance between the nearest line
of fasteners, and the net area of the plate is taken at the widest hole.
(g) For round hollow structural sections (HSS), the width shall be taken as the out-
side diameter, D, and the thickness, t, shall be taken as the design wall thickness,
as defined in Section B4.2.
λr
Width-to- λp (non-
Description Thickness (compact/ compact/
of Element Ratio noncompact) slender) Examples
15 Webs of
doubly
symmetric E E
h tw 3. 76 5. 70
I-shaped Fy Fy
sections and
channels
[c]
16 Webs of singly
symmetric
I-shaped
hc E
sections hp Fy
E
hc tw 2 5. 70
Mp Fy
0. 54 − 0 .09
My
≤ λr
17 Flanges of
Stiffened Elements
rectangular E E
HSS bt 1. 12 1. 40
Fy Fy
18 Flange cover
plates between
lines of
E E
bt 1. 12 1. 40
fasteners or Fy Fy
welds
19 Webs of
rectangular E E
ht 2. 42 5. 70
HSS and box Fy Fy
sections
20 Round HSS
E E
Dt 0. 07 0. 31
Fy Fy
21 Flanges of box
sections E E
bt 1. 12 1. 49
Fy Fy
[a]
h tw but shall not be taken as less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for calculation purposes.
kc = 4
[b]F = 0.7 Fy for slender web I-shaped members and major-axis bending of compact and noncompact web
L
built-up I-shaped members with Sxt Sxc ≥ 0.7; and FL = Fy Sx t Sxc ≥ 0.5Fy for major-axis bending of
compact and noncompact web built-up I-shaped members with Sxt Sxc < 0.7 , where Sxc , Sxt = elastic
section modulus referred to compression and tension flanges, respectively, in.3 (mm3)
[c]M is the moment at yielding of the extreme fiber, kip-in. (N-mm);
y Mp = Fy Z x, plastic moment, kip-in.
(N-mm), where Zx = plastic section modulus taken about the x-axis, in.3 (mm3)
ENA = elastic neutral axis
PNA = plastic neutral axis
User Note: Refer to Table B4.1 for the graphic representation of stiffened ele-
ment dimensions.
For tapered flanges of rolled sections, the thickness is the nominal value halfway
between the free edge and the corresponding face of the web.
User Note: A pipe can be designed using the provisions of this Specification for
round HSS as long as the pipe conforms to ASTM A53/A53M Grade B and the
appropriate limitations of this Specification are used.
In determining the net area across plug or slot welds, the weld metal shall not be
considered as adding to the net area.
For members without holes, the net area, An , is equal to the gross area, Ag .
User Note: Code of Standard Practice Section 4 addresses requirements for fab-
rication and erection documents and Section 4.4 addresses the approval process
for approval documents.
CHAPTER C
DESIGN FOR STABILITY
This chapter addresses requirements for the design of structures for stability. The direct
analysis method is presented herein.
The chapter is organized as follows:
C1. General Stability Requirements
C2. Calculation of Required Strengths
C3. Calculation of Available Strengths
User Note: Alternative methods for the design of structures for stability are provided in
Appendices 1 and 7. Appendix 1 provides alternatives that allow consideration of mem-
ber imperfections and/or inelasticity directly within the analysis and provides for a more
detailed evaluation of the limit states. Appendix 7 provides the effective length method
and a first-order elastic method.
User Note: See Commentary Section C1 and Table C-C1.1 for an explanation of
how requirements (a) through (e) of Section C1 are satisfied in the methods of
design listed in Sections C1.1 and C1.2.
User Note: A P-Δ-only second-order analysis (one that neglects the effects
of P-δ on the response of the structure) is permitted under the conditions
listed. In this case, the requirement for considering P-δ effects in the evalu-
ation of individual members can be satisfied by applying the B1 multiplier
defined in Appendix 8, Section 8.1.2, to the required flexural strength of the
member.
User Note: It is important to include in the analysis all gravity loads, includ-
ing loads on leaning columns and other elements that are not part of the
lateral force-resisting system.
(d) For design by LRFD, the second-order analysis shall be carried out under LRFD
load combinations. For design by ASD, the second-order analysis shall be car-
ried out under 1.6 times the ASD load combinations, and the results shall be
divided by 1.6 to obtain the required strengths of components.
In the analysis of structures that support gravity loads primarily through nominally
vertical columns, walls, or frames, where the ratio of maximum second-order story
drift to maximum first-order story drift (both determined for LRFD load combina-
tions or 1.6 times ASD load combinations, with stiffnesses adjusted as specified in
Section C2.3) in all stories is equal to or less than 1.7, it is permissible to include
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
initial system imperfections in the analysis for gravity-only load combinations and
not in the analysis for load combinations that include applied lateral loads.
User Note: In general, the notional load concept is applicable to all types of
structures and to imperfections in the positions of both points of intersection of
members and points along members, but the specific requirements in Sections
C2.2b(a) through C2.2b(d) are applicable only for the particular class of structure
and type of system imperfection identified here.
(a) Notional loads shall be applied as lateral loads at all levels. The notional loads
shall be additive to other lateral loads and shall be applied in all load combina-
tions, except as indicated in Section C2.2b(d). The magnitude of the notional
loads shall be
Ni = 0.002αYi (C2-1)
where
α = 1.0 (LRFD); α = 1.6 (ASD)
Ni = notional load applied at level i, kips (N)
Yi = gravity load applied at level i from the LRFD load combination or ASD
load combination, as applicable, kips (N)
User Note: The use of notional loads can lead to additional (generally small)
fictitious base shears in the structure. The correct horizontal reactions at the
foundation may be obtained by applying an additional horizontal force at the
base of the structure, equal and opposite in direction to the sum of all notional
loads, distributed among vertical load-carrying elements in the same propor-
tion as the gravity load supported by those elements. The notional loads can
also lead to additional overturning effects, which are not fictitious.
(b) The notional load at any level, Ni , shall be distributed over that level in the same
manner as the gravity load at the level. The notional loads shall be applied in the
direction that provides the greatest destabilizing effect.
User Note: For most building structures, the requirement regarding notional
load direction may be satisfied as follows: for load combinations that do not
include lateral loading, consider two alternative orthogonal directions of
notional load application, in a positive and a negative sense in each of the
two directions, in the same direction at all levels; for load combinations that
include lateral loading, apply all notional loads in the direction of the resul-
tant of all lateral loads in the combination.
(c) The notional load coefficient of 0.002 in Equation C2-1 is based on a nominal
initial story out-of-plumbness ratio of 1/500; where the use of a different maxi-
mum out-of-plumbness is justified, it is permissible to adjust the notional load
coefficient proportionally.
(d) For structures in which the ratio of maximum second-order drift to maximum
first-order drift (both determined for LRFD load combinations or 1.6 times ASD
load combinations, with stiffnesses adjusted as specified in Section C2.3) in all
stories is equal to or less than 1.7, it is permissible to apply the notional load,
Ni, only in gravity-only load combinations and not in combinations that include
other lateral loads.
3. Adjustments to Stiffness
The analysis of the structure to determine the required strengths of components shall
use reduced stiffnesses, as follows:
(a) A factor of 0.80 shall be applied to all stiffnesses that are considered to contrib-
ute to the stability of the structure. It is permissible to apply this reduction factor
to all stiffnesses in the structure.
User Note: Applying the stiffness reduction to some members and not others
can, in some cases, result in artificial distortion of the structure under load and
possible unintended redistribution of forces. This can be avoided by applying
the reduction to all members, including those that do not contribute to the
stability of the structure.
(b) An additional factor, the stiffness reduction parameter, τb, shall be applied to the
flexural stiffnesses of all members whose flexural stiffnesses are considered to
contribute to the stability of the structure. For noncomposite members, τb shall
be defined as follows (see Section I1.5 for the definition of τb for composite
members):
User Note: Taken together, Sections (a) and (b) require the use of 0.8τb times
the nominal elastic flexural stiffness and 0.8 times other nominal elastic stiff-
nesses for structural steel members in the analysis.
(c) In structures to which Section C2.2b is applicable, in lieu of using τb < 1.0, where
αPr Pns > 0.5, it is permissible to use τb = 1.0 for all noncomposite members if a
notional load of 0.001αYi [where Yi is as defined in Section C2.2b(a)] is applied
at all levels, in the direction specified in Section C2.2b(b), in all load combina-
tions. These notional loads shall be added to those, if any, used to account for
the effects of initial imperfections in the position of points of intersection of
members and shall not be subject to the provisions of Section C2.2b(d).
(d) Where components composed of materials other than structural steel are consid-
ered to contribute to the stability of the structure, and the governing codes and
specifications for the other materials require greater reductions in stiffness, such
greater stiffness reductions shall be applied to those components.
CHAPTER D
DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR TENSION
User Note: For cases not included in this chapter, the following sections apply:
• B3.11 Members subjected to fatigue
• Chapter H Members subjected to combined axial tension and flexure
• J3 Threaded rods
• J4.1 Connecting elements in tension
• J4.3 Block shear rupture strength at end connections of tension members
User Note: For members designed on the basis of tension, the slenderness ratio of
the member as fabricated—taken as the fabricated length of the member divided
by the least radius of gyration of the section—preferably should not exceed 300.
This suggestion does not apply to rods.
TABLE D3.1
Shear Lag Factors for Connections
to Tension Members
Case Description of Element Shear Lag Factor, U Examples
1 All tension members where the tension
load is transmitted directly to each of the
U = 1.0 –
cross-sectional elements by fasteners or
welds (except as in Cases 4, 5, and 6).
x
2b2 + tH − 2t2
x = b−
2H + 4 b − 4t
x
U = 1−
l
B = overall width of rectangular HSS member, measured 90° to the plane of the connection, in. (mm);
D = outside diameter of round HSS, in. (mm); H = overall height of rectangular HSS member, measured in the
plane of the connection, in. (mm); d = depth of section, in. (mm); for tees, d = depth of the section from which
the tee was cut, in. (mm); l = length of connection, in. (mm); w = width of plate, in. (mm); x = eccentricity of
connection, in. (mm).
[a] l1 + l2
l= , where l1 and l2 shall not be less than 4 times the weld size.
2
1. Tensile Strength
The design tensile strength, φt Pn , and the allowable tensile strength, Pn Ωt , of pin-
connected members, shall be the lower value determined according to the limit states
of tensile rupture, shear rupture, bearing, and yielding.
(a) For tensile rupture
Pn = Fu (2tbe ) (D5-1)
φt = 0.75 (LRFD) Wt = 2.00 (ASD)
2. Dimensional Requirements
Pin-connected members shall meet the following requirements:
(a) The pin hole shall be located midway between the edges of the member in the
direction normal to the applied force.
(b) When the pin is expected to provide for relative movement between connected
parts while under full load, the diameter of the pin hole shall not be more
than 32 in. (1 mm) greater than the diameter of the pin for pins less than 3 in.
(75 mm) in diameter and not more than z in. (2 mm) greater than the diameter
of the pin for pins of 3 in. (75 mm) in diameter or greater.
(c) The width of the plate at the pin hole shall not be less than 2be + d and the mini-
mum extension, a, beyond the bearing end of the pin hole, parallel to the axis of
the member, shall not be less than 1.33be.
(d) The corners beyond the pin hole are permitted to be cut at 45° to the axis of the
member, provided the net area beyond the pin hole, on a plane perpendicular to
the cut, is not less than that required beyond the pin hole parallel to the axis of
the member.
D6. EYEBARS
1. Tensile Strength
The available tensile strength of eyebars shall be determined in accordance with
Section D2, with Ag taken as the gross area of the eyebar body.
For calculation purposes, the width of the body of the eyebar shall not exceed eight
times its thickness.
2. Dimensional Requirements
Eyebars shall meet the following requirements:
(a) Eyebars shall be of uniform thickness, without reinforcement at the pin holes,
and have circular heads with the periphery concentric with the pin hole.
(b) The radius of transition between the circular head and the eyebar body shall not
be less than the head diameter.
(c) The pin diameter shall not be less than seven-eighths times the eyebar body
width, and the pin-hole diameter shall not be more than 32 in. (1 mm) greater
than the pin diameter.
(d) For steels having Fy greater than 70 ksi (485 MPa), the hole diameter shall not
exceed five times the plate thickness, and the width of the eyebar body shall be
reduced accordingly.
(e) A thickness of less than 2 in. (13 mm) is permissible only if external nuts are
provided to tighten pin plates and filler plates into snug contact.
(f) The width from the hole edge to the plate edge perpendicular to the direction of
applied load shall be greater than two-thirds and, for the purpose of calculation,
not more than three-fourths times the eyebar body width.
CHAPTER E
DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMPRESSION
User Note: For cases not included in this chapter, the following sections apply:
• H1–H2 Members subjected to combined axial compression and flexure
• H3 Members subjected to axial compression and torsion
• I2 Composite axially loaded members
• J4.4 Compressive strength of connecting elements
E3 FB E7 LB
E4 TB FB
TB
E3 FB E7 LB
E4 FTB FB
FTB
E3 FB E7 LB
FB
E3 FB E7 LB
FB
E3 FB E7 LB
E4 FTB FB
FTB
E6 E6
E3 FB E7 LB
E4 FTB FB
FTB
E3 FB E5
E4 FTB E7 LB
E5 FB
E3 FB NA NA
User Note: For members designed on the basis of compression, the effective
slenderness ratio, L c r , preferably should not exceed 200. Furthermore, the slen-
derness ratio of the member as fabricated—taken as the fabricated length of the
member divided by the least radius of gyration of the section—preferably should
not exceed 300.
User Note: The effective length, Lc, may be determined using an effective length
factor, K, or a buckling analysis.
User Note: When the torsional effective length is larger than the lateral effective
length, Section E4 may control.
The nominal compressive strength, Pn , shall be determined based on the limit state
of flexural buckling:
Pn = Fn Ag (E3-1)
Fy
Lc E
(a) When (or ≤ 2.25)
≤ 4.71
rFe Fy
Fy
Fn = 0.658 Fe Fy
(E3-2)
Lc E Fy
(b) When > 4.71 (or > 2.25)
r Fy Fe
Fn = 0.877 Fe (E3-3)
where
Ag = gross area of member, in.2 (mm2)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel, ksi (MPa)
= 29,000 ksi (200 000 MPa)
Fe = elastic buckling stress determined according to Equation E3-4; or as specified
in Appendix 7, Section 7.2.3(b); or through an elastic buckling analysis, as
applicable, ksi (MPa)
π2 E
= 2 (E3-4)
Lc
r
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, ksi (MPa)
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
User Note: The two inequalities for calculating the limits of applicability of
Sections E3(a) and E3(b), one based on L c r and one based on Fy Fe , provide
the same result for flexural buckling.
Pn = Fn Ag (E4-1)
The nominal stress, Fn , shall be determined according to Equation E3-2 or E3-3,
using the torsional or flexural-torsional elastic buckling stress, Fe , determined as
follows:
(a) For doubly symmetric members twisting about the shear center
π 2 ECw 1
Fe = 2
+ GJ (E4-2)
czL Ix + Iy
(b) For singly symmetric members twisting about the shear center where y is the axis
of symmetry
Fey + Fez 4 Fey Fez H
Fe = 1 − 1 − (E4-3)
2H ( Fey + Fez )2
User Note: For singly symmetric members with the x-axis as the axis of sym-
metry, such as channels, Equation E4-3 is applicable with Fey replaced by Fex.
(c) For unsymmetric members twisting about the shear center, Fe is the lowest root
of the cubic equation
2 2
xo y
( Fe − Fex ) ( Fe − Fey ) ( Fe − Fez ) − Fe2 ( Fe − Fey ) − Fe2 ( Fe − Fex ) o = 0
ro ro
(E4-4)
where
Cw = warping constant, in.6 (mm6)
π2 E
Fex = 2
(E4-5)
L cx
rx
π2 E
Fey = 2
(E4-6)
L cy
ry
π 2 ECw 1
Fez = 2
+ GJ (E4-7)
L cz Ag ro2
G = shear modulus of elasticity of steel
= 11,200 ksi (77 200 MPa)
H = flexural constant
x2 + y 2
= 1− o 2 o (E4-8)
ro
Ix, Iy 4
= moment of inertia about the principal axes, in. (mm ) 4
(d) For doubly symmetric I-shaped members with minor-axis lateral bracing offset
from the shear center
π 2 EIy h2 1
Fe = 2 o + ya2 + GJ 2
(E4-10)
L cz 4 Ag ro
where
ho = distance between flange centroids, in. (mm)
ro2 = rx2 + ry2 + ya2 + xa2 (E4-11)
xa = bracing offset distance along x-axis = 0
ya = bracing offset distance along y-axis, in. (mm)
(e) For doubly symmetric I-shaped members with major-axis lateral bracing offset
from the shear center
π 2 EIy ho2 I x 2 1
Fe = 2 + xa + GJ 2
(E4-12)
L cz 4 Iy Ag ro
where
ro2 = rx2 + ry2 + ya2 + xa2 (E4-11)
xa = bracing offset distance along x-axis, in. (mm)
ya = bracing offset distance along y-axis = 0
(f) For all other members with lateral bracing offset from the shear center, the elas-
tic buckling stress, Fe , shall be determined by analysis.
User Note: Bracing offset from the shear center is often referred to as con-
strained-axis torsional buckling and is discussed further in the Commentary.
Members that buckle in this mode will exhibit twisting because the braces
restrain only lateral movement.
(1) Members are loaded at the ends in compression through the same one leg.
(2) Members are attached by welding or by connections with a minimum of two
bolts.
(3) There are no intermediate transverse loads.
(4) L c r as determined in this section does not exceed 200.
(5) For unequal leg angles, the ratio of long leg width to short leg width is less than
1.7.
Single-angle members that do not meet these requirements or the requirements
described in Section E5(a) or (b) shall be evaluated for combined axial load and
flexure using the provisions of Chapter H.
(a) For angles that are individual members or are web members of planar trusses
with adjacent web members attached to the same side of the gusset plate or chord
(1) For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg
L
(i) When ≤ 80
ra
Lc L
= 72 + 0.75 (E5-1)
r ra
L
(ii) When > 80
ra
Lc L
= 32 + 1.25 (E5-2)
r ra
(2) For unequal-leg angles connected through the shorter leg, L c r from Equa-
tions E5-1 and E5-2 shall be increased by adding 4 (bl bs )2 – 1 , but L c r
of the members shall not be taken as less than 0.95L rz .
(b) For angles that are web members of box or space trusses with adjacent web
members attached to the same side of the gusset plate or chord
(1) For equal-leg angles or unequal-leg angles connected through the longer leg
L
(i) When ≤ 75
ra
Lc L
= 60 + 0.8 (E5-3)
r ra
L
(ii) When > 75
ra
Lc L
= 45 + (E5-4)
r ra
(2) For unequal-leg angles with leg length ratios less than 1.7 and connected
through the shorter leg, L c r from Equations E5-3 and E5-4 shall be in-
creased by adding 6 (bl bs )2 – 1 , but L c r of the member shall not be taken
as less than 0.82 L rz .
where
L = length of member between work points at truss chord centerlines, in. (mm)
Lc = effective length of the member for buckling about the minor axis, in. (mm)
bl = length of longer leg of angle, in. (mm)
bs = length of shorter leg of angle, in. (mm)
ra = radius of gyration about the geometric axis parallel to the connected leg,
in. (mm)
rz = radius of gyration about the minor principal axis, in. (mm)
1. Compressive Strength
This section applies to built-up members composed of two shapes either (a) inter-
connected by bolts or welds or (b) with at least one open side interconnected by
perforated cover plates or lacing with tie plates. The end connection shall be welded
or connected by means of pretensioned bolts with Class A or B faying surfaces.
The nominal compressive strength of built-up members composed of two shapes that
are interconnected by bolts or welds shall be determined in accordance with Sections
E3, E4, or E7, subject to the following modification. In lieu of more accurate analy-
sis, if the buckling mode involves relative deformations that produce shear forces in
the connectors between individual shapes, L c r is replaced by ( L c r )m , determined
as follows:
(a) For intermediate connectors that are bolted snug-tight
2 2
Lc Lc a
= + (E6-1)
r
m o ri
r
(b) For intermediate connectors that are welded or are connected by means of pre-
tensioned bolts with Class A or B faying surfaces
a
(1) When ≤ 40
ri
Lc Lc
= (E6-2a)
r m r o
a
(2) When > 40
ri
2 2
Lc Lc Ki a
= + (E6-2b)
r
m r
o ri
where
L c = modified slenderness ratio of built-up member
r m
L c = slenderness ratio of built-up member acting as a unit in the buckling
r o direction being addressed
Lc = effective length of built-up member, in. (mm)
Ki = 0.50 for angles back-to-back
= 0.75 for channels back-to-back
= 0.86 for all other cases
a = distance between connectors, in. (mm)
ri = minimum radius of gyration of individual component, in. (mm)
2. General Requirements
Built-up members shall meet the following requirements:
(a) Individual components of compression members composed of two or more
shapes shall be connected to one another at intervals, a, such that the slender-
ness ratio, a ri , of each of the component shapes between the fasteners does
not exceed three-fourths times the governing slenderness ratio of the built-up
member. The minimum radius of gyration, ri , shall be used in computing the
slenderness ratio of each component part.
(b) At the ends of built-up compression members bearing on base plates or finished
surfaces, all components in contact with one another shall be connected by a
weld having a length not less than the maximum width of the member or by bolts
spaced longitudinally not more than four diameters apart for a distance equal to
12 times the maximum width of the member.
Along the length of built-up compression members between the end connections
required in the foregoing, longitudinal spacing of intermittent welds or bolts shall
be adequate to provide the required strength. For limitations on the longitu-
dinal spacing of fasteners between elements in continuous contact consisting
of a plate and a shape, or two plates, see Section J3.6. Where a component of a
built-up compression member consists of an outside plate, the maximum spac-
ing shall not exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 0.75 E / Fy ,
nor 12 in. (300 mm), when intermittent welds are provided along the edges of
the components or when fasteners are provided on all gage lines at each section.
When fasteners are staggered, the maximum spacing of fasteners on each gage
line shall not exceed the thickness of the thinner outside plate times 1.12 E / Fy ,
nor 18 in. (450 mm).
(c) Open sides of compression members built up from plates or shapes shall be
provided with continuous cover plates perforated with a succession of access
openings. The unsupported width of such plates at access openings, as defined
in Section B4.1, is assumed to contribute to the available strength provided the
following requirements are met:
(1) The width-to-thickness ratio shall conform to the limitations of Section
B4.1.
(2) The ratio of length (in direction of stress) to width of hole shall not ex-
ceed 2.
(3) The clear distance between holes in the direction of stress shall be not less
than the transverse distance between nearest lines of connecting fasteners or
welds.
(4) The periphery of the holes at all points shall have a minimum radius of
12 in. (38 mm).
(d) As an alternative to perforated cover plates, lacing with tie plates is permitted at
each end and at intermediate points if the lacing is interrupted. Tie plates shall
be as near the ends as practicable. In members providing available strength, the
end tie plates shall have a length of not less than the distance between the lines of
fasteners or welds connecting them to the components of the member.
Intermediate tie plates shall have a length not less than one-half of this distance.
The thickness of tie plates shall be not less than one-fiftieth of the distance
between lines of welds or fasteners connecting them to the segments of the mem-
bers. In welded construction, the welding on each line connecting a tie plate shall
total not less than one-third the length of the plate. In bolted construction, the
spacing in the direction of stress in tie plates shall be not more than six diameters
and the tie plates shall be connected to each segment by at least three fasteners.
(e) Lacing, including flat bars, angles, channels, or other shapes employed as lacing,
shall be so spaced that L r of the flange element included between their con-
nections shall not exceed three-fourths times the governing slenderness ratio
for the member as a whole. Lacing shall be proportioned to provide a shearing
strength normal to the axis of the member equal to 2% of the available compres-
sive strength of the member. For lacing bars arranged in single systems, L r
shall not exceed 140. For double lacing, this ratio shall not exceed 200. Double
lacing bars shall be joined at the intersections. For lacing bars in compression,
L is permitted to be taken as the unsupported length of the lacing bar between
welds or fasteners connecting it to the components of the built-up member for
single lacing, and 70% of that distance for double lacing.
User Note: The inclination of lacing bars to the axis of the member shall pref-
erably be not less than 60º for single lacing and 45° for double lacing. When
the distance between the lines of welds or fasteners in the flanges is more than
15 in. (380 mm), the lacing should preferably be double or made of angles.
User Note: The effective area, Ae, may be determined by deducting from the gross
area, Ag, the reduction in area of each slender element determined as (b – be ) t .
Fy
(b) When λ > λ r
Fn
F Fel
be = b 1 − c1 el (E7-3)
Fn Fn
where
b = width of the element (for tees this is d; for webs this is h), in. (mm)
c1 = effective width imperfection adjustment factor determined from Table E7.1
1 − 1 − 4c1
c2 = (E7-4)
2c1
TABLE E7.1
Effective Width Imperfection Adjustment Factors,
c1 and c2
Case Slender Element c1 c2
(a) Stiffened elements except walls of square and rectangular HSS 0.18 1.31
2. Round HSS
The effective area, Ae, is determined as follows:
D E
(a) When ≤ 0.11
t Fy
Ae = Ag (E7-6)
E D E
(b) When 0.11 < < 0.45
Fy t Fy
0.038 E 2
Ae = + Ag (E7-7)
Fy ( D / t ) 3
where
D = outside diameter of round HSS, in. (mm)
t = thickness of wall, in. (mm)
CHAPTER F
DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR FLEXURE
This chapter applies to members subjected to simple bending about one principal axis. For
simple bending, the member is loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that passes
through the shear center or is restrained against twisting at load points and supports.
The chapter is organized as follows:
F1. General Provisions
F2. Doubly Symmetric Compact I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent About
Their Major Axis
F3. Doubly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Compact Webs and Noncompact
or Slender Flanges Bent About Their Major Axis
F4. Other I-Shaped Members with Compact or Noncompact Webs Bent About
Their Major Axis
F5. Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric I-Shaped Members with Slender
Webs Bent About Their Major Axis
F6. I-Shaped Members and Channels Bent About Their Minor Axis
F7. Square and Rectangular HSS and Box Sections
F8. Round HSS
F9. Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of Symmetry
F10. Single Angles
F11. Rectangular Bars and Rounds
F12. Unsymmetrical Shapes
F13. Proportions of Beams and Girders
User Note: For cases not included in this chapter, the following sections apply:
• Chapter G Design provisions for shear
• H1–H3 Members subjected to biaxial flexure or to combined flexure and axial
force
• H3 Members subjected to flexure and torsion
• Appendix 3 Members subjected to fatigue
For guidance in determining the appropriate sections of this chapter to apply, Table User
Note F1.1 may be used.
F2 C C Y, LTB
CFY, LTB,
F4 C, NC, S C, NC
FLB, TFY
CFY, LTB,
F5 C, NC, S S
FLB, TFY
F6 C, NC, S NA Y, FLB
Y, FLB, WLB,
F7 C, NC, S C, NC, S
LTB
F8 NA NA Y, LB
Y, LTB, FLB,
F9 C, NC, S NA
WLB
F11 NA NA Y, LTB
For cantilevers where warping is prevented at the support and where the free end
is unbraced, Cb = 1.0.
(d) In singly symmetric members subjected to reverse curvature bending, the lateral-
torsional buckling strength shall be checked for both flanges. The available
flexural strength shall be greater than or equal to the maximum required moment
causing compression within the flange under consideration.
User Note: For Fy = 50 ksi (345 MPa), all current ASTM A6/A6M W, S, M,
C, and MC shapes except W21×48, W14×99, W14×90, W12×65, W10×12,
W8×31, W8×10, W6×15, W6×9, W6×8.5, and M4×6 have compact flanges.
For Fy ≤ 70 ksi (485 MPa), all current ASTM A6/A6M W, S, M, HP, C, and MC
shapes have compact webs.
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value obtained according to the
limit states of yielding (plastic moment) and lateral-torsional buckling.
1. Yielding
Mn = Mp = Fy Zx (F2-1)
where
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, ksi (MPa)
Zx = plastic section modulus about the x-axis, in.3 (mm3)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(a) When Lb ≤ Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(b) When Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
Lb − Lp
Mn = Cb Mp − ( Mp − 0.7 Fy Sx ) ≤ Mp (F2-2)
Lr − L p
User Note: The square root term in Equation F2-4 may be conservatively
taken as equal to 1.0.
User Note: Equations F2-3 and F2-4 provide identical solutions to the
following expression for lateral-torsional buckling of doubly symmetric
members that has been presented in past editions of this Specification:
2
π πE
Mcr = Cb EIy GJ + I yC w
Lb Lb
The advantage of Equations F2-3 and F2-4 is that the form is very similar
to the expression for lateral-torsional buckling of singly symmetric I-shaped
members given in Equations F4-3 and F4-5.
Lp , the limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of yielding, in. (mm),
is
E
L p = 1.76 ry (F2-5)
Fy
Lr, the limiting unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic lateral-torsional
buckling, in. (mm), is
2 2
E Jc Jc 0.7 Fy
Lr = 1.95rts + + 6.76 (F2-6)
0.7 Fy Sx ho Sx ho E
where
ry = radius of gyration about y-axis, in. (mm)
I y Cw
rts2 = (F2-7)
Sx
and the coefficient c is determined as follows:
(1) For doubly symmetric I-shapes
c=1 (F2-8a)
(2) For channels
ho Iy
c= (F2-8b)
2 Cw
where
Iy = moment of inertia about the y-axis, in.4 (mm4)
User Note:
Iy ho2
For doubly symmetric I-shapes with rectangular flanges, Cw = , and,
thus, Equation F2-7 becomes 4
Iy ho
rts2 =
2 Sx
rts may be approximated accurately to conservatively as the radius of gyration
of the compression flange plus one-sixth of the web:
bf
rts =
1 htw
12 1 +
6 bf t f
User Note: The following shapes have noncompact flanges for Fy = 50 ksi (345
MPa): W21×48, W14×99, W14×90, W12×65, W10×12, W8×31, W8×10,
W6×15, W6×9, W6×8.5, and M4×6. All other ASTM A6/A6M W, S, and M
shapes have compact flanges for Fy ≤ 50 ksi (345 MPa).
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be the lower value obtained according to
the limit states of lateral-torsional buckling and compression flange local buckling.
1. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
For lateral-torsional buckling, the provisions of Section F2.2 shall apply.
λ − λ pf
Mn = M p − ( Mp − 0.7 Fy Sx ) (F3-1)
λrf − λ pf
(b) For sections with slender flanges
0.9 Ekc S x
Mn = (F3-2)
λ2
where
4
kc = and shall not be taken as less than 0.35 nor greater than 0.76 for
h tw
calculation purposes
h = distance as defined in Section B4.1b, in. (mm)
tw = thickness of the web, in. (mm)
bf
λ =
2t f
bf = width of the flange, in. (mm)
tf = thickness of the flange, in. (mm)
λpf = λp , the limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a compact flange as defined in
Table B4.1b
λrf = λr , the limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a noncompact flange as defined
in Table B4.1b
User Note: I-shaped members for which this section is applicable may be de-
signed conservatively using Section F5.
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value obtained according to
the limit states of compression flange yielding, lateral-torsional buckling, compres-
sion flange local buckling, and tension flange yielding.
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(a) When Lb ≤ Lp , the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(b) When Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
Lb − Lp
Mn = Cb R pc Myc − ( Rpc Myc − FL S xc ) ≤ Rpc Myc (F4-2)
L r − Lp
where
Iyc = moment of inertia of the compression flange about the y-axis, in.4
(mm4)
(3)
FL, nominal compression flange stress above which the inelastic buckling
limit states apply, ksi (MPa), is determined as follows:
Sxt
(i) When ≥ 0.7
Sxc
FL = 0.7Fy (F4-6a)
S xt
(ii) When < 0.7
S xc
S xt
FL = Fy ≥ 0.5Fy (F4-6b)
S xc
where
Sxt = elastic section modulus referred to tension flange, in.3 (mm3)
(4)
Lp , the limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of yielding, in.
(mm), is
E
Lp = 1.1rt (F4-7)
Fy
(5)
Lr , the limiting unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic lateral-
torsional buckling, in. (mm), is
2 2
E J J FL
L r = 1.95rt + + 6.76 (F4-8)
FL S xc ho S h
xc o E
hc
(b) When > λ pw
tw
Mp Mp λ − λ pw M p
R pc = − − 1 ≤ (F4-9b)
M yc M yc λ rw − λ pw M yc
where
hctw
aw = (F4-12)
bfc t fc
bfc = width of compression flange, in. (mm)
tfc = thickness of compression flange, in. (mm)
tw = thickness of web, in. (mm)
(ii) For I-shapes with a channel cap or a cover plate attached to the compres-
sion flange
rt = radius of gyration of the flange components in flexural compression
plus one-third of the web area in compression due to application of
major-axis bending moment alone, in. (mm)
Mp Mp λ − λ pw M p
R pt = − − 1 ≤ (F4-16b)
M yt M yt λ rw − λ pw M yt
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Mn = RpgFcrSxc (F5-2)
(a) When Lb ≤ Lp , the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(b) When Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
Lb − Lp
Fcr = Cb Fy − (0.3Fy ) ≤ Fy (F5-3)
L r − L p
1. Yielding
Mn = M
p = FyZy ≤ 1.6Fy Sy (F6-1)
where
Sy = elastic section modulus taken about the y-axis, in.3 (mm3)
Zy = plastic section modulus taken about the y-axis, in.3 (mm3)
User Note: For Fy = 50 ksi (345 MPa), all current ASTM A6/A6M W,
S, M, C, and MC shapes except W21×48, W14×99, W14×90, W12×65,
W10×12, W8×31, W8×10, W6×15, W6×9, W6×8.5, and M4×6 have
compact flanges.
1. Yielding
Mn = M
p = Fy Z (F7-1)
where
Z = plastic section modulus about the axis of bending, in.3 (mm3)
where
h
λ =
tw
h = depth of web, as defined in Section B4.1b, in. (mm)
tw = thickness of the web, in. (mm)
λpw = λp, the limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a compact web as defined
in Table B4.1b
λrw = λr, the limiting width-to-thickness ratio for a noncompact web as de-
fined in Table B4.1b
(c) For sections with slender webs and compact or noncompact flanges
Mn = RpgFyS (F7-7)
where
Rpg is defined by Equation F5-6 with aw = 2htw (bt f )
User Note: Box sections with slender webs and slender flanges are not ad-
dressed in this Specification.
4. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
(a) When Lb ≤ Lp, the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling does not apply.
(b) When Lp < Lb ≤ Lr
Lb − Lp
M n = Cb Mp − ( Mp − 0.7 Fy Sx ) ≤ Mp (F7-8)
L r − L p
JAg
M n = 2 ECb ≤ Mp (F7-9)
L b ry
where
Ag = gross area of member, in.2 (mm2)
Lp, the limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of yielding, in. (mm), is
JA g
L p = 0.13Ery (F7-10)
Mp
Lr , the limiting laterally unbraced length for the limit state of inelastic lateral-
torsional buckling, in. (mm), is
JA g
L r = 2 Ery (F7-11)
0.7 Fy Sx
User Note: Lateral-torsional buckling will not occur in square sections or sec-
tions bending about their minor axis. In HSS sizes, deflection will usually control
before there is a significant reduction in flexural strength due to lateral-torsional
buckling. The same is true for box sections, and lateral-torsional buckling will
usually only be a consideration for sections with high depth-to-width ratios.
1. Yielding
Mn = M
p = Fy Z (F8-1)
2. Local Buckling
(a) For compact sections, the limit state of flange local buckling does not apply.
(b) For noncompact sections
0.021E
Mn = + Fy S (F8-2)
D
t
where
(a) For tee stems and web legs in tension
Mp = Fy Zx ≤ 1.6My (F9-2)
where
My = yield moment about the axis of bending, kip-in. (N-mm)
=Fy Sx (F9-3)
(b) For tee stems in compression
Mp = My (F9-4)
(c) For double angles with web legs in compression
Mp = 1.5My (F9-5)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Mcr =
1.95E
Lb (
Iy J B + 1 + B 2 ) (F9-10)
d Iy
B = 2.3 (F9-11)
Lb J
d = depth of tee or width of web leg in tension, in. (mm)
(b) For stems and web legs in compression anywhere along the unbraced length, Mcr
is given by Equation F9-10 with
d Iy
B = −2.3 (F9-12)
Lb J
where
d = depth of tee or width of web leg in compression, in. (mm)
Fcr = F
y (F9-17)
E d E
(2) When 0.84 < ≤ 1.52
Fy tw Fy
d Fy
Fcr = 1.43 − 0.515 Fy (F9-18)
tw E
d E
(3) When > 1.52
tw Fy
1.52 E
Fcr = 2
(F9-19)
d
tw
(b) For double-angle web legs
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, for double angles with the web legs in com-
pression shall be determined in accordance with Section F10.3, with Sc taken as
the elastic section modulus.
User Note: For geometric axis design, use section properties computed about the
x- and y-axis of the angle, parallel and perpendicular to the legs. For principal
axis design, use section properties computed about the major and minor principal
axes of the angle.
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be the lowest value obtained according to
the limit states of yielding (plastic moment), lateral-torsional buckling, and leg local
buckling.
User Note: For bending about the minor principal axis, only the limit states of
yielding and leg local buckling apply.
1. Yielding
Mn = 1.5My (F10-1)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
For single angles without continuous lateral-torsional restraint along the length
My
(a) When ≤ 1.0
M cr
My
Mn = 1.92 − 1.17 My ≤ 1.5My (F10-2)
Mcr
My
(b) When > 1.0
Mcr
0.17Mcr
Mn = 0.92 − Mcr (F10-3)
My
where
Mcr, the elastic lateral-torsional buckling moment, is determined as follows:
(1) For bending about the major principal axis of single angles
2
9 EAg rz tCb β r β r
M cr = 1 + 4.4 w z + 4.4 w z (F10-4)
8Lb Lbt Lbt
where
Cb is computed using Equation F1-1 with a maximum value of 1.5
Ag = gross area of angle, in.2 (mm2)
Lb = laterally unbraced length of member, in. (mm)
rz = radius of gyration about the minor principal axis, in. (mm)
t = thickness of angle leg, in. (mm)
βw = section property for single angles about major principal axis, in. (mm).
βw is positive with short legs in compression and negative with long legs
in compression for unequal-leg angles, and zero for equal-leg angles.
If the long leg is in compression anywhere along the unbraced length
of the member, the negative value of βw shall be used.
User Note: The equation for βw and values for common angle sizes are
listed in the Commentary.
(2) For bending about one of the geometric axes of an equal-leg angle with no
axial compression
(i) With no lateral-torsional restraint
(a) With maximum compression at the toe
2
0.58 Eb 4tCb L bt
Mcr = 1 + 0 .88 − 1 (F10-5a)
L b2 b2
2
0.58 Eb 4tCb L bt
Mcr = 1 + 0 .88 + 1 (F10-5b)
L b2 b2
where
My shall be taken as 0.80 times the yield moment calculated using the
geometric section modulus.
b = width of leg, in. (mm)
(ii) With lateral-torsional restraint at the point of maximum moment only:
Mcr shall be taken as 1.25 times Mcr computed using Equation F10-5a or
F10-5b.
My shall be taken as the yield moment calculated using the geometric sec-
tion modulus.
User Note: Mn may be taken as My for single angles with their vertical leg toe in
compression, and having a span-to-depth ratio less than or equal to
1.64 E t 2 Fy
− 1.4
Fy
b E
b Fy
Mn = Fy Sc 2.43 − 1.72 (F10-6)
t E
1. Yielding
For rectangular bars
Mn = M
p=F
y Z ≤ 1.5Fy Sx (F11-1)
For rounds
Mn = M
p=F
y Z ≤ 1.6Fy Sx (F11-2)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
L b d 0.08 E
(a) For rectangular bars with ≤ bent about their major axis, rectangular
t2 Fy
bars bent about their minor axis, and rounds, the limit state of lateral-torsional
buckling does not apply.
0.08 E L b d 1.9 E
(b) For rectangular bars with < 2 ≤ bent about their major axis
Fy t Fy
L d Fy
M n = Cb 1.52 − 0.274 b2 My ≤ Mp (F11-3)
t E
where
Lb = length between points that are either braced against lateral displacement
of the compression region, or between points braced to prevent twist of
the cross section, in. (mm)
L b d 1.9 E
(c) For rectangular bars with > bent about their major axis
t2 Fy
Mn = Fcr Sx ≤ Mp (F11-4)
where
1.9 ECb
Fcr = (F11-5)
Lb d
t2
where
Smin = minimum elastic section modulus relative to the axis of bending, in.3 (mm3)
User Note: The design provisions within this section can be overly conserva-
tive for certain shapes, unbraced lengths, and moment diagrams. To improve
economy, the provisions of Appendix 1.3 are recommended as an alternative for
determining the nominal flexural strength of members of unsymmetrical shape.
1. Yielding
Fn = Fy (F12-2)
2. Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Fn = Fcr ≤ Fy (F12-3)
where
Fcr = lateral-torsional buckling stress for the section as determined by analysis,
ksi (MPa)
User Note: In the case of Z-shaped members, it is recommended that Fcr be taken
as 0.5Fcr of a channel with the same flange and web properties.
3. Local Buckling
Fn = Fcr ≤ Fy (F12-4)
where
Fcr = local buckling stress for the section as determined by analysis, ksi (MPa)
1. Strength Reductions for Members with Bolt Holes in the Tension Flange
This section applies to rolled or built-up shapes and cover-plated beams with stan-
dard and oversized bolt holes or short- and long-slotted bolt holes parallel to the
direction of load, proportioned on the basis of flexural strength of the gross section.
In addition to the limit states specified in other sections of this chapter, the nominal
flexural strength, Mn, shall be limited according to the limit state of tensile rupture
of the tension flange.
(a) When Fu Afn ≥ Yt Fy Afg , the limit state of tensile rupture does not apply.
(b) When Fu Afn < Yt Fy Afg , the nominal flexural strength, Mn, at the location of the
holes in the tension flange shall not be taken as greater than
Fu A fn
Mn = Sx (F13-1)
A fg
where
Afg = gross area of tension flange, calculated in accordance with Section B4.3a,
in.2 (mm2)
Afn = net area of tension flange, calculated in accordance with Section B4.3b, in.2
(mm2)
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength, ksi (MPa)
Sx = minimum elastic section modulus taken about the x-axis, in.3 (mm3)
Yt = 1.0 for Fy Fu ≤ 0.8
= 1.1 otherwise
a
(b) When
(b) > 1.5
h
h 0.40 E
(F13-4)
=
tw max Fy
where
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, in. (mm)
In unstiffened girders, h t w shall not exceed 260. The ratio of 2 times the web area
in compression to the compression flange area, aw, as defined by Equation F4-12,
shall not exceed 10.
3. Cover Plates
(a) For members with cover plates, the following provisions apply: Flanges of
welded beams or girders are permitted to be varied in thickness or width by
splicing a series of plates or by the use of cover plates.
(b) High-strength bolts or welds connecting flange to web, or cover plate to flange,
shall be proportioned to resist the total horizontal shear resulting from the
bending forces on the girder. The longitudinal distribution of these bolts or
intermittent welds shall be in proportion to the intensity of the shear.
(c) However, the longitudinal spacing shall not exceed the maximum specified for
compression or tension members in Section E6 or D4, respectively. Bolts or
welds connecting flange to web shall also be proportioned to transmit to the web
any loads applied directly to the flange, unless provision is made to transmit such
loads by direct bearing.
(d) Partial-length cover plates shall be extended beyond the theoretical cutoff point
and the extended portion shall be attached to the beam or girder by high-strength
4. Built-Up Beams
Where two or more beams or channels are used side by side to form a flexural
member, they shall be connected together in compliance with Section E6.2. When
concentrated loads are carried from one beam to another or distributed between the
beams, diaphragms having sufficient stiffness to distribute the load shall be welded
or bolted between the beams.
CHAPTER G
DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR SHEAR
This chapter addresses webs of singly or doubly symmetric members subjected to shear in
the plane of the web, single angles and HSS subjected to shear, and shear in the weak direc-
tion of singly or doubly symmetric shapes.
The chapter is organized as follows:
G1. General Provisions
G2. I-Shaped Members and Channels
G3. Single Angles and Tees
G4. Rectangular HSS, Box Sections, and Other Singly and Doubly Symmetric
Members
G5. Round HSS
G6. Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric Members Subjected to Minor-Axis
Shear
G7. Beams and Girders with Web Openings
User Note: For cases not included in this chapter, the following sections apply:
• H3.3 Unsymmetric sections
• J4.2 Shear strength of connecting elements
• J10.6 Web panel-zone shear
where
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the type of steel being used, ksi (MPa)
Aw = area of web, the overall depth times the web thickness, dtw, in.2 (mm2)
User Note: All current ASTM A6/A6M W, S, and HP shapes except W44×230,
W40×149, W36×135, W33×118, W30×90, W24×55, W16×26, and W12×14
meet the criteria stated in Section G2.1(a) for Fy = 50 ksi (345 MPa).
1.10 kv E Fy
Cv1 = (G2-4)
h tw
(2) The web plate shear buckling coefficient, kv, is determined as follows:
(i) For webs without transverse stiffeners
kv = 5.34
(ii) For webs with transverse stiffeners
5
kv = 5 + (G2-5)
(a h)2
= 5.34 when a h > 3.0
where
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, in. (mm)
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
User Note: Cv1 = 1.0 for all ASTM A6/A6M W, S, M, and HP shapes except
M12.5×12.4, M12.5×11.6, M12×11.8, M12×10.8, M12×10, M10×8, and
M10×7.5, when Fy = 50 ksi (345 MPa).
1 − Cv 2
Vn = 0.6 Fy A w Cv 2 + (G2-7)
2
1.15 1 + ( a h )
(2) Otherwise
1 − Cv 2
Vn = 0.6 Fy A w Cv 2 + (G2-8)
2
1.15 a h + 1 + ( a h )
where
the web shear buckling coefficient, Cv2, is determined as follows:
(i) When h tw ≤ 1.10 kv E Fy
Cv2 = 1.0 (G2-9)
1.10 kv E Fy
Cv 2 = (G2-10)
h tw
1.51kv E
Cv 2 = (G2-11)
(h tw )2 Fy
Afc = area of compression flange, in.2 (mm2)
Aft = area of tension flange, in.2 (mm2)
bfc = width of compression flange, in. (mm)
bft = width of tension flange, in. (mm)
kv is as defined in Section G2.1(b)(2)
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
The nominal shear strength is permitted to be taken as the larger of the values from
Sections G2.1 and G2.2.
User Note: Section G2.1 may predict a higher strength for members that do not
meet the requirements of Section G2.2(b)(1).
where
βv =
2.8 ( M pf + M pm + M pst + M pm ) ≤ 1.0 (G2-13)
h Fywtw (1 − Cv 2 )
Fyw = specified minimum yield stress of the web material, ksi (MPa)
Mpf = p lastic moment of a section composed of the flange and a segment of
the web with the depth, de, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mpm = smaller of Mpf and Mpst , kip-in. (N-mm)
Mpst = plastic moment of a section composed of the end stiffener plus a length
of web equal to de plus the distance from the inside face of the stiffener
to the end of the beam, except that the distance from the inside face of
the stiffener to the end of the beam shall not exceed 0.84tw E Fy for
calculation purposes, kip-in. (N-mm)
(i) When Cv2 ≤ 0.8
de = 35tw (0.8 − Cv 2 )
2
(G2-14)
(ii) When Cv2 > 0.8
de = 0 (G2-15)
he flexural stress in the tension flange, αMr Sxt , in the end panel shall not be
T
larger than 0.35Fy,
where
a =1.0 (LRFD); a = 1.6 (ASD)
(b) The nominal shear strength for I-shaped members with unequal flange areas
shall be determined by analysis.
User Note: An approach for I-shaped members with unequal flange areas is
discussed in the Commentary.
4. Transverse Stiffeners
For transverse stiffeners, the following shall apply.
(a) Transverse stiffeners are not required where h tw ≤ 2.54 E Fy , or where the
available shear strength provided in accordance with Section G2.1 for kv = 5.34
is greater than the required shear strength.
(b) Transverse stiffeners are permitted to be stopped short of the tension flange,
provided bearing is not needed to transmit a concentrated load or reaction. The
weld by which transverse stiffeners are attached to the web shall be terminated
not less than four times nor more than six times the web thickness from the near
toe of the web-to-flange weld or web-to-flange fillet. When stiffeners are used,
they shall be detailed to resist twist of the compression flange.
(c) Bolts connecting stiffeners to the girder web shall be spaced not more than
12 in. (300 mm) on center. If intermittent fillet welds are used, the clear distance
between welds shall not be more than 16 times the web thickness nor more than
10 in. (250 mm).
E
(d) (b t )st ≤ 0.56 (G2-16)
Fyst
where
Fyst = specified minimum yield stress of the stiffener material, ksi (MPa)
Ist = moment of inertia of the transverse stiffeners about an axis in the web
center for stiffener pairs, or about the face in contact with the web plate
for single stiffeners, in.4 (mm4)
Ist1 = minimum moment of inertia of the transverse stiffeners required for
development of the full shear post-buckling resistance of the stiffened
web panels, Vr = Vc1, in.4 (mm4)
1.5
h 4ρ1.3 F
=st yw (G2-18)
40 E
Ist2 = minimum moment of inertia of the transverse stiffeners required for
development of the web shear buckling resistance, Vr = Vc2, in.4 (mm4)
2.5
= − 2 b ptw3 ≥ 0.5b ptw3 (G2-19)
( a h )2
User Note: Ist may conservatively be taken as Ist1. Equation G2-18 provides
the minimum stiffener moment of inertia required to attain the web shear post-
buckling resistance according to Sections G2.1 and G2.2, as applicable. If less
post-buckling shear strength is required, Equation G2-17 provides a linear inter-
polation between the minimum moment of inertia required to develop web shear
buckling and that required to develop the web shear post-buckling strength.
Vn = Fcr Ag 2 (G5-1)
where
Fcr shall be the larger of
1.60 E
Fcr = 5
(G5-2a)
Lv D 4
D t
and
0.78 E
Fcr = 3
(G5-2b)
D 2
t
but shall not exceed 0.6Fy
Ag = gross area of member, in.2 (mm2)
D = outside diameter, in. (mm)
Lv = distance from maximum to zero shear force, in. (mm)
t = design wall thickness, in. (mm)
User Note: The shear buckling equations, Equations G5-2a and G5-2b, will con-
trol for D t over 100, high-strength steels, and long lengths. For standard sections,
shear yielding will usually control and Fcr = 0.6Fy .
User Note: Cv2 = 1.0 for all ASTM A6/A6M W, S, M, and HP shapes, when
Fy ≤ 70 ksi (485 MPa).
CHAPTER H
DESIGN OF MEMBERS FOR COMBINED FORCES
AND TORSION
This chapter addresses members subjected to axial force and flexure about one or both axes,
with or without torsion, and members subjected to torsion only.
The chapter is organized as follows:
H1. Doubly and Singly Symmetric Members Subjected to Flexure and Axial Force
H2. Unsymmetric and Other Members Subjected to Flexure and Axial Force
H3. Members Subjected to Torsion and Combined Torsion, Flexure, Shear, and/or
Axial Force
H4. Rupture of Flanges with Bolt Holes and Subjected to Tension
User Note: Section H2 may be used in lieu of the provisions of this section.
Pr
(a) When ≥ 0.2
Pc
Pr 8 Mrx Mry
+ + ≤ 1.0 (H1-1a)
Pc 9 Mcx Mcy
Pr
(b) When < 0.2
Pc
Pr Mrx Mry
+ + ≤ 1.0 (H1-1b)
2 Pc Mcx Mcy
where
Pr = required compressive strength, determined in accordance with Chapter C,
using LRFD or ASD load combinations, kips (N)
Pc = available compressive strength, fcPn or Pn Ωc , determined in accordance
with Chapter E, kips (N)
User Note: All terms in Equations H1-1a and H1-1b are to be taken as positive.
where
π 2 EIy
Pey = (H1-2)
L2b
α ==1.1.0
0 (LRFD); α = 1.6 (ASD)
E = modulus of elasticity of steel
= 29,000 ksi (200 000 MPa)
Iy = moment of inertia about the y-axis, in.4 (mm4)
Lb = length between points that are either braced against lateral displacement
of the compression flange or braced against twist of the cross section, in.4
(mm4)
For members with Mry Mcy ≥ 0.05 , the provisions of Section H1.1 shall be followed.
(a) For the limit state of in-plane instability, Equations H1-1a and H1-1b shall be used
with Pc taken as the available compressive strength in the plane of bending and
Mcx taken as the available flexural strength based on the limit state of yielding.
(b) For the limit state of out-of-plane buckling and lateral-torsional buckling
2
Pr Pr M rx
1 . 5 − 0 . 5 +
≤ 1.0 (H1-3)
Pcy Pcy Cb Mcx
where
Cb = lateral-torsional buckling modification factor determined from Section
F1
Mcx = available lateral-torsional strength for major-axis flexure determined in
accordance with Chapter F using Cb = 1.0 , kip-in. (N-mm)
Pcy = available compressive strength out of the plane of bending, kips (N)
User Note: In Equation H1-3, Cb Mcx may be larger than fb Mpx (LRFD) or
M px Ωb (ASD). All variables in Equation H1-3 are to be taken as positive. The
yielding resistance of the beam-column is captured by Equations H1-1a and
H1-1b.
User Note: The subscripts w and z refer to the principal axes of the unsym-
metric cross section. For doubly symmetric cross sections, these can be
replaced by the x and y subscripts.
Equation H2-1 shall be evaluated using the principal bending axes by considering the
sense of the flexural stresses at the critical points of the cross section. The flexural
terms are either added to or subtracted from the axial term as applicable. When the
axial force is compression, second-order effects shall be included according to the
provisions of Chapter C.
A more detailed analysis of the interaction of flexure and tension is permitted in lieu
of Equation H2-1.
and
0.60 E
(2) Fcr = 32
(H3-2b)
D
t
but shall not exceed 0.6Fy ,
where
D = outside diameter, in. (mm)
L = length of member, in. (mm)
t = design wall thickness defined in Section B4.2, in. (mm)
(b) For rectangular HSS
(1) When h t ≤ 2.45 E Fy
Fcr =
(
0.6 Fy 2.45 E Fy ) (H3-4)
h
t
0.458π 2 E
Fcr = 2
(H3-5)
h
t
where
h = flat width of longer side, as defined in Section B4.1b(d), in. (mm)
π (D − t ) t
2
For round HSS: C =
2
For rectangular HSS: C = 2( B − t )( H − t )t − 4.5(4 − π) t 3
where
Pr = required axial strength of the member at the location of the bolt holes,
determined in accordance with Chapter C, using LRFD or ASD load com-
binations, positive in tension and negative in compression, kips (N)
Pc = available axial strength for the limit state of tensile rupture of the net sec-
tion at the location of bolt holes, ft Pn or Pn Ωt , determined in accordance
with Section D2(b), kips (N)
Mrx = required flexural strength at the location of the bolt holes, determined
in accordance with Chapter C, using LRFD or ASD load combinations,
positive for tension and negative for compression in the flange under con-
sideration , kip-in. (N-mm)
Mcx = available flexural strength about the x-axis for the limit state of tensile
rupture of the flange, fbMn or Mn Ωb, determined according to Section
F13.1. When the limit state of tensile rupture in flexure does not apply, use
the plastic moment, Mp , determined with bolt holes not taken into consid-
eration, kip-in. (N-mm)
CHAPTER I
DESIGN OF COMPOSITE MEMBERS
This chapter addresses composite members composed of rolled or built-up structural steel
shapes or HSS and structural concrete acting together, and steel beams supporting a rein-
forced concrete slab so interconnected that the beams and the slab act together to resist
bending. Simple and continuous composite beams with steel headed stud anchors, and
encased and filled beams, constructed with or without temporary shores, are included. This
chapter also addresses concrete filled composite plate shear walls composed of structural
steel plates, ties, steel anchors, and structural concrete acting together.
The chapter is organized as follows:
I1. General Provisions
I2. Axial Force
I3. Flexure
I4. Shear
I5. Combined Flexure and Axial Force
I6. Load Transfer
I7. Composite Diaphragms and Collector Beams
I8. Steel Anchors
User Note: It is the intent of this Specification that the concrete and reinforcing
steel portions of composite concrete members are designed and detailed utilizing
the provisions of ACI 318 as modified by this Specification. All requirements
specific to composite members are covered in this Specification.
Note that the design basis for ACI 318 is strength design. Designers using ASD
for steel must be conscious of the different load factors.
User Note: The strain compatibility method can be used to determine nominal
strength for irregular sections and for cases where the steel does not exhibit elasto-
plastic behavior. General guidelines for the strain compatibility method for encased
members subjected to axial load, flexure, or both are given in AISC Design Guide
6, Load and Resistance Factor Design of W-Shapes Encased in Concrete.
3. Material Limitations
For concrete, structural steel, and reinforcing steel in composite systems, the fol-
lowing limitations shall be met unless the design is based on the requirements of
Appendix 2:
(a) For the determination of the available strength, concrete shall have a specified
compressive strength, f c′, of not less than 3 ksi (21 MPa) nor more than 10 ksi
(69 MPa) for normal weight concrete and not less than 3 ksi (21 MPa) nor more
than 6 ksi (41 MPa) for lightweight concrete.
(b) The specified minimum yield stress of structural steel used in calculating the
strength of composite members shall not exceed 75 ksi (525 MPa).
(c) The specified minimum yield stress of reinforcing bars used in calculating the
strength of composite members shall not exceed 80 ksi (550 MPa).
The design of filled composite members constructed from materials with strengths
above the limits noted in this section shall be in accordance with Appendix 2.
User Note: Appendix 2 includes equations for determining the available strength
of rectangular filled composite members with either the specified minimum
yield stress of structural steel exceeding 75 ksi (525 MPa) but less than 100 ksi
(690 MPa) or specified compressive strength, f c′, exceeding 10 ksi (69 MPa) but
less than 15 ksi (100 MPa).
TABLE I1.1a
Limiting Width-to-Thickness Ratios for
Compression Steel Elements in Composite
Members Subjected to Axial Compression
for Use with Section I2.2
λr
λp Noncompact
Compact Composite/
Width-to- Composite/ Slender-
Description of Thickness Noncompact Element Maximum
Element Ratio Composite Composite Permitted
Walls of rectangular E E E
HSS and box sections bt 2. 26 3. 00 5. 00
Fy Fy Fy
of uniform thickness
0. 15E 0. 19E 0. 31E
Round HSS D t
Fy Fy Fy
TABLE I1.1b
Limiting Width-to-Thickness Ratios for
Compression Steel Elements in Composite
Members Subjected to Flexure
for Use with Section I3.4
λr
λp Noncompact
Compact Composite/
Width-to- Composite/ Slender-
Description of Thickness Noncompact Element Maximum
Element Ratio Composite Composite Permitted
Flanges of rectangular E E E
HSS and box sections bt 2. 26 3. 00 5. 00
Fy Fy Fy
of uniform thickness
Webs of rectangular E E E
HSS and box sections ht 3. 00 5. 70 5. 70
Fy Fy Fy
of uniform thickness
0. 09E 0. 31E 0. 31E
Round HSS D t
Fy Fy Fy
exceeds λp , but does not exceed λr from Table I1.1b, the section is noncompact com-
posite. If the width-to-thickness ratio of any steel element exceeds λr , the section is
slender-element composite. The maximum permitted width-to-thickness ratio shall
be as specified in Table I1.1b.
Refer to Section B4.1b for definitions of width, b and D, and thickness, t, for rectan-
gular and round HSS sections and box sections of uniform thickness.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
User Note: All current ASTM A500/A500M Grade C square HSS sections are
compact composite according to the limits of Table I1.1a and Table I1.1b, except
HSS7×7×1/8, HSS8×8×1/8, HSS10×10×3/16, HSS12×12×3/16, HSS14×14×1/4,
HSS16×16×1/4, HSS18×18×5/16, and HSS20×20×5/16, which are noncompact
composite for both axial compression and flexure, and HSS9×9×1/8 and
HSS18×18×1/4, which are slender-element composite for both axial compression
and flexure.
All current ASTM A1085/A1085M square HSS are compact composite except for
HSS8×8×1/8, HSS 9×9×1/8, HSS 12×12×3/16, HSS16×16×1/4, HSS18×18×1/4,
HSS18×18×5/16, and HSS 20×20×5/16, which are noncompact composite for
both axial compression and flexure.
All current ASTM A500/A500M Grade C round HSS sections are compact
composite according to the limits of Table I1.1a and Table I1.1b for both axial
compression and flexure, with the exception of HSS6.625×0.125,
HSS7.000×0.125, HSS9.625×0.188, HSS10.000×0.188,
HSS10.75×0.188, HSS12.750×0.188, HSS12.750×0.250,
HSS13.375×0.188, HSS13.375×0.250, HSS14.000×0.188,
HSS14.000×0.250, HSS16.000×0.250, HSS16.000×0.312,
HSS18.000×0.250, HSS18.000×0.313, HSS20.000×0.250,
HSS20.000×0.313, HSS20.000×0.375, HSS22.000×0.313,
HSS22.000×0.375, HSS24.000×0.313, HSS24.000×0.375,
HSS26.000×0.375, HSS26.000×0.500, HSS28.000×0.375, and
HSS28.000×0.500, which are noncompact composite for flexure, and
HSS26.000×0.313, which is noncompact for compression and flexure.
User Note: Taken together, the stiffness reduction factors require the use of
0.64(EI)eff for the flexural stiffness and 0.8 times the nominal axial stiffness of
encased composite members and filled composite members subjected to net com-
pression in the analysis.
Stiffness values appropriate for the calculation of deflections and for use with the
effective length method are discussed in the Commentary.
(e) The flexural stiffness, (EI)eff , axial stiffness, (EA)eff , and shear stiffness, (GA)eff ,
of composite plate shear walls shall account for the extent of concrete cracking
under LRFD load combinations or 1.6 times the ASD load combinations. It is
permitted to use the following to estimate effective stiffness:
(EI)eff = Es Is + 0.35EcIc (I1-1)
(EA)eff = Es As + 0.45Ec Ac (I1-2)
(GA)eff = Gs Asw + Gc Ac (I1-3)
where
Ac = area of concrete, in.2 (mm2)
As = area of steel section, in.2 (mm2)
Asw = area of steel plates in the direction of in-plane shear, in.2 (mm2)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete
= w1c .5 f c′, ksi (0.043w1c .5 f c′, MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel
= 29,000 ksi (200 000 MPa)
Gc = shear modulus of concrete
= 0.4Ec
Gs = shear modulus of steel
= 11,200 ksi (77 200 MPa)
Ic = moment of inertia of the concrete section about the elastic neutral axis
of the composite section, in.4 (mm4)
Is = moment of inertia of steel shape about the elastic neutral axis of the
composite section, in.4 (mm4)
wc = weight of concrete per unit volume (90 ≤ wc ≤ 155 lb/ft3 or 1 500 ≤ wc
≤ 2 500 kg/m3)
(f) The stiffness reduction parameter, τb, shall be taken as 1.0 for composite plate
shear walls.
st Es
≤ 0.38 (I1-5M)
t 2α + 1
4
t t
α = 1.7 sc − 2 (I1-6)
t dtie
where
dtie = effective diameter of the tie bar, in. (mm)
st = largest clear spacing of the ties, in. (mm)
t = thickness of plate, in. (mm)
tsc = thickness of composite plate shear wall, in. (mm)
1a. Limitations
For encased composite members, the following limitations shall be met:
(a) The cross-sectional area of the steel core shall comprise at least 1% of the total
composite cross section.
(b) Concrete encasement of the steel core shall be reinforced with continuous longi-
tudinal bars and transverse reinforcement consisting of ties, hoops, and/or spirals.
Detailing and placement of longitudinal reinforcement, including bar spacing
and concrete cover requirements, shall conform to ACI 318.
Transverse reinforcement where specified as ties or hoops shall consist of a
minimum of either a No. 3 (10 mm) bar spaced at a maximum of 12 in. (300 mm)
on center, or a No. 4 (13 mm) bar or larger spaced at a maximum of 16 in.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
User Note: Refer to ACI 318 for additional longitudinal and transverse steel
provisions. Refer to Section I4 for shear requirements.
User Note: Refer to ACI 318 for additional longitudinal and transverse reinforc-
ing steel requirements. Refer to Section I4 for requirements for members subjected
to shear. The requirements of Section I2.1.1e are not applicable to composite plate
shear walls.
2a. Limitations
For filled composite members, the following limitations shall be met:
(a) The cross-sectional area of the structural steel section shall comprise at least 1%
of the total composite cross section.
(b) Filled composite members shall be classified for local buckling according to
Section I1.4.
(c) Minimum longitudinal reinforcement is not required. If longitudinal reinforce-
ment is provided, internal transverse reinforcement is not required for strength;
however, minimum internal transverse reinforcement shall be provided. Trans-
verse reinforcement where specified as ties or hoops shall consist of a minimum
of either a No. 3 (10 mm) bar spaced at a maximum of 12 in. (300 mm) on center, or
a No. 4 (13 mm) bar or larger spaced at a maximum of 16 in. (400 mm) on center.
Deformed wire or welded wire reinforcement of equivalent area is permitted.
(d) If longitudinal reinforcing steel is provided for strength, the maximum reinforce-
ment ratio shall be based on ACI 318 requirements for the gross area of concrete.
User Note: Refer to ACI 318 for additional longitudinal and transverse steel
provisions. Refer to Section I4 and Section I4 Commentary for shear in filled
composite members.
where
λp and λr are width-to-thickness ratios determined from Table I1.1a.
Pp is determined from Equation I2-9b.
E
Py = Fy A s + 0.7 f c′ A c + A sr s (I2-9d)
Ec
I3. FLEXURE
This section applies to three types of composite members subjected to flexure: compo-
site beams with steel anchors consisting of steel headed stud anchors or steel channel
anchors, encased members, and filled members.
1. General
User Note: All current ASTM A6/A6M W, S, and HP shapes satisfy the limit
given in Section I3.2a(a) for Fy ≤ 70 ksi (485 MPa).
1. General
The available flexural strength of composite construction consisting of con-
crete slabs on formed steel deck connected to steel beams shall be determined
by the applicable portions of Sections I3.2a and I3.2b, with the following
requirements:
(a) The nominal rib height shall not be greater than 3 in. (75 mm). The average
width of concrete rib or haunch, wr, shall not be less than 2 in. (50 mm), but
shall not be taken in calculations as more than the minimum clear width near
the top of the steel deck.
(b) The concrete slab shall be connected to the steel beam with steel headed stud
anchors welded either through the deck or directly to the steel cross sec-
tion. Steel headed stud anchors, after installation, shall extend not less than
12 in. (38 mm) above the top of the steel deck and there shall be at least
2 in. (13 mm) of specified concrete cover above the top of the steel headed
stud anchors.
(c) The slab thickness above the steel deck shall be not less than 2 in. (50 mm).
(d) Steel deck shall be anchored to all supporting members at a spacing not to
exceed 18 in. (450 mm). Such anchorage shall be provided by steel headed
stud anchors, a combination of steel headed stud anchors and arc spot
(puddle) welds, or other devices specified by the design documents and
specifications issued for construction.
2. Deck Ribs Oriented Perpendicular to Steel Beam
Concrete below the top of the steel deck shall be neglected in determining
composite section properties and in calculating Ac for deck ribs oriented perpen-
dicular to the steel beams.
3. Deck Ribs Oriented Parallel to Steel Beam
Concrete below the top of the steel deck is permitted to be included in determin-
ing composite section properties and in calculating Ac .
Formed steel deck ribs over supporting beams are permitted to be split longitu-
dinally and separated to form a concrete haunch.
When the nominal depth of steel deck is 12 in. (38 mm) or greater, the average
width, wr , of the supported haunch or rib shall be not less than 2 in. (50 mm) for
the first steel headed stud anchor in the transverse row plus four stud diameters
for each additional steel headed stud anchor.
3a. Limitations
For encased composite members, the following limitations shall be met:
(a) The available flexural strength of concrete-encased members shall be determined
as follows:
φb = 0.90 (LRFD) Wb = 1.67 (ASD)
The nominal flexural strength, Mn , shall be determined using one of the follow-
ing methods:
(1) The superposition of elastic stresses on the composite section, considering
the effects of shoring for the limit state of yielding (yield moment).
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
(2) The plastic stress distribution on the steel section alone, for the limit state of
yielding (plastic moment) on the steel section.
(3) The plastic stress distribution on the composite section or the strain-com-
patibility method, for the limit state of yielding (plastic moment) on the
composite section. For concrete-encased members, steel anchors shall be
provided.
(b) The total cross-sectional area of the steel core shall comprise at least 1% of the
total composite cross section.
(c) Concrete encasement of the steel core shall be reinforced with continuous longi-
tudinal bars and transverse reinforcement (stirrups, ties, hoops, or spirals).
etailing of longitudinal reinforcement, including bar spacing and concrete
D
cover requirements, shall conform to ACI 318.
Transverse reinforcement that consists of stirrups, ties, or hoops shall be a mini-
mum of either a No. 3 (10 mm) bar spaced at a maximum of 12 in. (300 mm)
on center, or a No. 4 (13 mm) bar or larger spaced at a maximum of 16 in. (400 mm)
on center. Deformed wire or welded wire reinforcement of equivalent area is
permitted.
(d) The minimum reinforcement ratio for continuous longitudinal reinforcement,
ρsr , shall be 0.004, where ρsr is given by
A
ρsr = sr (I3-3)
Ag
where
Ag = gross area of composite member, in.2 (mm2)
Asr = area of continuous longitudinal reinforcing bars, in.2 (mm2)
(e) Composite beam members with Pu < 0.10Pn shall be tension controlled as de-
fined in ACI 318. The determination of Pn shall include the area of both the
structural steel section and the longitudinal reinforcement.
User Note: The effect of this limitation is to restrict the reinforcement ratio to
provide ductile behavior in case of an overload. Refer to ACI 318 for additional
longitudinal and transverse steel provisions. Refer to Section I4 for shear require-
ments.
(b) The total cross-sectional area of the structural steel section shall comprise at least
1% of the total composite cross section.
(c) Longitudinal reinforcement is not required.
Where longitudinal reinforcement is provided, the minimum reinforcement
ratio for continuous longitudinal reinforcement, ρsr , shall be 0.004, where ρsr
is given by
A
ρsr = sr (I3-4)
Ag
User Note: The effect of this limitation is to restrict the longitudinal reinforce-
ment ratio to provide ductile behavior in case of an overload. Refer to ACI 318
for additional provisions for the longitudinal and transverse steel reinforcement.
Refer to Section I4 for shear requirements. The limitations and requirements of
Section I3.4a are not applicable to composite plate shear walls.
λ − λp
Mn = Mp – ( Mp – My ) (I3-5b)
λr − λ p
where
l, lp , and lr are width-to-thickness ratios determined from Table I1.1b.
I4. SHEAR
User Note: For most members, Kc will be equal to 1.0. Low shear span-to-depth
ratios may occur in connection design (panel zones) or other special situations,
for which higher values of Kc (> 1.0) are more appropriate.
where
Asw = area of steel plates in the direction of in-plane shear, in.2 (mm2)
Ks = GsAsw (I4-3)
Gs = shear modulus of steel
= 11,200 ksi (77 200 MPa)
0.7 ( Ec Ac )( Es A sw)
Ksc = (I4-4)
4 Es Asw + Ec Ac
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
Pr
(2) When < cp
Pc
1 − cm Pr Mr
+ ≤ 1.0 (I5-1b)
cp Pc Mc
where
For design according to Section B3.1 (LRFD)
Mr = required flexural strength, determined in accordance with Section
I1.5, using LRFD load combinations, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mc = design flexural strength determined in accordance with Section I3,
kip-in. (N-mm)
= φbMn
Pr = required axial strength, determined in accordance with Section I1.5
using LRFD load combinations, kips (N)
Pc = design axial strength, determined in accordance with Section I2,
kips (N)
= φcPn
φc = resistance factor for compression
= 0.75
φb = resistance factor for flexure
= 0.90
1. General Requirements
When external forces are applied to an axially loaded encased or filled composite
member, the introduction of force to the member and the transfer of longitudinal
shear within the member shall be assessed in accordance with the requirements for
force allocation presented in this section.
The available strength of the applicable force transfer mechanisms as determined
in accordance with Section I6.3 shall equal or exceed the required shear force to be
transferred, Vr′, as determined in accordance with Section I6.2. Force transfer mecha-
nisms shall be located within the load transfer region as determined in accordance
with Section I6.4.
2. Force Allocation
Force allocation shall be determined based upon the distribution of external force in
accordance with the following requirements.
User Note: Bearing strength provisions for externally applied forces are provided
in Section J8. For filled composite members, the term A2 A1 in Equation J8-2
may be taken equal to 2.0 due to confinement effects.
TABLE I5.1
Coefficients cp and cm for Use with
Equations I5-1a and I5-1b
cm
Filled Composite
Member Type cp when csr ≥ 0.5 when csr < 0.5
0. 17 1. 06 0. 90
Rectangular cp = cm = ≥ 1. 0 cm = ≤ 1. 67
csr0. 4 csr0. 11 csr0. 36
0. 27 1. 10 0. 95
Round HSS cp = cm = ≥ 1. 0 cm = ≤ 1. 67
csr0. 4 csr0. 08 csr0. 32
User Note: Equation I6-1 does not apply to slender filled composite members
for which the external force is applied directly to the concrete fill in accordance
with Section I6.2b, or concurrently to the steel and concrete, in accordance with
Section I6.2c.
User Note: An example of force transfer via an internal bearing mechanism is the
use of internal steel plates within a filled composite member.
4. Detailing Requirements
User Note: Design guidelines for composite diaphragms and collector beams can
be found in the Commentary.
1. General
The diameter of a steel headed stud anchor, dsa, shall be w in. (19 mm) or less, except
where anchors are utilized solely for shear transfer in solid slabs, in which case,
d-in.- (22-mm-) and 1-in.- (25-mm-) diameter anchors are permitted. Additionally,
dsa shall not be greater than 2.5 times the thickness of the base metal to which it is
welded, unless it is welded to a flange directly over a web.
Section I8.2 applies to a composite flexural member where steel anchors are embed-
ded in a solid concrete slab or in a slab cast on a formed steel deck. Section I8.3
applies to all other cases.
(b) Steel headed stud anchors welded in a composite slab with the deck
oriented perpendicular to the beam and emid-ht ≥ 2 in. (50 mm)
(c) Steel headed stud anchors welded through steel deck, or steel sheet
used as girder filler material and embedded in a composite slab with
the deck oriented parallel to the beam
= 0.6 for steel headed stud anchors welded in a composite slab with deck
oriented perpendicular to the beam and emid-ht < 2 in. (50 mm)
emid-ht = distance from the edge of steel headed stud anchor shank to the steel
deck web, measured at mid-height of the deck rib, and in the load bearing
direction of the steel headed stud anchor (in other words, in the direction
of maximum moment for a simply supported beam), in. (mm)
User Note: The table below presents values for Rg and Rp for several cases.
Available strengths for steel headed stud anchors can be found in the AISC
Steel Construction Manual.
Condition Rg Rp
No decking 1.0 0.75
Decking oriented parallel to the steel shape
wr
≥ 1. 5 1.0 0.75
hr
wr
< 1. 5 0.85[a] 0.75
hr
User Note: The steel headed stud anchor strength provisions in this section are
applicable to anchors located primarily in the load transfer (connection) region
of composite columns and beam-columns, concrete-encased and filled composite
beams, composite coupling beams, and composite walls, where the steel and
concrete are working compositely within a member. They are not intended for
hybrid construction where the steel and concrete are not working compositely,
such as with embed plates.
Section I8.2 specifies the strength of steel anchors embedded in a solid concrete
slab or in a concrete slab with formed steel deck in a composite beam.
Limit states for the steel shank of the anchor and for concrete breakout in shear
are covered directly in this section. Additionally, the spacing and dimensional
limitations provided in these provisions preclude the limit states of concrete
pryout for anchors loaded in shear and concrete breakout for anchors loaded in
tension as defined by ACI 318, Chapter 17.
For normal weight concrete: Steel headed stud anchors subjected to shear only shall
not be less than five stud diameters in length from the base of the steel headed stud
to the top of the stud head after installation. Steel headed stud anchors subjected to
tension or interaction of shear and tension shall not be less than eight stud diameters
in length from the base of the stud to the top of the stud head after installation.
For lightweight concrete: Steel headed stud anchors subjected to shear only shall not
be less than seven stud diameters in length from the base of the steel headed stud
to the top of the stud head after installation. Steel headed stud anchors subjected to
tension shall not be less than ten stud diameters in length from the base of the stud to
the top of the stud head after installation. The nominal strength of steel headed stud
anchors subjected to interaction of shear and tension for lightweight concrete shall
be determined as stipulated by the applicable building code or ACI 318, Chapter 17.
Steel headed stud anchors subjected to tension or interaction of shear and tension
shall have a diameter of the head greater than or equal to 1.6 times the diameter of
the shank.
User Note: The following table presents values of minimum steel headed stud
anchor h d ratios for each condition covered in this Specification.
h dsa ≥= 5ratio of steel headed stud anchor shank length to the top of the stud head-to-shank
diameter.
[a]Referto ACI 318, Chapter 17, for the calculation of interaction effects of anchors embedded
in lightweight concrete.
User Note: If concrete breakout strength in shear is an applicable limit state (for
example, where the breakout prism is not restrained by an adjacent steel plate,
flange, or web), appropriate anchor reinforcement is required for the provisions
of this section to be used. Alternatively, the provisions of the applicable building
code or ACI 318, Chapter 17, may be used.
(a) Where anchor reinforcement is developed in accordance with ACI 318 on both
sides of the concrete breakout surface for the steel headed stud anchor, the
minimum of the steel nominal tensile strength from Equation I8-4 and the nomi-
nal strength of the anchor reinforcement shall be used for the nominal tensile
strength, Qnt , of the steel headed stud anchor.
(b) As stipulated by the applicable building code or ACI 318, Chapter 17.
3c. Strength of Steel Headed Stud Anchors for Interaction of Shear and
Tension in Composite Components
Where concrete breakout strength in shear is not a governing limit state, and where
the distance from the center of an anchor to a free edge of concrete in the direction
perpendicular to the height of the steel headed stud anchor is greater than or equal to
1.5 times the height of the steel headed stud anchor measured to the top of the stud
head, and where the center-to-center spacing of steel headed stud anchors is greater
than or equal to three times the height of the steel headed stud anchor measured to
the top of the stud head, the nominal strength for interaction of shear and tension of
one steel headed stud anchor shall be determined as
strength of the anchor reinforcement shall be used for the nominal shear strength,
Qnv , of the steel headed stud anchor, and the minimum of the steel nominal
tensile strength from Equation I8-4 and the nominal strength of the anchor rein-
forcement shall be used for the nominal tensile strength, Qnt , of the steel headed
stud anchor for use in Equation I8-5.
(b) As stipulated by the applicable building code or ACI 318, Chapter 17.
User Note: Detailing requirements provided in this section are absolute limits.
See Sections I8.3a, I8.3b, and I8.3c for additional limitations required to preclude
edge and group effect considerations.
User Note: An approach for establishing available strength using test data is
provided in Chapter K of AISI North American Specification for the Design of
Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members, with Supplement 2.
CHAPTER J
DESIGN OF CONNECTIONS
This chapter addresses connecting elements, connectors, and the affected elements of con-
nected members not subjected to fatigue loads.
The chapter is organized as follows:
J1. General Provisions
J2. Welds and Welded Joints
J3. Bolts, Threaded Parts, and Bolted Connections
J4. Affected Elements of Members and Connecting Elements
J5. Fillers
J6. Splices
J7. Bearing Strength
J8. Column Bases and Bearing on Concrete
J9. Anchor Rods and Embedments
J10. Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces
User Note: For cases not included in this chapter, the following sections apply:
• Chapter K Additional Requirements for HSS and Box-Section Connections
• Appendix 3 Fatigue
1. Design Basis
The design strength, φRn , and the allowable strength, Rn Ω , of connections shall be
determined in accordance with the provisions of this chapter and the provisions of
Chapter B.
The required strength of the connections shall be determined by structural analysis
for the specified design loads, consistent with the type of construction specified, or
shall be a proportion of the required strength of the connected members when so
specified herein.
Where the gravity axes of intersecting axially loaded members do not intersect at one
point, the effects of eccentricity shall be considered.
2. Simple Connections
Simple connections of beams, girders, and trusses shall be designed as flexible and
are permitted to be proportioned for the reaction shears only, except as otherwise
indicated in the design documents. Flexible beam connections shall accommodate
end rotations of simple beams. Some inelastic but self-limiting deformation in the
connection is permitted to accommodate the end rotation of a simple beam.
3. Moment Connections
End connections of restrained beams, girders, and trusses shall be designed for the
combined effect of forces resulting from moment and shear induced by the rigidity of
the connections. Response criteria for moment connections are provided in Section
B3.4b.
User Note: See Chapter C and Appendix 7 for analysis requirements to establish
the required strength for the design of connections.
User Note: All compression joints should also be proportioned to resist any ten-
sion developed by the load combinations stipulated in Section B2.
User Note: CJP groove welded splices of heavy sections can exhibit detrimental
effects of weld shrinkage. Members that are sized for compression that are also
subjected to tensile forces may be less susceptible to damage from shrinkage if
they are spliced using partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove welds on the flanges
and fillet-welded web plates, or using bolts for some or all of the splice.
the sum of (1) the nominal slip resistance, Rn , for bolts as defined in Equation J3-4
according to the requirements of a slip-critical connection and (2) the nominal weld
strength, Rn, as defined in Section J2.4, when the following apply:
(a) φ = 0.75 (LRFD); Ω = 2.00 (ASD) for the combined joint.
(b) When the high-strength bolts are pretensioned according to the requirements of
Table J3.1 or Table J3.1M using the turn-of-nut or combined method, the longi-
tudinal fillet welds shall have an available strength of not less than 50% of the
required strength of the connection.
(c) When the high-strength bolts are pretensioned according to the requirements of
Table J3.1 or Table J3.1M using any method other than the turn-of-nut method,
the longitudinal fillet welds shall have an available strength of not less than 70%
of the required strength of the connection.
(d) The high-strength bolts shall have an available strength of not less than 33% of
the required strength of the connection.
In joints with combined bolts and longitudinal welds, the strength of the connection
need not be taken as less than either the strength of the bolts alone or the strength of
the welds alone.
User Note: The provisions of this section are generally recommended for altera-
tion in building designs or for field corrections. Use of the combined strength of
bolts and welds on a common faying surface is not recommended for new design.
User Note: Examples of provisions in AWS D1.1/D1.1M that differ from the
Specification provisions are shown in the Commentary.
TABLE J2.1
Effective Throat of
Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
Welding Position
F (flat),
H (horizontal), Groove Type
V (vertical), (AWS D1.1,
Welding Process OH (overhead) Figure 5.2) Effective Throat
Shielded metal arc (SMAW) J or U groove
Gas metal arc (GMAW) All
Flux cored arc (FCAW) 60° V depth of groove
J or U groove
Submerged arc (SAW) F
60° bevel or V
Gas metal arc (GMAW)
F, H 45° bevel depth of groove
Flux cored arc (FCAW)
1. Groove Welds
User Note: The effective throat of a PJP groove weld is dependent on the pro-
cess used and the weld position. The design documents should either indicate the
effective throat required or the weld strength required, and the fabricator should
detail the joint based on the weld process and position to be used to weld the joint.
For PJP groove welds, effective throats larger than those for prequalified PJP groove
welds in AWS D1.1/D1.1M, Figure 5.2, and flare groove welds in Table J2.2 are
permitted for a given welding procedure specification (WPS), provided the fabricator
establishes by testing the consistent production of such larger effective throats. Testing
shall consist of sectioning the weld normal to its axis, at mid-length, and at termi-
nal ends. Such sectioning shall be made on a number of combinations of material
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
TABLE J2.2
Effective Throat of
Flare Groove Welds
Welding Process Flare-Bevel-Groove[a] Flare-V-Groove
GMAW and FCAW-G / R
58 / R
34
SAW / R
5 16 / R
12
R = radius of joint surface (is permitted to be assumed equal to 2t for HSS, where t is the design wall thick-
ness), in. (mm)
[a]For flare-bevel-groove with R < 3/8 in. (10 mm), use only reinforcing fillet weld on filled flush joint.
TABLE J2.3
Minimum Effective Throat of
Partial-Joint-Penetration Groove Welds
Material Thickness of Minimum Effective
Thinner Part Joined, in. (mm) Throat,[a] in. (mm)
To 1/4 (6) inclusive / (3)
18
2. Fillet Welds
and terminal ends. During production, single pass welds and the root pass of multi-
pass welds shall be made using a mechanized, automatic, or robotic process with no
decrease in current or increase in travel speed from that used for testing.
For fillet welds in holes and slots, the effective length shall be the length of the
centerline of the weld along the center of the plane through the throat. In the case
of overlapping fillets, the effective area shall not exceed the nominal cross-sectional
area of the hole or slot in the plane of the faying surface.
2b. Limitations
Fillet welds shall meet the following limitations:
(a) The minimum size of fillet welds shall be not less than the size required to trans-
mit calculated forces nor the size as shown in Table J2.4. These limitations do
not apply to fillet weld reinforcements of groove welds.
(b) The maximum specified size of fillet welds of connected parts shall be
(1) Along edges of material less than 4 in. (6 mm) thick; not greater than the
thickness of the material.
(2) Along edges of material 4 in. (6 mm) or more in thickness; not greater
than the thickness of the material minus z in. (2 mm), unless the weld is
especially designated on the design and fabrication documents to be built
out to obtain full-throat thickness. In the as-welded condition, the distance
between the edge of the base metal and the toe of the weld is permitted to
be less than z in. (2 mm), provided the weld size is clearly verifiable.
(c) The minimum length of fillet welds designed on the basis of strength shall be not
less than four times the nominal weld size, or else the effective size of the weld
shall not be taken to exceed one-quarter of its length.
(d) The effective length of end-loaded fillet welds shall be determined as follows:
(1) For fillet welds with a length up to 100 times the weld size, it is permitted
to take the effective length equal to the actual length.
(2) When the length of the fillet weld exceeds 100 times the weld size, the effec-
tive length shall be determined by multiplying the actual length by the
reduction factor, β, determined as
β = 1.2 − 0.002 (l w) ≤ 1.0 (J2-1)
where
l = actual length of end-loaded weld, in. (mm)
w = size of weld leg, in. (mm)
(3) When the length of the weld exceeds 300 times the leg size, w, the effective
length shall be taken as 180w.
User Note: For the effect of longitudinal fillet weld length in end connections
upon the effective area of the connected member, see Section D3.
TABLE J2.4
Minimum Size of Fillet Welds
Material Thickness of Minimum Size of
Thinner Part Joined, in. (mm) Fillet Weld,[a] in. (mm)
To 1/4 (6) inclusive / (3)
18
[a]Leg
dimension of fillet welds. When non-low hydrogen electrodes are used, single pass welds must be
used.
Note: See Section J2.2b for maximum size of fillet welds.
(e) Intermittent fillet welds are permitted to be used to transfer calculated stress
across a joint or faying surfaces and to join components of built-up members.
The length of any segment of intermittent fillet welding shall be not less than
four times the weld size, with a minimum of 12 in. (38 mm).
(f) In lap joints, the minimum amount of lap shall be five times the thickness of
the thinner part joined, but not less than 1 in. (25 mm). Lap joints joining plates
or bars subjected to axial stress that utilize transverse fillet welds only shall be
fillet welded along the end of both lapped parts, except where the deflection of
the lapped parts is sufficiently restrained to prevent opening of the joint under
maximum loading.
(g) Fillet weld terminations shall be detailed in a manner that does not result in a
notch in the base metal subjected to applied tension loads. Components shall not
be connected by welds where the weld would prevent the deformation required
to provide assumed design conditions.
User Note: Fillet weld terminations should be detailed in a manner that does
not result in a notch in the base metal transverse to applied tension loads that
can occur as a result of normal fabrication. An accepted practice to avoid
notches in base metal is to stop fillet welds short of the edge of the base metal
by a length approximately equal to the size of the weld. In most welds, the
effect of stopping short can be neglected in strength calculations.
There are two common details where welds are terminated short of the end of
the joint to permit relative deformation between the connected parts:
• Welds on the outstanding legs of beam double-angle connections are returned
on the top of the outstanding leg and stopped no more than 4 times the weld
size and not greater than half the leg width from the outer toe of the angle.
• Fillet welds connecting transverse stiffeners to webs of girders that are w in.
(19 mm) thick or less are stopped 4 to 6 times the web thickness from the
web toe of the flange-to web fillet weld, except where the end of the stiff-
ener is welded to the flange.
Details of fillet weld terminations may be shown on shop standard details.
(h) Fillet welds in holes or slots are permitted to be used to transmit shear and resist
loads perpendicular to the faying surface in lap joints or to prevent the buckling
or separation of lapped parts and to join components of built-up members. Such
fillet welds are permitted to overlap, subject to the provisions of Section J2. Fillet
welds in holes or slots are not to be considered plug or slot welds.
(i) For fillet welds in slots, the ends of the slot shall be semicircular or shall have the
corners rounded to a radius of not less than the thickness of the part containing
it, except those ends that extend to the edge of the part.
3b. Limitations
Plug or slot welds are permitted to be used to transmit shear in lap joints or to pre-
vent buckling or separation of lapped parts, and to join component parts of built-up
members, subject to the following limitations:
(a) The diameter of the holes for a plug weld shall not be less than the thickness of
the part containing it plus c in. (8 mm), rounded to the next larger odd z in.
(even mm), nor greater than the minimum diameter plus 8 in. (3 mm) or 24
times the thickness of the weld.
(b) The minimum center-to-center spacing of plug welds shall be four times the
diameter of the hole.
(c) The length of slot for a slot weld shall not exceed 10 times the thickness of the
weld.
(d) The width of the slot shall be not less than the thickness of the part containing it
plus c in. (8 mm) rounded to the next larger odd z in. (even mm), nor shall it
be larger than 24 times the thickness of the weld.
(e) The ends of the slot shall be semicircular or shall have the corners rounded to a
radius of not less than the thickness of the part containing it.
(f) The minimum spacing of lines of slot welds in a direction transverse to their
length shall be four times the width of the slot.
(g) The minimum center-to-center spacing in a longitudinal direction on any line
shall be two times the length of the slot.
(h) The thickness of plug or slot welds in material s in. (16 mm) or less in thickness
shall be equal to the thickness of the material. In material over s in. (16 mm)
thick, the thickness of the weld shall be at least one-half the thickness of the
material, but not less than s in. (16 mm).
4. Strength
(a) The design strength, φRn , and the allowable strength, Rn Ω, of welded joints
shall be the lower value of the base material strength determined according to
the limit states of tensile rupture and shear rupture and the weld metal strength
determined according to the limit state of rupture as follows.
For the base metal
Rn = FnBM ABM (J2-2)
For complete-joint-penetration and partial-joint-penetration groove welds, and
plug and slot welds
Rn = Fnw Awe (J2-3)
For fillet welds
Rn = Fnw Awe kds (J2-4)
where
ABM = area of the base metal, in.2 (mm2)
Awe = effective area of the weld, in.2 (mm2)
FnBM = nominal stress of the base metal, ksi (MPa)
Fnw = nominal stress of the weld metal, ksi (MPa)
kds = directional strength increase factor
(1) For fillet welds where strain compatibility of the various weld ele-
ments is considered
kds = (1.0 + 0.50sin1.5θ) (J2-5)
(2) For fillet welds to the ends of rectangular HSS loaded in tension
kds = 1.0
(3) For all other conditions
kds = 1.0
θ = angle between the line of action of the required force and the weld
longitudinal axis, degrees
The values of φ, Ω, FnBM, and Fnw , and limitations thereon, are given in Table
J2.5.
User Note: The base metal check need not be performed for fillet welds as
illustrated in the Commentary.
User Note: The instantaneous center method is a valid way to calculate the
strength of weld groups consisting of weld elements in various directions that
considers strain compatibility of the weld elements.
Strain compatibility is satisfied for a linear weld group with a uniform leg
size connecting elements with uniform stiffness that are loaded through the
center of gravity and, therefore, the directional strength increase may be used.
A linear weld group is one in which all elements are in a line or are parallel.
TABLE J2.5
Available Strength of Welded Joints, ksi (MPa)
Nominal Effective
Load Type and Stress, Area,
Direction FnBM or ABM or Required Filler
Relative to Pertinent Fnw, Awe, Metal Strength
Weld Axis Metal f and W ksi (MPa) in.2 (mm2) Level[a][b]
COMPLETE-JOINT-PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS
Matching filler metal
shall be used. For
T- and corner-joints
Tension— Strength of the joint is controlled
with backing left in
normal to weld axis by the base metal.
place, notch tough filler
metal is required.
See Section J2.6.
Filler metal with a
strength level equal to
Compression— Strength of the joint is controlled
or one strength level
normal to weld axis by the base metal.
less than matching filler
metal is permitted.
Tension or compression in parts joined Filler metal with a
Tension or
parallel to a weld is permitted to be strength level equal to
compression—
neglected in design of welds joining the or less than matching
parallel to weld axis
parts. filler metal is permitted.
Strength of the joint is controlled Matching filler metal
Shear
by the base metal. shall be used.[c]
PARTIAL-JOINT-PENETRATION GROOVE WELDS INCLUDING FLARE-V-GROOVE
AND FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELDS
f = 0.75
Base Fu See J4
Tension— W = 2.00
normal to weld axis f = 0.80
Weld 0.60FEXX See J2.1a
W = 1.88
Compression—
connections of Compressive stress is permitted
members designed to to be neglected in design of welds
bear as described in joining the parts.
Section J1.4(b) Filler metal with a
strength level equal
f = 0.90 to or less than
Compression— Base Fy See J4
W = 1.67 matching filler metal
connections not
f = 0.80 is permitted.
designed to bear Weld 0.90FEXX See J2.1a
W = 1.88
Tension or Tension or compression in parts joined
compression— parallel to a weld is permitted to be neglected
parallel to weld axis in design of welds joining the parts.
Base Governed by J4
Shear f = 0.75
Weld 0.60FEXX See J2.1a
W = 2.00
(b) For fillet weld groups concentrically loaded and consisting of elements with a
uniform leg size that are oriented both longitudinally and transversely to the
direction of applied load, the nominal strength, Rn, of the fillet weld group is
permitted to be determined as
Rn = 0.85 Fnw Awel + 1.5Fnw Awet (J2-6)
where
Awel = effective area of longitudinally loaded fillet welds, in.2 (mm2)
Awet = effective area of transversely loaded fillet welds, in.2 (mm2)
User Note: The nominal strength of fillet welds groups consisting of ele-
ments that are oriented both longitudinally and transversely to the direction
of applied load can also be calculated in accordance with Section J2.4(a)
neglecting the directional strength increase.
5. Combination of Welds
If two or more of the general types of welds (groove, fillet, plug, slot) are combined
in a single joint, the strength of each shall be separately computed with reference to
the axis of the group in order to determine the strength of the combination.
User Note: The following User Note Table summarizes the AWS D1.1/D1.1M
provisions for matching filler metals. Other restrictions exist. For a com-
plete list of base metals and prequalified matching filler metals, see AWS
D1.1/D1.1M, Table 5.3 and Table 5.4.
Filler metal with a specified minimum Charpy V-notch toughness of 20 ft-lb (27 J)
at 40°F (4°C) or lower shall be used in the following joints:
(a) CJP groove welded T- and corner-joints with steel backing left in place, sub-
jected to tension normal to the effective area, unless the joints are designed using
the nominal strength and resistance factor or safety factor, as applicable, for a
PJP groove weld
(b) CJP groove welded splices subjected to tension normal to the effective area in
heavy shapes, as defined in Sections A3.1d and A3.1e
The manufacturer’s Certificate of Conformance shall be sufficient evidence of com-
pliance.
1. Common Bolts
ASTM A307 bolts are permitted except where pretensioning is specified.
2. High-Strength Bolts
Use of high-strength bolts and bolting components shall conform to the provisions of
the RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts, hereafter re-
ferred to as the RCSC Specification, except where those provisions differ from this
Specification. This Specification governs where provisions differ from the RCSC
Specification.
User Note: Examples of provisions in the RCSC Specification that differ from
this Specification’s provisions are shown in the Commentary.
User Note: The use of Group 200 bolting assemblies is limited to specific build-
ing locations and noncorrosive environmental conditions by the applicable ASTM
standard.
When assembled, all joint surfaces, including those adjacent to the washers, shall be
free of scale, except tight mill scale.
(a) Bolting assemblies are permitted to be installed to the snug-tight condition when
used in
(1) Bearing-type connections, except as stipulated in Section E6
(2) Tension or combined shear and tension applications, for Group 120 bolts
only, where loosening or fatigue due to vibration or load fluctuations are not
design considerations
When bolt requirements cannot be provided within the RCSC Specification limi-
tations because of requirements for lengths exceeding 12 diameters or diameters
exceeding 12 in. (38 mm), bolts or threaded rods conforming to Group 120 or Group
150 materials are permitted to be used in accordance with the provisions for threaded
parts in Table J3.2.
When ASTM A354 Grade BC, ASTM A354 Grade BD, or ASTM A449 bolts and
threaded rods are used in pretensioned connections, the bolt geometry, including
the thread pitch, thread length, head, and nut(s), shall be equal to or (if larger in
diameter) proportional to that required by the RCSC Specification. Installation shall
comply with all applicable requirements of the RCSC Specification with modifica-
tions as required for the increased diameter and/or length to provide the design
pretension.
User Note: Bolt holes with a smaller nominal diameter are permitted. See
RCSC Specification Table 3.1 for bolt hole fabrication tolerances. See
Section J9 for diameters of holes in base plates for anchor rods providing
anchorage to concrete.
TABLE J3.1
Minimum Bolt Pretension, kips
Group 144[b] and Group 200,
Bolt Size, in. Group 120[a] Group 150[b] Grade 2[c]
12/ 12 15 −
58/ 19 24 −
34/ 28 35 −
7/8 39 49 −
1 51 64 90
11/8 64 80 113
11/4 81 102 143
13/8 97 121 −
11/2 118 148 −
[a]Equal to 0.70 times the minimum tensile strength of bolts as specified in ASTM F3125/F3125M for Grade
A325 rounded off to nearest kip.
[b]Equal to 0.70 times the minimum tensile strength of bolts as specified in ASTM F3125/F3125M for Grade
A490 rounded off to nearest kip. Group 144 (F3148) assemblies have the same specified minimum preten-
sion as Group 150.
[c]Equal to 0.70 times the minimum tensile strength of bolts as specified in ASTM F3043 and F3111 for Grade
TABLE J3.1M
Minimum Bolt Pretension, kN
Bolt Size, mm Group 120[a] Group 150[b]
M12 49 72
M16 91 114
M20 142 179
M22 176 221
M24 205 257
M27 267 334
M30 326 408
M36 475 595
[a]Equal
to 0.70 times the minimum tensile strength of bolts as specified in ASTM F3125/F3125M for Grade
A325M bolts, rounded off to nearest kN.
[b]Equal
to 0.70 times the minimum tensile strength of bolts as specified in ASTM F3125/F3125M for Grade
A490M bolts, rounded off to nearest kN.
(b) Standard holes or short-slotted holes transverse to the direction of the load
shall be provided in accordance with the provisions of this Specification, unless
oversized holes, short-slotted holes parallel to the load, or long-slotted holes are
approved by the engineer of record.
(c) Finger shims up to 4 in. (6 mm) are permitted in slip-critical connections de-
signed on the basis of standard holes without reducing the nominal shear strength
of the fastener to that specified for slotted holes.
TABLE J3.2
Nominal Stress of Fasteners and Threaded Parts,
ksi (MPa)
Nominal Shear Stress in
Bearing-Type Connections,
Nominal Fnv, ksi (MPa)[c]
Tensile Threads Not
Stress, Excluded from Threads Excluded
Fnt, ksi Shear Planes— from Shear Planes
Description of Fasteners (MPa)[a][b] (N)[e] —(X)
A307 bolts 45 (310) 27 (190)[d] 27 (190)[d]
Group 120 (e.g., A325) 90 (620) 54 (370) 68 (470)
Group 144 (e.g., F3148) 108 (750) 65 (450) 81 (560)
Group 150 (e.g., A490) 113 (780) 68 (470) 84 (580)
Group 200 (e.g., F3043) 150 (1 000) 90 (620)[f] 113 (780)[f]
Threaded parts meeting
the requirements of 0.75Fu 0.450Fu 0.563Fu
Section A3.4
[a]For high-strength bolts subjected to tensile fatigue loading, see Appendix 3.
[b]For nominal tensile strength it is permitted to use the tensile stress area of the threaded rod or bolt multi-
plied by the specified minimum tensile stress of the rod or bolt material, in lieu of the tabulated values based
on a nominal tensile stress area of 0.75 times the gross area. The tensile stress area shall be calculated in
accordance with the applicable ASTM standard.
[c]For end-loaded connections with a fastener pattern length greater than 38 in. (950 mm), F shall be reduced
nv
to 83.3% of the tabulated values. Fastener pattern length is the maximum distance parallel to the line of
force between the centerline of the bolts connecting two parts with one faying surface.
[d]For ASTM A307 bolts, the tabulated values shall be reduced by 1% for each 1/16 in. (2 mm) over five diam-
TABLE J3.3
Nominal Hole Dimensions, in.
Hole Dimensions
Bolt Standard Oversize Short-Slot Long-Slot
Diameter (Dia.) (Dia.) (Width × Length) (Width × Length)
/
12 /
9 16 /
58 / × 11/16
9 16 / × 11/4
9 16
/
58 /
11 16 /
13 16 / × 7/8
11 16 / × 19/16
11 16
TABLE J3.3M
Nominal Hole Dimensions, mm
Hole Dimensions
Short-Slot Long-Slot
Bolt Standard Oversize (Width × (Width ×
Diameter (Dia.) (Dia.) Length) Length)
M12 14 16 14 × 18 14 × 30
M16 18 20 18 × 22 18 × 40
M20 22 24 22 × 26 22 × 50
M22 24 28 24 × 30 24 × 55
M24 27[a] 30 27 × 32 27 × 60
M27 30 35 30 × 37 30 × 67
M30 33 38 33 × 40 33 × 75
≥M36 d+3 d+8 (d + 3) × (d + 10) (d + 3) × 2.5d
[a]Clearance provided allows the use of a 1-in.-diameter bolt.
(d) Oversized holes are permitted in any or all plies of slip-critical connections, but
they shall not be used in bearing-type connections.
(e) Short-slotted holes are permitted in any or all plies of slip-critical or bearing-
type connections. The slots are permitted without regard to direction of loading
in slip-critical connections, but the length shall be normal to the direction of the
loading in bearing-type connections.
(f) Long-slotted holes are permitted in only one of the connected parts of either a
slip-critical or bearing-type connection at an individual faying surface. Long-
slotted holes are permitted without regard to direction of loading in slip-critical
connections, but shall be normal to the direction of loading in bearing-type con-
nections.
(g) Washers shall be provided in accordance with the RCSC Specification Section
6, except for Group 200 bolting assemblies where washers shall be provided in
accordance with the applicable ASTM standard.
User Note: When Group 200 heavy-hex bolting assemblies are used, a single
washer is used under the bolt head and a single washer is used under the nut.
When Group 200 twist-off bolting assemblies are used, a single washer is used
under the nut. Washers are of the type specified in the ASTM standard for the
bolting assembly.
4. Minimum Spacing
The distance between centers of standard, oversized, or slotted holes shall not be less
than 2q times the nominal diameter, d, of the fastener. However, the clear distance
between bolt holes or slots shall not be less than d.
TABLE J3.4
Minimum Edge Distance[a] from
Center of Standard Hole[b] to Edge of
Connected Part, in.
Bolt Diameter Minimum Edge Distance
/
12 / 34
/
58 / 78
/
34 1
7/8 11/8
1 11/4
11/8 11/2
11/4 15/8
Over 11/4 11/4 d
[a]Ifnecessary, lesser edge distances are permitted provided the applicable provisions from Sections J3.11
and J4 are satisfied, but edge distances less than one bolt diameter are not permitted without approval
from the engineer of record.
[b] For oversized or slotted holes, see Table J3.5.
TABLE J3.4M
Minimum Edge Distance[a] from
Center of Standard Hole[b] to Edge of
Connected Part, mm
Bolt Diameter Minimum Edge Distance
12 18
16 22
20 26
22 28
24 30
27 34
30 38
36 46
Over 36 1.25d
[a]Ifnecessary, lesser edge distances are permitted provided the applicable provisions from Sections J3.11
and J4 are satisfied, but edge distances less than one bolt diameter are not permitted without approval
from the engineer of record.
[b] For oversized or slotted holes, see Table J3.5M.
TABLE J3.5
Values of Edge Distance Increment C2, in.
Slotted Holes
Nominal Long Axis Perpendicular to Edge
Diameter of Oversized Long Axis
Fastener Holes Short Slots Long Slots[a] Parallel to Edge
≤ 7/8 /
1 16 /
18
1 /
18 /
18 /d
34 0
≥ 11/8 /
18 /
3 16
[a] When the length of the slot is less than the maximum allowable (see Table J3.3), C2 is permitted to be
reduced by one-half the difference between the maximum and actual slot lengths.
TABLE J3.5M
Values of Edge Distance Increment C2, mm
Slotted Holes
Nominal Long Axis Perpendicular to Edge
Diameter of Oversized Long Axis
Fastener Holes Short Slots Long Slots[a] Parallel to Edge
≤ 22 2 3
0.75d 0
24 3 3
≥ 27 3 5
[a]When the length of the slot is less than the maximum allowable (see Table J3.3M), C2 is permitted to be
reduced by one-half the difference between the maximum and actual slot lengths.
User Note: The edge distances in Tables J3.4 and J3.4M are minimum edge dis-
tances based on standard fabrication practices and workmanship tolerances. The
appropriate provisions of Sections J3.11 and J4 must be satisfied.
User Note: The dimensions in (a) and (b) do not apply to elements consisting of
two shapes in continuous contact.
User Note: The available strength of a bolt in shear depends on whether the bolt
is sheared through its shank or through the threads or thread runout. Bolts that are
relatively short may be produced as fully threaded, without a shank, and thus may
not be able to be installed in the “threads excluded” condition.
The available shear stress of the fastener shall equal or exceed the required shear
stress, frv .
User Note: Note that when the required stress, f, in either shear or tension, is
less than or equal to 30% of the corresponding available stress, the effects of
combined stress need not be investigated. Also note that Equations J3-3a and
′ , as a function of
J3-3b can be rewritten so as to find a nominal shear stress, Fnv
the required tensile stress, ft .
(b) For oversized and short-slotted holes parallel to the direction of the load
φ = 0.85 (LRFD) Ω = 1.76 (ASD)
(c) For long-slotted holes
φ = 0.70 (LRFD) Ω = 2.14 (ASD)
where
Du = 1.13, a multiplier that reflects the ratio of the mean installed bolt pretension
to the specified minimum bolt pretension. The use of other values are per-
mitted if approved by the engineer of record.
Tb = minimum fastener pretension given in Table J3.1 or Table J3.1M, kips (kN)
hf = factor for fillers, determined as follows:
(1) For one filler between connected parts
hf = 1.0
(2) For two or more fillers between connected parts
hf = 0.85
ns = number of slip planes required to permit the connection to slip
µ =m ean slip coefficient for Class A or B surfaces, as applicable, and determined
as follows, or as established by tests:
(1)
For Class A surfaces (unpainted clean mill scale steel surfaces or
surfaces with Class A coatings on blast-cleaned steel or hot-dipped gal-
vanized steel whether as-galvanized or hand roughened)
µ = 0.30
1.5Ta
ksc = 1 − ≥ 0 (ASD) (J3-5b)
DuTb nb
where
Ta = required tension force using ASD load combinations, kips (kN)
Tu = required tension force using LRFD load combinations, kips (kN)
nb = number of bolts carrying the applied tension
(b) Tearout
(i) When deformation at the bolt hole at service load is a design con-
sideration
Rn = 1.2lc tFu (J3-6c)
(ii) When deformation at the bolt hole at service load is not a design con-
sideration
Rn = 1.5lc tFu (J3-6d)
(2) The nominal strength of a connected element at a bolt in a connection with long-
slotted holes with the slot perpendicular to the direction of force is the lesser of
the following:
(a) Bearing
Rn = 2.0dtFu (J3-6e)
(b) Tearout
Rn = 1.0lctFu (J3-6f)
11b. Connections Made Using Bolts or Rods that Pass Completely Through an
Unstiffened Box Member or HSS
(1) Bearing shall satisfy Section J7 and Equation J7-1
(2) Tearout
(i) For a bolt in a connection with a standard hole or a short-slotted hole with
the slot perpendicular to the direction of force
(a) When deformation at the bolt hole at service load is a design consideration
Rn = 1.2lc tFu (J3-6g)
(b) When deformation at the bolt hole at service load is not a design con-
sideration
Rn = 1.5lc tFu (J3-6h)
(ii) For a bolt in a connection with long-slotted holes with the slot perpendicular
to the direction of force
Rn = 1.0lc tFu (J3-6i)
where
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of the connected material, ksi (MPa)
d = nominal diameter of fastener, in. (mm)
lc = clear distance, in the direction of the force, between the edge of the hole and
the edge of the adjacent hole or edge of the material, in. (mm)
t = thickness of connected material, in. (mm)
Bearing strength and tearout strength shall be checked for both bearing-type and
slip-critical connections. The use of oversized holes and short- and long-slotted holes
parallel to the line of force is restricted to slip-critical connections per Section J3.3.
User Note: The effects of shear lag or concentrated loads dispersed within the
element may cause only a portion of the area to be effective in resisting the load.
For shear lag, see Chapter D.
User Note: Typical cases where Ubs should be taken as equal to 0.5 are illustrated
in the Commentary.
User Note: The effective length factors used in computing compressive strengths
of connecting elements are specific to the end restraint provided and may not
necessarily be taken as unity when the direct analysis method is employed.
J5. FILLERS
J6. SPLICES
Groove-welded splices in beams shall develop the nominal strength of the smaller
spliced section. Other types of splices in cross sections of beams shall develop the
strength required by the forces at the point of the splice.
1.2 ( Fy − 13) lb d
Rn = (J7-2)
20
1.2 ( Fy − 90 ) lb d
Rn = (J7-2M)
20
6.0 ( Fy − 13) lb d
Rn = (J7-3)
20
30.2 ( Fy − 90 ) lb d
Rn = (J7-3M)
20
where
d = diameter, in. (mm)
lb = length of bearing, in. (mm)
User Note: Column bases should be designed considering bearing against con-
crete elements, including when columns are required to resist a horizontal force
at the base plate. See AISC Design Guide 1, Base Plate and Anchor Rod Design,
Second Edition, for column base design information.
When anchor rods are used to resist horizontal forces, hole size, anchor rod setting
tolerance, and the horizontal movement of the column shall be considered in the
design.
Holes and slots larger than oversized holes and slots in Table J3.3 or Table J3.3M
are permitted in base plates when adequate bearing is provided for the nut by using
ASTM F844 washers or plate washers to bridge the hole.
User Note: The recommended hole sizes and corresponding washer dimensions
and nuts are given in the AISC Steel Construction Manual and ASTM F1554.
ASTM F1554 anchor rods may be furnished in accordance with product specifica-
tions with a body diameter less than the nominal diameter. Load effects such as
bending and elongation should be calculated based on minimum diameters per-
mitted by the product specification. See ASTM F1554 and the table, “Applicable
ASTM Specifications for Various Types of Structural Fasteners,” in the AISC
Steel Construction Manual Part 2.
User Note: See ACI 318 (ACI 318M) for embedment design and for shear fric-
tion design. See OSHA for special erection requirements for anchor rods.
User Note: See Appendix 6, Section 6.3, for requirements for the ends of canti-
lever members.
Stiffeners are required at unframed ends of beams in accordance with the require-
ments of Section J10.7.
User Note: Design guidance for members other than wide-flange sections and
similar built-up shapes, including HSS members, can be found in the Commentary.
1.5
2 1 + 4lb t
EFyw t f
Rn = 0.40tw − 0.2 w Qf (J10-5b)
d tf tw
where
Qf = chord-stress interaction parameter = 1.0 for wide-flange sections, channels,
box sections, and for HSS (connecting surface) in tension
= as given in Section K1.3 for all other HSS conditions
d = full nominal depth of the member, in. (mm)
When required, a transverse stiffener, a pair of transverse stiffeners, or a doubler
plate extending at least three-quarters of the depth of the web shall be provided.
Cr tw3 t f
3
Rn = 1 + 0.4 h tw (J10-6)
h2 Lb b f
(2) When ( h tw ) ( Lb b f ) > 2.3 , the limit state of web sidesway buckling does
not apply.
hen the required strength of the web exceeds the available strength, local
W
lateral bracing shall be provided at the tension flange or either a pair of trans-
verse stiffeners or a doubler plate shall be provided.
(b) If the compression flange is not restrained against rotation
(1) When ( h tw ) ( Lb b f ) ≤ 1.7
Cr tw3 t f h tw
3
Rn = 0.4 (J10-7)
h2 L b b f
(2) When ( h tw ) ( Lb b f ) > 1.7 , the limit state of web sidesway buckling does
not apply.
When the required strength of the web exceeds the available strength, local
lateral bracing shall be provided at both flanges at the point of application of the
concentrated forces.
In Equations J10-6 and J10-7, the following definitions apply:
Cr = 960,000 ksi (6.6×106 MPa), when αs Mr < My at the location of the force
= 480,000 ksi (3.3×106 MPa), when αs Mr ≥ My at the location of the force
Lb = largest laterally unbraced length along either flange at the point of load,
in. (mm)
Mr = required flexural strength using LRFD or ASD load combinations, kip-in.
(N-mm)
My = yield moment about the axis of bending, ksi (MPa)
= Fy Sx
bf = width of flange, in. (mm)
h = clear distance between flanges less the fillet or corner radius for rolled shapes;
distance between adjacent lines of fasteners or the clear distance between
flanges when welds are used for built-up shapes, in. (mm)
αs = 1.0 (LRFD); 1.5 (ASD)
The available strength of the web panel-zone for the limit state of shear yielding shall
be determined as follows:
φ = 0.90 (LRFD) Ω = 1.67 (ASD)
The nominal strength, Rn , shall be determined as follows:
(a) When the effect of inelastic panel-zone deformation on frame stability is not
accounted for in the analysis
(1) For αPr ≤ 0.4Py
Rn = 0.60Fy dc tw (J10-9)
(2) For αPr > 0.4Py
αP
Rn = 0.60 Fy dctw 1.4 − r (J10-10)
Py
(b) When the effect of inelastic panel-zone deformation on frame stability is ac-
counted for in the analysis
(1) For αPr ≤ 0.75Py
3bcf tcf2
Rn = 0.60Fy dctw 1 + (J10-11)
db d ct w
where
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the column web, ksi (MPa)
Pr = required axial strength using LRFD or ASD load combinations, kips (N)
Py = axial yield strength of the column, kips (N)
= Fy Ag
Ag = gross area of member, in.2 (mm2)
bcf = width of column flange, in. (mm)
db = depth of beam, in. (mm)
dc = depth of column, in. (mm)
tcf = thickness of column flange, in. (mm)
tw = thickness of column web, in. (mm)
α = 1.0 (LRFD); = 1.6 (ASD)
When required, doubler plate(s) or a pair of diagonal stiffeners shall be provided
within the boundaries of the rigid connection whose webs lie in a common plane.
See Section J10.9 for doubler plate design requirements.
7. Unframed Ends of Beams and Girders
At unframed ends of beams and girders not otherwise restrained against rotation
about their longitudinal axes, a pair of transverse stiffeners, extending the full depth
of the web, shall be provided.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
User Note: The flexural strength can be checked based on yield-line theory and
the shear strength can be determined based on a punching shear model. See AISC
Steel Construction Manual Part 9 for further discussion.
CHAPTER K
ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HSS AND
BOX-SECTION CONNECTIONS
This chapter addresses additional requirements for connections to HSS members and box
sections of uniform wall thickness, where seam welds between box-section elements are
complete-joint-penetration (CJP) groove welds in the connection region. The requirements
of Chapter J also apply.
The chapter is organized as follows:
K1. General Provisions and Parameters for HSS Connections
K2. Concentrated Forces on HSS
K3. HSS-to-HSS Truss Connections
K4. HSS-to-HSS Moment Connections
K5. Welds of Plates and Branches to HSS
User Note: Connection strength is often governed by the size of HSS mem-
bers, especially the wall thickness of truss chords, and this must be considered
in the initial design. To ensure economical and dependable connections can be
designed, the connections should be considered in the design of the members.
Angles between the chord and the branch(es) of less than 30° can make weld-
ing and inspection difficult and should be avoided. The limits of applicability
provided reflect limitations on tests conducted to date, measures to eliminate
undesirable limit states, and other considerations discussed in the Commentary.
See Section J3.11b for through-bolt provisions.
This section provides parameters to be used in the design of plate-to-HSS and HSS-
to-HSS connections.
The design strength, φRn , φMn , and φPn , and the allowable strength, Rn Ω, Mn Ω,
and Pn Ω, of connections shall be determined in accordance with the provisions of
this chapter and the provisions of Chapter B.
1. Definitions of Parameters
Ag = gross cross-sectional area of member, in.2 (mm2)
B = o verall width of rectangular HSS chord member measured 90° to the plane of
the connection, in. (mm)
Bb = overall width of rectangular HSS branch member or plate measured 90° to the
plane of the connection, in. (mm)
Be = effective width of rectangular HSS branch member or plate for local yielding
of the transverse element, in. (mm)
Bep = e ffective width of rectangular HSS branch member or plate for punching shear,
in. (mm)
D = outside diameter of round HSS chord member, in. (mm)
Db = outside diameter of round HSS branch member, in. (mm)
Fc = available stress in chord member, ksi (MPa)
= Fy for LRFD; 0.60Fy for ASD
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength of HSS chord member material, ksi (MPa)
Fub = specified minimum tensile strength of HSS branch member material, ksi (MPa)
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of HSS chord member material, ksi (MPa)
Fyb = specified minimum yield stress of HSS branch member or plate material, ksi
(MPa)
H = overall height of rectangular HSS chord member measured in the plane of the
connection, in. (mm)
Hb = overall height of rectangular HSS branch member measured in the plane of the
connection, in. (mm)
Qf = chord-stress interaction parameter
lend = distance from the near side of the connecting branch or plate to end of chord,
in. (mm)
t = design wall thickness of HSS chord member, in. (mm)
tb = design wall thickness of HSS branch member or thickness of plate, in. (mm)
β = width ratio; the ratio of branch diameter to chord diameter = Db D for round
HSS; the ratio of overall branch width to chord width = Bb B for rectangular
HSS
βeff = effective width ratio; the sum of the perimeters of the two branch members in
a K-connection divided by eight times the chord width
γ = chord slenderness ratio; the ratio of one-half the diameter to the wall thickness
= D 2t for round HSS, or the ratio of one-half the width to wall thickness
= B 2t for rectangular HSS
η = load length parameter, applicable only to rectangular HSS; the ratio of the
length of contact of the branch with the chord in the plane of the connection to
the chord width = lb B
θ = acute angle between the branch and chord, degrees
2. Rectangular HSS
where Pro and Mro are determined in the HSS chord member on the side of the
joint that has lower compression stress for round HSS and higher compression
stress for rectangular HSS. Pro and Mro refer to required strengths in the HSS
chord: Pro = Pu for LRFD, and Pa for ASD; Mro = Mu for LRFD, and Ma for ASD.
Limits of applicability:
D t ≤ 50 for round HSS T-, Y-, and K-connections
D t ≤ 40 for round HSS cross-connections
B t and H t ≤ 35 for rectangular HSS gapped K-connections and T-, Y-, and
cross-connections
Fy ≤ 52 ksi (360 MPa)
Fy Fu ≤ 0.8 (Note: ASTM A500/A500M Grade C is acceptable.)
4. End Distance
The available strength of the connection in Chapters J and K assume a chord member
with a minimum end distance, lend , on both sides of a connection.
(a) For rectangular sections
lend ≥ B 1 − β , for b ≤ 0.85 (K1-7)
When the connection occurs at a distance less than lend from an unreinforced end of
the chord, the available strength of the connection shall be reduced by 50%.
1. Definitions of Parameters
lb = bearing length of the load measured parallel to the axis of the HSS member (or
measured across the width of the HSS in the case of loaded cap plates), in. (mm)
2. Round HSS
The available strength of plate-to-round HSS connections, within the limits in Table
K2.1A, shall be determined as shown in Table K2.1.
3. Rectangular HSS
The available strength of connections to rectangular HSS with concentrated loads
shall be determined based on the applicable limit states from Chapter J.
TABLE K2.1
Available Strengths of Plate-to-Round HSS
Connections
Connection Type Connection Available Strength Plate Bending
Transverse plate T-, Y-, and Limit state: HSS local yielding
cross-connections
Plate axial load In-plane Out-of-plane
5. 5
Rnsinθ = Fy t2 Qf Mn = 0.5BbRn
Bb –
1 − 0. 81 (K2-1b)
D
(K2-1a)
f = 0.90 (LRFD) W = 1.67 (ASD)
Longitudinal plate T-, Y-, and Limit state: HSS plastification
cross-connections Plate axial load In-plane Out-of-plane
l
Rnsinθ = 5. 5 Fy t 2 1 + 0 .25 b Qf Mn = 0.8lbRn
D –
(K2-2b)
(K2-2a)
TABLE K2.1A
Limits of Applicability of Table K2.1
HSS wall slenderness: D t ≤ 50 for T-connections under branch plate axial load or bending
D t ≤ 40 for cross-connections under branch plate axial load or
bending
Width ratio: 00..22 << B D≤≤ 11..00 for transverse branch plate connections
Bbb D
Material strength: Fy ≤ 52 ksi (360 MPa)
Ductility: Fy Fu ≤ 0.8 Note: ASTM A500/A500M Grade C is acceptable.
(a) When the punching load, Pr sinθ, in a branch member is equilibrated by beam
shear in the chord member, the connection shall be classified as a T-connection
when the branch is perpendicular to the chord, and classified as a Y-connection
otherwise.
(b) When the punching load, Pr sinθ, in a branch member is essentially equilibrated
(within 20%) by loads in other branch member(s) on the same side of the con-
nection, the connection shall be classified as a K-connection. The relevant gap is
between the primary branch members whose loads equilibrate.
(c) When the punching load, Pr sinθ, is transmitted through the chord member and
is equilibrated by branch member(s) on the opposite side, the connection shall
be classified as a cross-connection.
(d) When a connection has more than two primary branch members or branch mem-
bers in more than one plane, the connection shall be classified as a general or
multiplanar connection.
User Note: Limit states are not defined for general or multiplanar HSS-to-
HSS truss connections.
When branch members transmit part of their load as K-connections and part of their
load as T-, Y-, or cross-connections, the adequacy of the connections shall be deter-
mined by interpolation on the proportion of the available strength of each in total.
For trusses that are made with HSS that are connected by welding branch members to
chord members, eccentricities within the limits of applicability are permitted without
consideration of the resulting moments for the design of the connection.
1. Definitions of Parameters
Ov = lov lp × 100, %
e = eccentricity in a truss connection, positive being away from the branches, in.
(mm)
g = gap between toes of branch members in a gapped K-connection, neglecting the
welds, in. (mm)
lb = H b sinθ, in. (mm)
lov = overlap length measured along the connecting face of the chord beneath the two
branches, in. (mm)
lp = projected length of the overlapping branch on the chord, in. (mm)
ζ = gap ratio; the ratio of the gap between the branches of a gapped K-connection
to the width of the chord = g B for rectangular HSS
2. Round HSS
The available strength of round HSS-to-HSS truss connections, within the limits in
Table K3.1A, shall be taken as the lowest value obtained according to the limit states
shown in Table K3.1.
3. Rectangular HSS
The available strength, φPn and Pn Ω, of rectangular HSS-to-HSS truss connections
within the limits in Table K3.2A, shall be taken as the lowest value obtained accord-
ing to limit states shown in Table K3.2 and Chapter J.
User Note: Outside the limits in Table K3.2A, the limit states of Chapter J are
still applicable and the applicable limit states of Chapter K are not defined.
User Note: Maximum gap size in Table K3.2A will be controlled by the e H
limit. If the gap is large, treat as two Y-connections.
TABLE K3.1
Available Strengths of Round
HSS-to-HSS Truss Connections
Connection Type Connection Available Axial Strength
General check for T-, Y-, cross-, and Limit state: shear yielding (punching)
K-connections with gap, when
1 + sinθ
Pn = 0. 6 Fy tπDb (K3-1)
Db (tens/comp) < ( D − 2t ) 2sin2θ
( )
Pnsinθ = Fy t 2 3. 1+ 15 .6β 2 γ 0. 2Qf (K3-2)
5. 7
Pnsinθ = Fy t 2 Qf (K3-3)
1 − 0.81 β
( Pnsinθ)compression branch
Db comp
= Fy t 2 2. 0 + 11 .33 Qg Q f (K3-4)
D
Functions
0.024γ 1. 2
Qg = γ 0. 2 1 + (K3-6)
0 . 5g
exp − 1 . 33 +1
t
x
Note that exp(x) is equal to e , where e = 2.71828 is the base of the natural logarithm.
TABLE K3.1A
Limits of Applicability of Table K3.1
Connection eccentricity: -0.55 ≤ e D ≤ 0.25 for K-connections
Chord wall slenderness: D t ≤ 50 for T-, Y-, and K-connections
D t ≤ 40 for cross-connections
Branch wall slenderness: Db tb ≤ 50 for tension and compression branch
User Note: The available axial strength for rectangular HSS-to-HSS member
connections, φPn or Pn Ω, is obtained from Chapter J and the AISC Steel Construc-
tion Manual Part 9.
1. Definitions of Parameters
Zb = plastic section modulus of branch about the axis of bending, in.3 (mm3)
2. Round HSS
The available strength of round HSS-to-HSS moment connections within the limits
of Table K4.1A shall be taken as the lowest value of the applicable limit states shown
in Table K4.1.
TABLE K3.2
Available Strengths of Rectangular
HSS-to-HSS Truss Connections
Connection Type Connection Available Axial Strength
Gapped K-Connections Limit state: chord wall plastification, for all b
( )
Pnsinθ = Fy t 2 9. 8β eff γ 0.5 Qf (K3-7)
f = 0.90 (LRFD) W = 1.67 (ASD)
Limit state: shear yielding (punching), when Bb < B - 2t
This limit state need not be checked for square branches.
Pnsinθ = 0. 6 Fy tB ( 2η + β + β eop ) (K3-8)
f = 0.95 (LRFD) W = 1.58 (ASD)
Limit state: shear of chord side walls in the gap region
Determine Pnsinq in accordance with Section G4.
This limit state need not be checked for square chords.
Limit state: local yielding of branch/branches due to
uneven load distribution
This limit state need not be checked for square
branches or where B t ≥ 15.
Pn = Fybtb ( 2Hb + Bb + Be − 4tb ) (K3-9)
f = 0.95 (LRFD) W = 1.58 (ASD)
Overlapped K-Connections Limit state: local yielding of branch/branches due to
uneven load distribution
f = 0.95 (LRFD) W = 1.58 (ASD)
When 25% ≤ Ov < 50%
O
Pn,i = Fybi tbi v ( 2Hbi − 4 tbi ) + Beoi + Beov (K3-10)
50
When 50% ≤ Ov < 80%
Pn,i = Fybi tbi ( 2Hbi − 4tbi + Beoi + Beov ) (K3-11)
Note that the force arrows shown Pn,i = Fybi tbi ( 2Hbi − 4tbi + Bbi + Beov ) (K3-12)
for overlapped K-connections may 10 Fy t
be reversed; i and j control member Beoi = Bbi ≤ Bbi (K3-13)
B t Fybi tbi
identification.
10 Fybj tbj
Beov = Bbi ≤ Bbi (K3-14)
Bbj tbj Fybi tbi
Subscript i refers to the overlapping branch.
Subscript j refers to the overlapped branch.
Fybj A bj
Pn, j = Pn,i (K3-15)
Fybi A bi
Functions
TABLE K3.2A
Limits of Applicability of Table K3.2
Connection eccentricity: -0.55 ≤ e H ≤ 0.25 for K-connections
Chord wall slenderness: B t and H t ≤ 3
5 for gapped K-connections and T-, Y-,
and cross-connections
B t ≤ 30 for overlapped K-connections
TABLE K4.1
Available Strengths of Round HSS-to-HSS
Moment Connections
Connection Type Connection Available Flexural Strength
Branch(es) under in-plane bending Limit state: chord plastification
T-, Y-, and cross-connections
D
Mn-ip = 5. 39 Fy t 2 γ 0.5β b Qf (K4-1)
sinθ
f = 0.90 (LRFD) W = 1.67 (ASD)
Limit state: shear yielding (punching),
when Db < ( D − 2t )
1 + 3sinθ
Mn-ip = 0. 6 Fy tDb2 (K4-2)
4sin2θ
f = 0.95 (LRFD) W = 1.58 (ASD)
Branch(es) under out-of-plane bending Limit state: chord plastification
T-, Y-, and cross-connections
Fy t 2Db 3. 0
Mn-op = Qf (K4-3)
sinθ 1 − 0.81β
f = 0.90 (LRFD) W = 1.67 (ASD)
Limit state: shear yielding (punching),
when Db < ( D − 2t )
3 + sinθ
Mn-op = 0. 6 Fy tDb2 (K4-4)
4sin2θ
f = 0.95 (LRFD) W = 1.58 (ASD)
For T-, Y-, and cross-connections, with branch(es) under combined axial load, in-plane bend-
ing, and out-of-plane bending, or any combination of these load effects
2
Pr Mr -ip Mr -op
+ + ≤ 1.0 (K4-5)
Pc Mc- ip Mc- op
Pr = required axial strength in branch using LRFD or ASD load combinations, kips (N)
Mr-ip = required in-plane flexural strength in branch using LRFD or ASD load combinations,
kip-in. (N-mm)
Mr-op = required out-of-plane flexural strength in branch using LRFD or ASD load
combinations, kip-in. (N-mm)
Pc = available axial strength obtained from Table K3.1, kips (N)
Mc-ip = available strength for in-plane bending, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mc-op = available strength for out-of-plane bending, kip-in. (N-mm)
TABLE K4.1A
Limits of Applicability of Table K4.1
Chord wall slenderness: D t ≤ 50 for T- and Y-connections
D t ≤ 40 for cross-connections
Branch wall slenderness: Db tb ≤ 50
0. 05 E Fyb ≤ Db tb
Width ratio: 0.2 < Db D ≤ 1. 0
Material strength: Fy and Fyb ≤ 52 ksi (360 MPa)
Ductility: Fy Fu and Fyb Fub ≤ 0. 8 Note: ASTM A500/A500M Grade C is
acceptable.
3. Rectangular HSS
The available strength, φPn and Pn Ω, of rectangular HSS-to-HSS moment connec-
tions within the limits in Table K4.2A shall be taken as the lowest value obtained
according to limit states shown in Table K4.2 and Chapter J.
User Note: Outside the limits in Table K4.2A, the limit states of Chapter J are
still applicable and the applicable limit states of Chapter K are not defined.
TABLE K4.2
Available Strengths of Rectangular HSS-to-HSS
Moment Connections
Connection Type Connection Available Flexural Strength
Branch(es) under out-of-plane bending Limit state: chord sidewall local yielding
T- and cross-connections
Mn-op = Fy* t (B − t ) ( Hb + 5t ) (K4-6)
Mn-ip = 0. 5 Fy* t ( Hb + 5t )
2
(K4-8)
For T- and cross-connections, with branch(es) under combined axial load, in-plane bending,
and out-of-plane bending, or any combination of these load effects
Pr Mr -ip Mr -op
+ + ≤ 1.0 (K4-9)
Pc Mc- ip Mc- op
Pr = required axial strength in branch using LRFD or ASD load combinations, kips (N)
Mr-ip = required in-plane flexural strength in branch using LRFD or ASD load combinations,
kip-in. (N-mm)
Mr-op = required out-of-plane flexural strength in branch using LRFD or ASD load combina-
tions, kip-in. (N-mm)
Pc = available axial strength, kips (N)
Mc-ip = available strength for in-plane bending, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mc-op = available strength for out-of-plane bending, kip-in. (N-mm)
= fMn-op (LRFD); = Mn-op Ω (ASD)
Functions
Fy* = Fy for T-connections and 0.8Fy for cross-connections
Pro = Pu for LRFD, and Pa for ASD; Mro = Mu for LRFD, and Ma for ASD
TABLE K4.2A
Limits of Applicability of Table K4.2
Branch angle: q @ 90°
Chord wall slenderness: B t and H t ≤ 35
Branch wall slenderness: Bb tb and Hb tb ≤ 35
E
≤ 1. 25
Fyb
where
Fnw = nominal stress of weld metal in accordance with Chapter J, ksi (MPa)
Sip = effective elastic section modulus of welds for in-plane bending (Table
K5.1), in.3 (mm3)
Sop = effective elastic section modulus of welds for out-of-plane bending (Table
K5.1), in.3 (mm3)
le = total effective weld length of groove and fillet welds to HSS for weld
strength calculations, in. (mm)
tw = smallest effective weld throat thickness around the perimeter of branch or
plate, in. (mm)
User Note: Where flexure results in tension in any load case in the weld the
directional strength increase factor cannot exceed 1.0 in fillet welds to the end of
rectangular HSS.
User Note: The approach used here to allow downsizing of welds assumes a
constant weld size around the full perimeter of the HSS branch. Special attention
is required for equal width (or near-equal width) connections to rectangular HSS,
which combine partial-joint-penetration groove welds along the matched edges of
the connection, with fillet welds generally across the chord member face.
TABLE K5.1
Effective Weld Properties for Connections to
Rectangular HSS
Connection Type Weld Properties
Transverse plate T- and cross- Effective weld properties
connections under plate axial load
le = 2Be (K5-4)
2Hb
le = + 2Be (K5-5)
sinθ
2
tw H b Hb
Sip = + tw Be (K5-6)
3 sin θ sin θ
(tw 3) (Bb − Be ) 3
H
sinθ
t
Sop = tw b Bb + w Bb2 −
3
( )Bb
(K5-7)
When q ≤ 50°
2 ( Hb − 1.2 tb )
le = + 2 ( Bb − 1.2 tb) (K5-8)
sinθ
When q ≥ 60°
2 ( Hb − 1.2 tb )
le = + Bb − 1. 2 tb (K5-9)
sinθ
2Ov O H O H bi
le,i = 1 − v bi + v
50 100 sinθ i 100 sin (θ i + θ j )
+ Beoi + Beov (K5-10)
O H O Hbi
le,i = 2 1− v bi + v
Note that the force arrows shown for
100 sin θ i 100 ( i
sin θ + θ j )
overlapped K-connections may be + Beoi + Beov (K5-11)
reversed; i and j control member
identification.
When 80% ≤ Ov < 100%
O H O Hbi
le,i = 2 1− v bi + v
100 sin θ i 100 sin ( θ i + θ j )
+ Bbi + Beov (K5-12)
10 Fy t
Beoi = Bbi ≤ Bbi (K3-13)
B t Fybi tbi
10 Fybj tbj
Beov = Bbi ≤ Bbi (K3-14)
Bbj tbj Fybi tbi
10 Fy t
Bej = Bbj ≤ Bbj (K5-14)
B t Fybj tbj
TABLE K5.2
Effective Weld Properties for Connections to
Round HSS
Connection Type Weld Properties
T-, Y-, and cross-connections under Effective weld properties
branch axial load
When 0.1≤ b ≤ 0.5, 60° ≤ q ≤ 90°, and
10 ≤ D t ≤ 50
4
le = lw ≤ lw (K5-16)
2β ( D t)
CHAPTER L
DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY
This chapter addresses the evaluation of the structure and its components for the service-
ability limit states of deflections, drift, vibration, wind-induced motion, thermal distortion,
and connection slip.
The chapter is organized as follows:
L1. General Provisions
L2. Deflections
L3. Drift
L4. Vibration
L5. Wind-Induced Motion
L6. Thermal Expansion and Contraction
L7. Connection Slip
User Note: Serviceability limit states, service loads, and appropriate load combi-
nations for serviceability considerations can be found in ASCE Minimum Design
Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures (ASCE/
SEI 7) Appendix C and its Commentary. The performance requirements for ser-
viceability in this chapter are consistent with ASCE/SEI 7, Appendix C. Service
loads are those that act on the structure at an arbitrary point in time and are not
usually taken as the nominal loads.
Reduced stiffness values used in the direct analysis method, described in Chapter
C, are not intended for use with the provisions of this chapter.
L2. DEFLECTIONS
Deflections in structural members and structural systems shall be limited so as not to
impair the serviceability of the structure.
L3. DRIFT
Drift shall be limited so as not to impair the serviceability of the structure.
L4. VIBRATION
The effect of vibration on the comfort of the occupants and the function of the struc-
ture shall be considered. The sources of vibration to be considered include occupant
loading, vibrating machinery, and others identified for the structure.
User Note: For the design of slip-critical connections, see Sections J3.9 and
J3.10. For more information on connection slip, refer to the RCSC Specification
for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts.
CHAPTER M
FABRICATION AND ERECTION
This chapter addresses requirements for fabrication and erection documents, fabrication,
shop painting, and erection.
The chapter is organized as follows:
M1. Fabrication and Erection Documents
M2. Fabrication
M3. Shop Painting
M4. Erection
User Note: Code of Standard Practice Section 4 addresses requirements for fab-
rication and erection documents.
M2. FABRICATION
not exceed 1,100°F (590°C) and for ASTM A709/A709M, ASTM A913/A913M,
and ASTM A1066/A1066M, the temperature shall not exceed the maximum as
specified in the corresponding ASTM material standard. Subject to the approval of
the engineer of record, alternative temperature limitations in accordance with recom-
mendations by the producer of the material shall be used.
User Note: For other materials, as identified in Section A3.1b, limitations for the
temperature of the heated regions should be consistent with the recommendations
of the producer of the material.
2. Thermal Cutting
Thermally cut edges shall meet the requirements of Structural Welding Code—Steel
(AWS D1.1/D1.1M) clauses 7.14.5.2, 7.14.8.3, and 7.14.8.4, hereafter referred to as
AWS D1.1/D1.1M, with the exception that thermally cut free edges that will not be
subject to fatigue shall be free of round-bottom gouges greater than x in. (5 mm)
deep and sharp V-shaped notches. Gouges deeper than x in. (5 mm) and notches
shall be removed by grinding or repaired by welding.
Reentrant corners shall be formed with a curved transition. The radius need not
exceed that required to fit the connection. Discontinuous corners are permitted where
the material on both sides of the discontinuous reentrant corner is connected to a
mating piece to prevent deformation and associated stress concentration at the corner.
User Note: Reentrant corners with a radius of 2 to a in. (13 to 10 mm) are
generally acceptable for statically loaded work. Where pieces need to fit tightly
together, a discontinuous reentrant corner is acceptable if the pieces are connected
close to the corner on both sides of the discontinuous corner. Slots in HSS for
gussets may be made with semicircular ends or with curved corners. Square ends
are acceptable provided the edge of the gusset is welded to the HSS.
Weld access holes shall meet the geometrical requirements of Section J1.6. Beam
copes and weld access holes in shapes that are to be galvanized shall be ground to
bright metal. For shapes with a flange thickness not exceeding 2 in. (50 mm), the
roughness of thermally cut surfaces of copes shall be no greater than a surface rough-
ness value of 2,000 µin. (50 µm) as defined in Surface Texture, Surface Roughness,
Waviness, and Lay (ASME B46.1), hereafter referred to as ASME B46.1. For beam
copes and weld access holes in which the curved part of the access hole is thermally
cut in ASTM A6/A6M hot-rolled shapes with a flange thickness exceeding 2 in. (50
mm) and welded built-up shapes with material thickness greater than 2 in. (50 mm),
a preheat temperature of not less than 150°F (66°C) shall be applied prior to thermal
cutting. The thermally cut surface of access holes in ASTM A6/A6M hot-rolled
shapes with a flange thickness exceeding 2 in. (50 mm) and built-up shapes with a
material thickness greater than 2 in. (50 mm) shall be ground.
User Note: The AWS Surface Roughness Guide for Oxygen Cutting (AWS C4.1-
77) sample 2 may be used as a guide for evaluating the surface roughness of copes
in shapes with flanges not exceeding 2 in. (50 mm) thick.
3. Planing of Edges
Planing or finishing of sheared or thermally cut edges of plates or shapes is not required
unless specifically called for in the construction documents or included in a stipu-
lated edge preparation for welding.
4. Welded Construction
Welding shall be performed in accordance with AWS D1.1/D1.1M, except as modi-
fied in Section J2.
5. Bolted Construction
Parts of bolted members shall be pinned or bolted and rigidly held together during
assembly. Use of a drift pin in bolt holes during assembly shall not distort the metal
or enlarge the holes. Poor matching of holes shall be cause for rejection.
Bolt holes shall comply with the provisions of the RCSC Specification for Structural
Joints Using High-Strength Bolts Section 3.3, hereafter referred to as the RCSC
Specification. Water jet and thermally cut bolt holes are permitted and shall have
a surface roughness profile not exceeding 1,000 µin. (25 µm), as defined in ASME
B46.1. Gouges shall not exceed a depth of z in. (2 mm).
User Note: The AWS Surface Roughness Guide for Oxygen Cutting (AWS
C4.1-77) sample 3 may be used as a guide for evaluating the surface roughness
of thermally cut holes.
Fully inserted finger shims, with a total thickness of not more than 4 in. (6 mm)
within a joint, are permitted without changing the strength (based upon bolt hole
type) for the design of connections. The orientation of such shims is independent of
the direction of application of the load.
The use of high-strength bolts shall conform to the requirements of the RCSC
Specification, except as modified in Section J3.
6. Compression Joints
Compression joints that depend on contact bearing as part of the splice strength shall
have the bearing surfaces of individual fabricated pieces prepared by milling, saw-
ing, or other equivalent means.
7. Dimensional Tolerances
Dimensional tolerances shall be in accordance with Section 11 of the AISC Code of
Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges, hereafter referred to as the Code
of Standard Practice.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
User Note: Drainage and vent holes should be detailed on fabrication documents.
See the American Galvanizers Association (AGA) The Design of Products to be
Hot-Dip Galvanized After Fabrication, and ASTM A123, ASTM A143/A143M,
ASTM A385/A385M, ASTM F2329/F2329M, and ASTM A780/A780M for use-
ful information on design and detailing of galvanized members. See Section M2.2
for requirements for copes of members that are to be galvanized.
1. General Requirements
Shop painting and surface preparation shall be in accordance with the provisions in
Code of Standard Practice Section 6.
Shop paint is not required unless specified by the contract documents.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
2. Inaccessible Surfaces
Except for contact surfaces, surfaces inaccessible after shop assembly shall be
cleaned and painted prior to assembly, if required by the construction documents.
3. Contact Surfaces
Paint is permitted in bearing-type connections. For slip-critical connections, the fay-
ing surface requirements shall be in accordance with RCSC Specification Section
3.2.2.
4. Finished Surfaces
Machine-finished surfaces shall be protected against corrosion by a rust inhibi-
tive coating that can be removed prior to erection or has characteristics that make
removal prior to erection unnecessary.
M4. ERECTION
3. Alignment
No permanent bolting or welding shall be performed until the affected portions of the
structure have been aligned as required by the construction documents.
5. Field Welding
Surfaces in and adjacent to joints to be field welded shall be prepared as necessary to
assure weld quality. This preparation shall include surface preparation necessary to
correct for damage or contamination occurring subsequent to fabrication.
6. Field Painting
Responsibility for touch-up painting, cleaning, and field painting shall be allocated
in accordance with accepted local practices, and this allocation shall be set forth
explicitly in the contract documents.
CHAPTER N
QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
This chapter addresses minimum requirements for quality control, quality assurance, and
nondestructive testing for structural steel systems and steel elements of composite members
for buildings and other structures.
User Note: This chapter does not address quality control or quality assurance for the
following items:
(a) Steel (open web) joists and girders
(b) Tanks or pressure vessels
(c) Cables, cold-formed steel products, or gage material
(d) Concrete reinforcing bars, concrete materials, or placement of concrete for compo-
site members
User Note: The QA/QC requirements in Chapter N are considered adequate and
effective for most steel structures and are strongly encouraged without modifica-
tion. When the applicable building code and AHJ requires the use of a QA plan,
this chapter outlines the minimum requirements deemed effective to provide
satisfactory results in steel building construction. There may be cases where
supplemental inspections are advisable. Additionally, where the contractor’s QC
program has demonstrated the capability to perform some tasks this plan has
assigned to QA, modification of the plan could be considered.
User Note: The producers of materials manufactured in accordance with the stan-
dard specifications referenced in Section A3 and steel deck manufacturers are not
considered to be fabricators or erectors.
1. Material Identification
Material identification procedures shall comply with the requirements of Section 6.1
of the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges, hereafter
referred to as the Code of Standard Practice, and shall be monitored by the fabrica-
tor’s quality control inspector (QCI).
1. Quality Control
QC inspection tasks shall be performed by the fabricator’s or erector’s QCI, as appli-
cable, in accordance with Sections N5.4, N5.6, and N5.7.
Tasks in Tables N5.4-1 through N5.4-3 and Tables N5.6-1 through N5.6-3 listed for
QC are those inspections performed by the QCI to ensure that the work is performed
in accordance with the construction documents.
For QC inspection, the applicable construction documents are the fabrication docu-
ments and the erection documents, and the applicable referenced specifications,
codes, and standards.
User Note: The QCI need not refer to the design documents and project specifi-
cations. The Code of Standard Practice Section 4.2.1(a) requires the transfer of
information from the contract documents (design documents and project specifi-
cation) into accurate and complete fabrication and erection documents, allowing
QC inspection to be based upon fabrication and erection documents alone.
2. Quality Assurance
The QAI shall review the material test reports and certifications as listed in Section
N3.2 for compliance with the construction documents.
QA inspection tasks shall be performed by the QAI in accordance with Sections
N5.4, N5.6, and N5.7.
Tasks in Tables N5.4-1 through N5.4-3 and N5.6-1 through N5.6-3 listed for QA
are those inspections performed by the QAI to ensure that the work is performed in
accordance with the construction documents.
Concurrent with the submittal of such reports to the AHJ, EOR, or owner, the QA
agency shall submit to the fabricator and erector the following:
(a) Inspection reports
(b) NDT reports
Table N5.4-1
Inspection Tasks Prior to Welding
Inspection Tasks Prior to Welding QC QA
Welder qualification records and continuity records P O
WPS available P P
Manufacturer certifications for welding consumables available P P
Material identification (type/grade) O O
Welder identification system
• Fabricator or erector, as applicable, shall maintain a system
by which a welder who has welded a joint or member can be
O O
identified.
• Die stamping of members subjected to fatigue shall be
prohibited unless approved by the engineer of record.
Fit-up of groove welds (including joint geometry)
• Joint preparations
• Dimensions (alignment, root opening, root face, bevel)
O O
• Cleanliness (condition of steel surfaces)
• Tacking (tack weld quality and location)
• Backing type and fit (if applicable)
Fit-up of CJP groove welds of HSS T-, Y-, and K-connections with-
out backing (including joint geometry)
• Joint preparations
P O
• Dimensions (alignment, root opening, root face, bevel)
• Cleanliness (condition of steel surfaces)
• Tacking (tack weld quality and location)
Configuration and finish of access holes O O
Fit-up of fillet welds
• Dimensions (alignment, gaps at root)
O O
• Cleanliness (condition of steel surfaces)
• Tacking (tack weld quality and location)
3. Coordinated Inspection
When a task is noted to be performed by both QC and QA, it is permitted to coor-
dinate the inspection function between the QCI and QAI so that the inspection
functions are performed by only one party. When QA relies upon inspection func-
tions performed by QC, the approval of the EOR and the AHJ is required.
4. Inspection of Welding
Observation of welding operations and visual inspection of in-process and completed
welds shall be the primary method to confirm that the materials, procedures, and
workmanship are in conformance with the construction documents.
TABLE N5.4-2
Inspection Tasks During Welding
Inspection Tasks During Welding QC QA
Control and handling of welding consumables
• Packaging O O
• Exposure control
No welding over cracked tack welds O O
Environmental conditions
• Wind speed within limits O O
• Precipitation and temperature
WPS followed
• Settings on welding equipment
• Travel speed
• Selected welding materials
O O
• Shielding gas type/flow rate
• Preheat applied
• Interpass temperature maintained (min./max.)
• Proper position (F, V, H, OH)
Welding techniques
• Interpass and final cleaning
O O
• Each pass within profile limitations
• Each pass meets quality requirements
Placement and installation of steel headed stud anchors P P
5a. Procedures
Ultrasonic testing (UT), magnetic particle testing (MT), penetrant testing (PT), and
radiographic testing (RT), where required, shall be performed by QA in accordance
with AWS D1.1/D1.1M.
TABLE N5.4-3
Inspection Tasks After Welding
Inspection Tasks After Welding QC QA
Welds cleaned O O
Size, length, and location of welds P P
Welds meet visual acceptance criteria
• Crack prohibition
• Weld/base-metal fusion
• Crater cross section
P P
• Weld profiles
• Weld size
• Undercut
• Porosity
Arc strikes P P
k-area[a] P P
Weld access holes in rolled heavy shapes and built-up heavy
P P
shapes[b]
Backing removed and weld tabs removed (if required) P P
Repair activities P P
Document acceptance or rejection of welded joint or member[c] P P
No prohibited welds have been added without the approval of the
O O
engineer of record
[a]When welding of doubler plates, continuity plates, or stiffeners has been performed in the k-area, visually
inspect the web k-area for cracks within 3 in. (75 mm) of the weld.
[b]After rolled heavy shapes (see Section A3.1d) and built-up heavy shapes (see Section A3.1e) are welded,
visually inspect the weld access hole for cracks.
[c]Die stamping of members subjected to fatigue shall be prohibited unless approved by the engineer of record.
User Note: For structures in risk category I, NDT of CJP groove welds is not
required. For all structures in all risk categories, NDT of CJP groove welds in
materials less than c in. (8 mm) thick is not required.
5g. Documentation
All NDT performed shall be documented. For shop fabrication, the NDT report shall
identify the tested weld by piece mark and location in the piece. For field work, the
NDT report shall identify the tested weld by location in the structure, piece mark,
and location in the piece.
When a weld is rejected on the basis of NDT, the NDT record shall indicate the loca-
tion of the defect and the basis of rejection.
TABLE N5.6-1
Inspection Tasks Prior to Bolting
Inspection Tasks Prior to Bolting QC QA
Manufacturer’s certifications available for fastener materials O P
TABLE N5.6-2
Inspection Tasks During Bolting
Inspection Tasks During Bolting QC QA
Fastener assemblies placed in all holes, and washers and nuts are
O O
positioned as required
TABLE N5.6-3
Inspection Tasks After Bolting
Inspection Tasks After Bolting QC QA
Document acceptance or rejection of bolted connections P P
User Note: It is normal practice for fabricated steel that requires hot-dip galvaniz-
ing to be delivered to the galvanizer and then shipped to the jobsite. As a result,
inspection on site is common.
User Note: This includes such items as the correct application of shop joint
details at each connection.
The erector’s QCI shall inspect the erected steel frame to verify compliance with the
field installed details shown on the erection documents.
User Note: This includes such items as braces, stiffeners, member locations, and
correct application of field joint details at each connection.
The QAI shall be on the premises for inspection during the placement of anchor rods
and other embedments supporting structural steel for compliance with the construc-
tion documents. As a minimum, the diameter, grade, type, and length of the anchor
rod or embedded item, and the extent or depth of embedment into the concrete, shall
be verified and documented prior to placement of concrete.
The QAI shall inspect the fabricated steel or erected steel frame, as applicable, to
verify compliance with the details shown on the construction documents.
User Note: This includes such items as braces, stiffeners, member locations, and
the correct application of joint details at each connection.
The acceptance or rejection of joint details and the correct application of joint details
shall be documented.
User Note: When there is a conflict between the coating manufacturer’s product
data sheet and the contract documents for the proper application of a coating, it is
recommended to clarify with the engineer of record which will govern.
Unless there is direction to the contrary in the contract documents, observation of the
coating process prior to, during, and after the application of the coating shall be the
primary method to confirm that the coating material, procedures, and workmanship
are in conformance with the construction documents.
APPENDIX 1
DESIGN BY ADVANCED ANALYSIS
This appendix permits the use of advanced methods of structural analysis to directly model
system and member imperfections, and/or allow for the redistribution of member and con-
nection forces and moments as a result of localized yielding.
The appendix is organized as follows:
1.1 General Requirements
1.2 Design by Elastic Analysis
1.3 Design by Inelastic Analysis
(c) In all cases, the analysis shall directly model the effects of initial imperfections
due to both points of intersection of members displaced from their nominal
locations (system imperfections), and initial out-of-straightness or offsets of
members along their length (member imperfections). The magnitude of the ini-
tial displacements shall be the maximum amount considered in the design; the
pattern of initial displacements shall be such that it provides the greatest desta-
bilizing effect for the load combination being considered. The use of notional
loads to represent either type of imperfection is not permitted.
User Note: Stiffness reduction should be applied to all member properties includ-
ing torsional properties (GJ and ECw) affecting twist of the member cross section.
One practical method of including stiffness reduction is to reduce E and G by
0.8τb, thereby leaving all cross-section geometric properties at their nominal
value.
Applying this stiffness reduction to some members and not others can, in some
cases, result in artificial distortion of the structure under load and thereby lead
to an unintended redistribution of forces. This can be avoided by applying the
reduction to all members, including those that do not contribute to the stability
of the structure.
User Note: Design by the provisions of this section is independent of the require-
ments of Section 1.2.
1. General Requirements
The design strength of the structural system and its members and connections shall
equal or exceed the required strength as determined by the inelastic analysis. The
provisions of Section 1.3 do not apply to seismic design.
The inelastic analysis shall take into account (a) flexural, shear, axial, and torsional
member deformations, and all other component and connection deformations that
contribute to the displacements of the structure; (b) second-order effects (including
P-∆, P-δ, and twisting effects); (c) geometric imperfections; (d) stiffness reductions
due to inelasticity, including partial yielding of the cross section that may be accentu-
ated by the presence of residual stresses; and (e) uncertainty in system, member, and
connection strength and stiffness.
Strength limit states detected by an inelastic analysis that incorporates all of the pre-
ceding requirements in this section are not subject to the corresponding provisions of
this Specification when a comparable or higher level of reliability is provided by the
analysis. Strength limit states not detected by the inelastic analysis shall be evaluated
using the corresponding provisions of Chapters D through K.
2. Ductility Requirements
Members and connections with elements subject to yielding shall be proportioned
such that all inelastic deformation demands are less than or equal to their inelastic
deformation capacities. In lieu of explicitly ensuring that the inelastic deformation
demands are less than or equal to their inelastic deformation capacities, the following
requirements shall be satisfied for steel members subject to plastic hinging.
2a. Material
The specified minimum yield stress, Fy , of members subject to plastic hinging shall
not exceed 65 ksi (450 MPa).
E Pu E
λ pd = 1.12 2.33 − ≥ 1.49 (A-1-2)
Fy φc Py Fy
where
Pu = required axial strength in compression, using LRFD load combinations,
kips (N)
Py = axial yield strength, kips (N)
= Fy Ag
h = as defined in Section B4.1, in. (mm)
tw = thickness of web, in. (mm)
φc = resistance factor for compression
= 0.90
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
(b) For the width-to-thickness ratio, b t , of flanges of rectangular HSS and box
sections, and for flange cover plates between lines of fasteners or welds
λ pd = 0.94 E Fy (A-1-3)
where
b = as defined in Section B4.1, in. (mm)
t = as defined in Section B4.1, in. (mm)
(c) For the diameter-to-thickness ratio, D t, of round HSS in flexure
λ pd = 0.045 E Fy (A-1-4)
where
D = outside diameter of round HSS, in. (mm)
M′ E
L pd = 0.12 − 0.076 1 ry (A-1-5)
M2 Fy
where
ry = radius of gyration about minor axis, in. (mm)
(1) When the magnitude of the bending moment at any location within the
unbraced length exceeds M2
M 1′ M 2 = +1 (A-1-6a)
Otherwise,
(2) When M mid ≤ ( M 1 + M 2 ) 2
M 1′ = M 1 (A-1-6b)
The moments M1 and Mmid are individually taken as positive when they cause
compression in the same flange as the moment M2, and taken as negative
otherwise.
(b) For solid rectangular bars and for rectangular HSS and box sections bent about
their major axis
M′ E E
L pd = 0.17 − 0.10 1 ry ≥ 0.10 ry (A-1-7)
M 2 Fy Fy
For all types of members subjected to axial compression and containing plastic
hinges, the laterally unbraced lengths about the cross-section major and minor axes
shall not exceed 4.71rx E Fy and 4.71ry E Fy , respectively.
There is no Lpd limit for member segments containing plastic hinges in the follow-
ing cases:
(a) Members with round or square cross sections subjected only to flexure or to
combined flexure and tension
(b) Members subjected only to flexure about their minor axis or combined tension
and flexure about their minor axis
(c) Members subjected only to tension
3. Analysis Requirements
The structural analysis shall satisfy the general requirements of Section 1.3.1. These
requirements are permitted to be satisfied by a second-order inelastic analysis meet-
ing the requirements of this section.
Exception: For continuous beams not subjected to axial compression, a first-order
inelastic or plastic analysis is permitted and the requirements of Sections 1.3.3b and
1.3.3c are waived.
The plastic strength of the member cross section shall be represented in the analysis
either by an elastic-perfectly-plastic yield criterion expressed in terms of the axial
force, major-axis bending moment, and minor-axis bending moment, or by explicit
modeling of the material stress-strain response as elastic-perfectly-plastic.
APPENDIX 2
DESIGN OF FILLED COMPOSITE MEMBERS
(HIGH STRENGTH)
This appendix provides methods for calculating the design strength of filled composite
members constructed from either one or both materials (steel or concrete) with strengths
above the limits noted in Section I1.3. All other provisions of Chapter I shall apply.
1. Limitations
For rectangular filled composite members, the following limitations shall be met:
(a) The area of the steel section shall comprise at least 1% of the total composite
cross section.
(b) Concrete shall be normal weight, and the specified compressive strength of con-
crete, f c′, shall not exceed 15 ksi (100 MPa).
(c) The specified minimum yield stress of steel, Fy , shall not exceed 100 ksi (690
MPa).
(d) The maximum permitted width-to-thickness ratio for compression steel elements
shall be limited to 5.00 E Fy .
(e) Longitudinal reinforcement is not required. If longitudinal reinforcement is pro-
vided, it shall not be considered in the calculation of available strength, and the
minimum reinforcement requirements of Sections I2.2a and I3.4a shall apply.
2. Compressive Strength
The available compressive strength shall be determined in accordance with Section
I2.2b with the following modifications:
Pno = Fn As + 0.85 f c′Ac (A-2-1)
3. Flexural Strength
The available flexural strength shall be determined as follows:
φb = 0.90 (LRFD) Wb = 1.67 (ASD)
The nominal flexural strength, Mn, shall be determined as 90% of the moment cor-
responding to a stress distribution over the composite cross section assuming that
steel components have reached a stress of Fy in tension and Fn in compression, where
Fn is calculated using Equation A-2-2, and concrete components in compression
have reached a stress of 0.85 f c′, where f c′ is the specified compressive strength of
concrete, ksi (MPa).
APPENDIX 3
FATIGUE
This appendix applies to members and connections subjected to high-cycle loading within
the elastic range of stresses of frequency and magnitude sufficient to initiate cracking and
progressive failure.
User Note: See AISC Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings for structures
subjected to seismic loads.
(b) For stress category F, the allowable stress range, FSR , shall be determined by
Equation A-3-2 or A-3-2M as follows:
0.167
1.5
FSR = 100 ≥ 8 ksi (A-3-2)
nSR
0.167
1.5
FSR = 690 ≥ 55 MPa (A-3-2M)
nSR
(c) For tension-loaded plate elements connected at their end by cruciform, T-, or
corner-joint details with partial-joint-penetration (PJP) groove welds transverse
to the direction of stress, with or without reinforcing or contouring fillet welds,
or if joined with only fillet welds, the allowable stress range on the cross sec-
tion of the tension-loaded plate element shall be determined as the lesser of the
following:
(1) Based upon crack initiation from the toe of the weld on the tension-loaded
plate element (i.e., when RPJP = 1.0), the allowable stress range, FSR, shall be
determined by Equation A-3-1 or A-3-1M for stress category C.
(2) Based upon crack initiation from the root of the weld, the allowable stress
range, FSR, on the tension loaded plate element using transverse PJP groove
welds, with or without reinforcing or contouring fillet welds, the allowable
stress range on the cross section at the root of the weld shall be determined
by Equation A-3-3 or A-3-3M for stress category C′ as follows:
0.333
4.4
FSR = 1, 000 RPJP (A-3-3)
nSR
0.333
4.4
FSR = 6 900 RPJP (A-3-3M)
nSR
where
RPJP, the reduction factor for reinforced or nonreinforced transverse PJP
groove welds, is determined as follows:
2a w
0.65 − 0.59 + 0.72
t p tp
RPJP = 0.167
≤ 1.0 (A-3-4)
tp
2a w
1.12 − 1.01 + 1.24
pt tp
RPJP = ≤ 1.0 (A-3-4M)
t 0p.167
0.333
4.4
FSR = 1, 000 RFIL (A-3-5)
nSR
0.333
4.4
FSR = 6 900 RFIL (A-3-5M)
nSR
where
RFIL = reduction factor for joints using a pair of transverse fillet welds
only
0.06 + 0.72 ( w t p )
= ≤ 1.0 (A-3-6)
t 0p.167
0.103 + 1.24 ( w t p )
= ≤ 1.0 (A-3-6M)
t 0p.167
If RFIL = 1.0, the stress range will be limited by the weld toe and stress cate-
gory C will control.
User Note: Stress categories C′ and C′′ are cases where the fatigue crack initiates
in the root of the weld. These cases do not have a fatigue threshold and cannot
be designed for an infinite life. Infinite life can be approximated by use of a very
high cycle life such as 2 × 108. Alternatively, if the size of the weld is increased
such that RFIL or RPJP is equal to 1.0, then the base metal controls, resulting in
stress category C, where there is a fatigue threshold and the crack initiates at the
toe of the weld.
π
At = (db − 0.9382 p )2 (A-3-7M)
4
where
db = nominal diameter (body or shank diameter), in. (mm)
n = threads per in. (per mm)
p = pitch, in. per thread (mm per thread)
For joints in which the material within the grip is not limited to steel or joints that are
not tensioned to the requirements of Table J3.1 or J3.1M, all axial load and moment
applied to the joint plus effects of any prying action shall be assumed to be carried
exclusively by the bolts or rods.
For joints in which the material within the grip is limited to steel and which are
pretensioned to the requirements of Table J3.1 or J3.1M, an analysis of the rela-
tive stiffness of the connected parts and bolts is permitted to be used to determine
the tensile stress range in the pretensioned bolts due to the total applied cyclic load
and moment, plus effects of any prying action. Alternatively, the stress range in the
bolts shall be assumed to be equal to the stress on the net tensile area due to 20% of
the absolute value of the applied cyclic axial load and moment from dead, live, and
other loads.
User Note: Where provisions of this Specification differ from provisions of the
RCSC Specification for Structural Joints Using High-Strength Bolts or the AWS
Welding CodeSteel (AWS D1.1/D1.1M), the provisions of this Specification
govern. Some differences between this Specification and the RCSC Specification
related to fatigue are described in the Commentary.
User Note: AWS Surface Roughness Guide for Oxygen Cutting (AWS C4.1-77)
sample 3 may be used to evaluate compliance with this requirement.
Reentrant corners at cuts, copes, and weld access holes shall form a radius not less
than the prescribed radius in Table A-3.1.
For transverse butt joints in regions of tensile stress, weld tabs shall be used to pro-
vide for cascading the weld termination outside the finished joint. End dams shall
not be used. Weld tabs shall be removed and the end of the weld finished flush with
the edge of the member.
Fillet welds subjected to cyclic loading normal to the outstanding legs of angles, or
on the outer edges of end plates, shall have end returns around the corner for a dis-
tance not less than two times the weld size; the end return distance shall not exceed
four times the weld size.
TABLE A-3.1
Fatigue Design Parameters
Threshold,
FTH,
Stress Constant, ksi Potential Crack
Description Category Cf (MPa) Initiation Point
SECTION 1— PLAIN MATERIAL AWAY FROM ANY WELDING
1.1 Base metal, except noncoated A 25 24 Away from
weathering steel, with as-rolled or (170) all welds or
cleaned surfaces; flame-cut edges with structural
surface roughness value of 1,000 µin. connections
(25 mm) or less, but without reentrant
corners
1.2 Noncoated weathering steel base B 12 16 Away from
metal with as-rolled or cleaned sur- (110) all welds or
faces; flame-cut edges with surface structural
roughness value of 1,000 µin. (25 mm) connections
or less, but without reentrant corners
1.3 Members with reentrant corners at At any external
copes, cuts, block-outs, or other geo- edge or at hole
metrical discontinuities, except weld perimeter
access holes
R ≥ 1 in. (25 mm), with the radius, R, C 4.4 10
formed by predrilling, subpunching and (69)
reaming, water-jet cutting, or thermal
cutting and grinding to a bright metal
surface
R ≥ 3/8 in. (10 mm), with the radius, R, E′ 0.39 2.6 (18)
formed by drilling, punching, water-jet
cutting, or thermal cutting; punched
holes need not be reamed, and ther-
mally cut surfaces need not be ground
1.4 Rolled cross sections with weld At reentrant
access holes made to the requirements corner of weld
of Section J1.6 access hole
Access hole R ≥ 1 in. (25 mm) with C 4.4 10
radius, R, formed by predrilling, sub- (69)
punching and reaming, or thermal
cutting and grinding to a bright metal
surface
Access hole R ≥ 3/8 in. (10 mm) and E′ 0.39 2.6
the radius, R, need not be ground to a (18)
bright metal surface
1.5 Members with drilled or reamed In net section
holes where the holes originating at
side of the hole
Contain pretensioned bolts C 4.4 10
(69)
Are open holes without bolts D 2.2 7
(48)
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.4 Net section in base metal of eyebar E 1.1 4.5 In net section
or pin plate connections (31) originating at
side of hole
[a]Slip-critical
connections are required by the RCSC Specification for joints subject to the provisions of this
appendix with reversal of the loading direction [see RCSC Specification Section 4.3(1)], and permitted for
other loading conditions (see RCSC Specification Section 4.3 Commentary). Holes may be prepared by any
method permitted by this Specification.
[b]Pretensioned connections are restricted by the RCSC Specification to cyclically loaded connections where
there is no reversal of loading direction [see RCSC Specification Section 4.2(3)]. Holes may be prepared by
any method permitted by this Specification but the RCSC Specification requires thermally cut holes to be
approved by the engineer of record (see RCSC Specification Section 3.3).
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.2 Base metal and weld metal in mem- B′ 6.1 12 From surface
bers without attachments built up of (83) or internal
plates or shapes, connected by con- discontinuities
tinuous longitudinal CJP groove welds in weld
with left-in-place continuous steel
backing, or by continuous PJP groove
welds
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.7
5.2
5.3
5.4
Threshold,
Stress Constant, FTH, ksi Potential Crack
Description Category Cf (MPa) Initiation Point
SECTION 5— WELDED JOINTS TRANSVERSE TO DIRECTION OF STRESS (cont’d)
5.5 Base metal and weld metal in or ad- From the toe of
jacent to transverse CJP groove welded the groove weld or
butt splices with backing left in place the toe of the weld
attaching backing
Tack welds inside groove D 2.2 7
when applicable
(48)
Tack welds outside the groove and not E 1.1 4.5
closer than 1/2 in. (13 mm) to the edge of (31)
base metal
---
5.5
Category D
(a) (b) (c)
5.7
Root Crack
Category C"
(d) (e)
5.8
6.2
6.4
7.2
[a]“Attachment,”as used herein, is defined as any steel detail welded to a member that causes a deviation in
the stress flow in the member and, thus, reduces the fatigue resistance. The reduction is due to the pres-
ence of the attachment, not due to the loading on the attachment.
8.2 Shear on throat of any fillet weld, F See Eq. See Eq. Initiating at the
continuous or intermittent, longitudinal A-3-2 or A-3-2 or root of the fillet
or transverse A-3-2M A-3-2M weld, extending
into the weld
8.3 Base metal at plug or slot welds E 1.1 4.5 Initiating in the
(31) base metal at
the end of the
plug or slot
weld, extending
into the base
metal
8.4 Shear on plug or slot welds F See Eq. See Eq. Initiating in the
A-3-2 or A-3-2 or weld at the
A-3-2M A-3-2M faying surface,
extending into
the weld
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
APPENDIX 4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR FIRE CONDITIONS
This appendix provides criteria for the design and evaluation of structural steel components,
systems, and frames for fire conditions. These criteria provide for the determination of the
heat input, thermal expansion, and degradation in mechanical properties of materials at
elevated temperatures that cause progressive decrease in strength and stiffness of structural
components and systems at elevated temperatures.
User Note: Throughout this chapter, the term “elevated temperatures” refers to tempera-
tures due to unintended fire exposure only.
1. Performance Objective
Structural components, members, and building frame systems shall be designed so
as to maintain their load-bearing function during the design-basis fire and to satisfy
other performance requirements specified for the building occupancy.
Deformation criteria shall be applied where the means of providing structural fire
resistance, or the design criteria for fire barriers, requires evaluation of the deforma-
tion of the load-carrying structure.
Within the compartment of fire origin, forces and deformations from the design-basis
fire shall not cause a breach of horizontal or vertical compartmentation.
User Note: ASCE/SEI 7, Section 2.5, contains Equation A-4-1 for extraordinary
events, which includes fire. Live load reduction is usually considered in accor-
dance with ASCE/SEI 7.
1. Design-Basis Fire
A design-basis fire shall be identified to describe the heating and cooling conditions
for the structure. These heating and cooling conditions shall relate to the fuel com-
modities and compartment characteristics present in the assumed fire area. The fuel
load density based on the occupancy of the space shall be considered when deter-
mining the total fuel load. Heating and cooling conditions shall be specified either
in terms of a heat flux or temperature of the upper gas layer created by the fire. The
variation of the heating and cooling conditions with time shall be determined for the
duration of the fire.
The analysis methods in Section 4.2 shall be used in accordance with the provisions
for alternative materials, designs, and methods as permitted by the ABC. When
the analysis methods in Section 4.2 are used to demonstrate equivalency to hourly
ratings based on qualification testing in Section 4.3, the design-basis fire is permitted
to be determined in accordance with ASTM E119 or ANSI/UL 263.
TABLE A-4.2.1
Properties of Steel at Elevated Temperatures
Steel Temperature, kE = E ( T ) E
ºF (ºC) = G(T ) G k p = Fp ( T ) Fy k y = Fy ( T ) Fy
F (T ) = E (T ) e (T ) (A-4-2)
b 2 2
F (T ) = Fp (T ) - c + a − εy (T ) − ε ( T ) (A-4-3)
a
F (T ) = Fy (T ) (A-4-4)
where
e (T ) = engineering strain at elevated temperature, in./in. (mm/mm)
e p (T ) = e ngineering strain at the proportional limit at elevated temperature,
in./in. (mm/mm)
= Fp ( T ) E ( T )
e u (T ) = ultimate strain at elevated temperature
= 0.15 in./in. (mm/mm)
e y (T ) = engineering yield strain at elevated temperature
= 0.02 in./in. (mm/mm)
c
a2 = εy ( T ) − εp ( T ) εy ( T ) − εp ( T ) + (A-4-5)
E (T )
b2 = E (T ) εy (T ) − εp (T ) c + c 2 (A-4-6)
2
Fy ( T ) − Fp ( T )
c = (A-4-7)
E ( T ) εy ( T ) − εp ( T ) − 2 Fy ( T ) − Fp ( T )
User Note: The equation for the plastic range conservatively neglects the
strain-hardening portion, but strain-hardening may be included. The plateau
of the plastic range does not exceed the ultimate strain, e u (T ).
(b) Concrete
Table A-4.2.2 provides retention factors, kc and kEc, for concrete which are
expressed as the ratio of the mechanical property at elevated temperature with
respect to the property at ambient, assumed to be 68°F (20°C). It is permitted to
interpolate between these values. For lightweight concrete, values of e cu(T ) shall
be obtained from tests. The properties at elevated temperature, T, are defined as
follows:
Ec (T ) = modulus of elasticity of concrete at elevated temperature, ksi (MPa),
which is calculated as the retention factor, kEc, times the ambient prop-
erty as specified in Table A-4.2.2
f c′ (T ) = specified compressive strength of concrete at elevated temperature, ksi
(MPa), which is calculated as the retention factor, kc, times the ambient
property as specified in Table A-4.2.2
e cu (T ) = concrete strain corresponding to f c′ (T ) at elevated temperature, in./in.
(mm/mm), which is specified in Table A-4.2.2
TABLE A-4.2.2
Properties of Concrete at Elevated Temperatures
ε cu ( T ) , in./in.
kc = fc′ ( T ) fc′ (mm/mm)
Concrete
Temperature, Normal Weight Lightweight Normal Weight
°F (°°C) Concrete Concrete kEc = Ec ( T ) Ec Concrete
68 (20) 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.0025
200 (93) 0.95 1.00 0.93 0.0034
400 (200) 0.90 1.00 0.75 0.0046
550 (290) 0.86 1.00 0.61 0.0058
600 (320) 0.83 0.98 0.57 0.0062
800 (430) 0.71 0.85 0.38 0.0080
1000 (540) 0.54 0.71 0.20 0.0106
1200 (650) 0.38 0.58 0.092 0.0132
1400 (760) 0.21 0.45 0.073 0.0143
1600 (870) 0.10 0.31 0.055 0.0149
1800 (980) 0.05 0.18 0.036 0.0150
2000 (1100) 0.01 0.05 0.018 0.0150
2200 (1200) 0.00 0.00 0.000 0.0000
ε c (T )
3
ε cu (T )
Fc T = f c′ (T )
( ) (A-4-8)
3
ε c (T )
2 +
ε cu (T )
where Fc (T ) and e c (T ) are the concrete compressive stress and strain, respec-
tively, at elevated temperature.
TABLE A-4.2.3
Properties of Group 120 and Group 150
High-Strength Bolts at Elevated Temperatures
Bolt Temperature, k b = Fnt ( T ) Fnt
°F (°°C) = Fnv ( T ) Fnv
68 (20) 1.00
200 (93) 0.97
300 (150) 0.95
400 (200) 0.93
600 (320) 0.88
800 (430) 0.71
900 (480) 0.59
1000 (540) 0.42
1200 (650) 0.16
1400 (760) 0.08
1600 (870) 0.04
1800 (980) 0.01
2000 (1100) 0.00
Fnt (T ) = nominal tensile strength of the bolt, ksi (MPa), which is calculated as
the retention factor, kb, times the ambient property as specified in Table
A-4.2.3
Fnv (T ) = nominal shear strength of the bolt, ksi (MPa), which is calculated as
the retention factor, kb, times the ambient property as specified in Table
A-4.2.3
4. Structural Design Requirements
to the build-up of steam pressure. Any rational method that considers heat transfer
through the cross section, water content in concrete, fire protection, and the allow-
able pressure build up in the member is permitted for calculating the size and spacing
of vent holes.
User Note: Section 4.3.2b(a) provides a possible vent hole configuration for filled
composite columns.
User Note: Typical simple shear connections may need additional design en-
hancements for ductility and resistance to large compression and tensile forces
that may develop during the design-basis fire exposure. A fire exposure will not
only affect the magnitude of member end reactions, but may also change the limit
state to one different from the controlling mode at ambient temperature.
It is permitted to include membrane action of composite floor slabs for fire resistance
if the design provides for the effects of increased connection tensile forces and redis-
tributed gravity load demands on the adjacent framing supports.
mechanical response shall take into account explicitly the deterioration in strength
and stiffness with increasing temperature, the effects of thermal expansions, inelastic
behavior and load redistribution, large deformations, time-dependent effects such as
creep, and uncertainties resulting from variability in material properties at elevated
temperature. Support and restraint conditions (forces, moments, and boundary condi-
tions) shall represent the behavior of the structure during a design-basis fire. Material
properties shall be defined as per Section 4.2.3.
The resulting analysis shall address all relevant limit states, such as excessive deflec-
tions, connection ruptures, and global and local buckling, and shall demonstrate an
adequate level of safety as required by the authority having jurisdiction.
The design strength shall be determined as in Section B3.1. The nominal strength,
Rn, shall be calculated using material properties, as provided in Section 4.2.3b, at the
temperature developed by the design-basis fire and as stipulated in Sections 4.2.4d(a)
through (h).
The simple method is only applicable to members with nonslender and/or compact
sections.
It is permitted to model the thermal response of steel and composite members using a
lumped heat capacity analysis with heat input as determined by the design-basis fire
defined in Section 4.2.1, using the temperature equal to the maximum steel tempera-
ture. For composite beams, the maximum steel temperature shall be assigned to the
bottom flange and a temperature gradient shall be applied to incorporate thermally
induced moments as stipulated in Section 4.2.4d(f).
For steel temperatures less than or equal to 400°F (200°C), the member and con-
nection design strengths are permitted to be determined without consideration of
temperature effects on the nominal strengths.
User Note: Lumped heat capacity analysis assumes uniform temperature over the
section and length of the member, which is generally a reasonable assumption for
many structural members exposed to post-flashover fires. Consideration should
be given to the use of the uniform temperature assumption as it may not always
be applicable or conservative.
The simple methods of analysis are not intended for temperatures below 400°F
(200°C). The nominal strengths for temperatures below 400°F (200°C) should be
calculated without any consideration of temperature effects on material properties
or member behavior.
L c (T ) T − 32 L c 35
= 1 − − (T − 32) ≥ 0 , °F (A-4-10)
r n (3, 600 ) r n (3, 600 )
L c (T ) T Lc 35T
= 1 − − ≥ 0 , °C (A-4-10M)
r n ( 2 000 ) r n ( 000)
2
where
Lc = effective length of member, in. (mm)
= KL
K = 1.0 for gravity-only columns
L = laterally unbraced length of the member, in. (mm)
T = temperature of structural steel, °F (°C)
n = 1 for columns with cooler columns both above and below
n = 2 for columns with cooler columns either above or below only
r = radius of gyration, in. (mm)
User Note: The design equations for compression predict flexural buckling
capacities of wide-flange rolled shapes, but do not consider local buckling
and torsional buckling. If applicable, these additional limit states must be
considered with an alternative method. For most fire conditions, uniform
heating and temperatures govern the design for compression. When uniform
heating is not a reasonable assumption, alternative methods must be used to
account for the effects of nonuniform heating and resulting thermal gradi-
ents on the design strength of compression members, as the simple method
assumes a uniform temperature distribution.
Pno (T )
0.3
Pn (T ) = 0.32 Pe (T ) Pno (T ) (A-4-12)
User Note: For composite members, the steel temperature is determined using
heat transfer equations with heat input corresponding to the design-basis fire.
The temperature distribution in concrete infill can be calculated using one- or
two-dimensional heat transfer equations. The regions of concrete infill will
have varying temperatures and mechanical properties. Concrete contribution
to axial strength and effective stiffness can therefore be calculated by dis-
cretizing the cross section into smaller elements (with each concrete element
considered to have a uniform temperature) and summing up the contribution
of individual elements.
cx
Lb
Mn (T ) = Cb FL (T ) S x + Mp (T ) − FL (T ) Sx 1 − ≤ Mp (T ) (A-4-13)
L r (T )
where
2
Cb π 2 E ( T ) Jc L b
Fcr (T ) = 2
1 + 0.078 (A-4-15)
Lb S x ho rts
rts
2 2
E (T ) Jc Jc FL (T )
L r (T ) = 1.95rts + + 6.76 (A-4-16)
FL (T ) S x ho S x ho E (T )
FL (T ) = Fy ( k p − 0.3k y ) (A-4-17)
Mp (T ) = Fy (T ) Z x (A-4-18)
T
cx = 0.53 + ≤ 3.0 where T is in °F (A-4-19)
450
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
T
cx = 0.6 + ≤ 3.0 where T is in °C (A-4-19M)
250
and
T = elevated temperature of steel due to unintended fire exposure, °F (°C)
The material properties at elevated temperatures, E (T ) and Fy (T ), and the reten-
tion factors, kp and ky , are calculated in accordance with Table A-4.2.1, and other
terms are as defined in Chapter F.
User Note: FL (T ) represents the initial yield stress, which assumes a residual
stress of 0.3Fy . Alternatively, 10 ksi (69 MPa) may be used in place of 0.3Fy
for calculation of FL (T ).
User Note: The equations for lateral-torsional buckling do not consider local
buckling. If applicable, the effects of local buckling must be considered with
an alternative method.
Mn (T ) = kcb Mn (A-4-20)
where
Mn = nominal flexural strength at ambient temperature calculated in accor-
dance with provisions of Chapter I, kip-in. (N-mm)
kcb = retention factor depending on bottom flange temperature, T, as given in
Table A-4.2.4
(g) Design for shear
The nominal strength for shear yielding shall be determined in accordance
with the provisions of Chapter G, with steel properties as stipulated in Section
4.2.3b(a) and assuming a uniform temperature over the cross section.
User Note: Shear yielding equations do not consider shear buckling or ten-
sion field action. If applicable, these limit states must be considered with an
alternative method.
TABLE A-4.2.4
Retention Factor for Flexure in Composite Beams
Bottom Flange Temperature,
°F (°°C) kcb = Mn (T ) Mn
68 (20) 1.00
300 (150) 0.98
600 (320) 0.95
800 (430) 0.89
1000 (540) 0.71
1200 (650) 0.49
1400 (760) 0.26
1600 (870) 0.12
1800 (980) 0.05
2000 (1100) 0.00
R
Tcr = 435 − 170 ln u in °C (A-4-21M)
Rn
where
Rn = nominal yielding strength at ambient temperature determined in accor-
dance with Section D2, kips (N)
Ru = equired tensile strength at elevated temperature, determined using the
load combination in Equation A-4-1 and greater than 0.01Rn, kips (N)
Tcr = critical temperature in °F (°C)
User Note: Tensile rupture in the net section is not considered in this critical
temperature calculation. It can be considered using an alternative method.
L P
Tcr = 858 − 0.455 c − 722 u in °C (A-4-22M)
r Pn
where
Pn = nominal compressive strength at ambient temperature determined in
accordance with the provisions in Section E3, kips (N)
Pu = required compressive strength at elevated temperature, determined using
the load combination in Equation A-4-1, kips (N)
(c) Design for flexural yielding
The critical temperature of a continuously braced beam not supporting a con-
crete slab is permitted to be calculated as follows:
M
Tcr = 816 − 306 ln u in °F (A-4-23)
Mn
M
Tcr = 435 − 170 ln u in °C (A-4-23M)
Mn
where
Mn = nominal flexural strength due to yielding at ambient temperature
determined in accordance with the provisions in Section F2.1, kip-in.
(N-mm)
Mu = r equired flexural strength at elevated temperature, determined using the
load combination in Equation A-4-1 and greater than 0.01Mn, kip-in.
(N-mm)
Tcr = critical temperature in °F (°C)
1. Qualification Standards
Structural members and components in steel buildings shall be qualified for the rating
period in conformance with ASTM E119 or ANSI/UL 263. Demonstration of com-
pliance with these requirements using the procedures specified for steel construction
in Section 5 of Standard Calculation Methods for Structural Fire Protection (ASCE/
SEI/SFPE 29) is permitted. It is also permitted to demonstrate equivalency to such
standard fire-resistance ratings using the advanced analysis methods in Section 4.2
in combination with the fire exposure specified in ASTM E119 or ANSI/UL 263 as
the design-basis fire.
User Note: There are other standard fire exposures that are more severe than
that prescribed in ASTM E119, for example the hydrocarbon pool fire scenario
defined in ASTM E1529 (UL 1709). Fire-resistance ratings developed on the
basis of ASTM E119 are not directly substitutable for such more demanding
conditions.
The generic steel assemblies described in Table A-4.3.1 shall be deemed to have the
fire-resistance ratings prescribed therein.
TABLE A-4.3.1
Minimum Fire Protection and Fire-Resistance
Ratings of Steel Assemblies[e]
Minimum Thickness of
Insulating Material for Fire-
Item Resistance Times, in. (mm)
Assembly Number Fire-Protection Material Used 4 hrs 3 hrs 2 hrs 1 hr
1. Steel columns 1-1.1 Carbonate, lightweight, and sand-light-
and all of weight aggregate concrete, members
21/2 2 11/2 1
primary 6 in. × 6 in. (150 mm × 150 mm) or greater
(63) (50) (38) (25)
trusses (not including sandstone, granite, and
siliceous gravel)[a]
1-1.2 Carbonate, lightweight, and sand-light-
weight aggregate concrete, members
2 11/2 1 1
8 in. × 8 in. (200 mm × 200 mm) or greater
(50) (38) (25) (25)
(not including sandstone, granite, and
siliceous gravel)[a]
1-1.3 Carbonate, lightweight, and sand-light-
weight aggregate concrete, members
11/2 1 1 1
12 in. × 12 in. (300 mm × 300 mm) or
(38) (25) (25) (25)
greater (not including sandstone, granite,
and siliceous gravel)[a]
1-1.4 Siliceous aggregate concrete and
concrete excluded in Item 1-1.1, 3 2 11/2 1
members 6 in. × 6 in. (150 mm × 150 mm) (75) (50) (38) (25)
or greater[a]
1-1.5 Siliceous aggregate concrete and
concrete excluded in Item 1-1.1, 21/2 2 1 1
members 8 in. × 8 in. (200 mm × 200 mm) (63) (50) (25) (25)
or greater[a]
1-1.6 Siliceous aggregate concrete and
concrete excluded in Item 1-1.1, members 2 1 1 1
12 in. × 12 in. (300 mm × 300 mm) or (50) (25) (25) (25)
greater[a]
1-2.1 Clay or shale brick with brick and mortar 33/4 21/4
– –
fill[a] (94) (56)
1-4.1 Cement plaster over metal lath wire tied
to 3/4 in. (19 mm) cold-rolled vertical
channels with 0.049 in. (1.2 mm) (No. 18 21/2[b] 7/8
– –
B.W. Gage) wire ties spaced 3 to 6 in. (63)[b] (22)
(75 to 150 mm) on center; plaster mixed
1:2.5 by volume, cement to sand
B.W. = Birmingham Wire
[a]Reentrant parts of protected members to be filled solidly.
[b]Two layers of equal thickness with a 3/4 in. (19 mm) airspace between.
[e]Generic fire-resistance ratings (those not designated as PROPRIETARY* in the listing) in GA-600 shall be
and core type is permitted to be substituted for gypsum wallboard, provided attachment is identical to that
specified for the wallboard, the joints on the face layer are reinforced, and the entire surface is covered with not
less than 1/16 in. (2 mm) gypsum veneer plaster.
[d]An approved adhesive qualified under ASTM E119 or ANSI/UL 263.
[e]Generic fire-resistance ratings (those not designated as PROPRIETARY* in the listing) in GA-600 shall be
and core type is permitted to be substituted for gypsum wallboard, provided attachment is identical to that
specified for the wallboard, the joints on the face layer are reinforced, and the entire surface is covered with not
less than 1/16 in. (2 mm) gypsum veneer plaster.
[e]Generic fire-resistance ratings (those not designated as PROPRIETARY* in the listing) in GA-600 shall be
and core type is permitted to be substituted for gypsum wallboard, provided attachment is identical to that
specified for the wallboard, the joints on the face layer are reinforced, and the entire surface is covered with not
less than 1/16 in. (2 mm) gypsum veneer plaster.
[e]Generic fire-resistance ratings (those not designated as PROPRIETARY* in the listing) in GA-600 shall be
and core type is permitted to be substituted for gypsum wallboard, provided attachment is identical to that
specified for the wallboard, the joints on the face layer are reinforced, and the entire surface is covered with not
less than 1/16 in. (2 mm) gypsum veneer plaster.
[e]Generic fire-resistance ratings (those not designated as PROPRIETARY* in the listing) in GA-600 shall be
W′ W
= + 0.0008h (A-4-25M)
D D
User Note: This equation has been developed and long used for steel column
fire protection with any Type X gypsum board. Because Type C gypsum
board has demonstrated improved fire performance relative to Type X board,
these provisions may also be conservatively applied to column protection
with any Type C gypsum board. The supporting test data and accompanying
gypsum board installation methods limit the computed fire-resistance rating
of the steel column to a maximum of 3 hours or 4 hours, as specified in the
next section.
The gypsum board or gypsum panel products shall be installed and supported
as required either in ANSI/UL 263, Design No. X526, for fire-resistance ratings
of four hours or less, or in ANSI/UL 263, Design No. X528, for fire-resistance
ratings of three hours or less.
User Note: The attachment of the Type X gypsum board protection for the
steel columns must be done in accordance with the referenced UL assemblies.
UL X526 is applicable only when exterior steel covers are installed over the
gypsum board; otherwise, ANSI/UL 263, Design No. X528, describes the
more general gypsum board installation.
W
R = C1 + C2 h (A-4-26)
D
W
R = C3 + C4 h (A-4-26M)
D
where
C1, C2, C3, and C4 = material-dependent constants prescribed in specified rated
assembly
D = heated perimeter of the column, in. (mm)
R = fire resistance, min
W = weight of columns, lb/ft (kg/m)
h = thickness of sprayed fire-resistant material, in. (mm)
The material-dependent constants, C1, C2, C3, and C4, shall be determined for
specific fire-resistant materials on the basis of standard fire endurance tests. The
computational usage for each correlation, protection product, and its material-
dependent constants shall be limited to the range of their underlying fire test
basis reflected in the selected rated assembly.
The fire resistance of HSS columns protected with sprayed fire-resistant materi-
als is permitted to be determined from empirical correlations similar to Equation
A-4-25 and A-4-25M expressed in terms of A P values, where A is the area in
in.2 (mm2) and P is the heated perimeter. The applicability limits specified in the
rated column assembly for each correlation and its material-dependent constants
shall be followed.
(c) Noncomposite columns encased in concrete
The fire resistance of noncomposite columns fully encased within concrete pro-
tection is permitted to be determined from the following expression:
R = Ro (1 + 0.03m ) (A-4-27)
where
0.7
0.8
W h 1.6 H
RoRo = 10 + 17 1 + 26 (A-4-28)
D K c 0.2
pc cc h ( L + h )
0.7
0.8
W h 1.6 H
RoRo = 73 + 0.162 1 + 31000 (A-4-28M)
D K c 0.2
pc cc h ( L + h )
User Note: The variables in these equations are illustrated in the following
figures.
pc cc
H = 0.46W + ( bf d − As ) (A-4-29M)
1 000 000
where
As = area of the steel column, in.2 (mm2)
bf = width of the column flange, in. (mm)
d = depth of the column, in. (mm)
In the absence of more specific data for the ambient properties of the concrete
encasement, it is permitted to use the values provided in Table A-4.3.2.
User Note: The estimated free moisture content of concrete given in Table
A-4.3.2 may not be appropriate for all conditions, particularly for older con-
crete that has already been in service for a longer time. For these and similar
situations of uncertainty, it is conservative to not rely on this beneficial effect
of the free moisture and to assume the concrete is completely dry with m = 0
for fire resistance of R = Ro.
Te1.6 ( A s d mTe )
0.7 0.8
W
R = 0.17 + 0.285 0.2 1.0 + 42.7 (A-4-30)
D K c (0.25 p + Te )
Te1.6 ( A s d mTe )
0.7 0.8
W
R = 1.22 + 0.0027 0.2 1.0 + 1 249 (A-4-30M)
D K c (0.25 p + Te )
where
As = cross-sectional area of column, in.2 (mm2)
D = heated perimeter of column, in. (mm)
Kc = thermal conductivity of concrete or clay masonry unit, Btu/hr-ft-°F
(W/m-K) (see Table A-4.3.3)
R = fire-resistance rating of column assembly, hr
Te = equivalent thickness of concrete or clay masonry unit, in accordance
with ACI 216.1, in. (mm)
W = average weight of column, lb/ft (kg/m)
dm = density of the concrete or clay masonry unit, lb/ft3 (kg/m3)
p = inner perimeter of concrete or clay masonry protection, in. (mm)
The thermal conductivity values given in Table A-4.3.3 as a function of the
concrete or clay masonry unit density is permitted for use with this encasement
protection formulation.
User Note: Equations A-4-30 and A-4-30M are derived from Equation
A-4-27 assuming m = 0, cc = 0.2 Btu/lb-°F (840 J/kg-K), h = Te, and
L = p 4 . The following cross sections illustrate three different configurations
for concrete masonry units or clay masonry unit encasement of steel columns,
along with the applicable fire-protection design variables.
TABLE A-4.3.2
Ambient Properties of Concrete Encasement for
Steel Column Fire Resistance
Normal Weight Lightweight
Property Concrete Concrete
0.95 Btu/hr-ft-°F 0.35 Btu/hr-ft-°F
Thermal conductivity, Kc
(1.64 W/m-K) (0.61 W/m-K)
0.20 Btu/lb-°F 0.20 Btu/lb-°F
Specific heat, cc
(0.840 kJ/kg-K) (0.840 kJ/kg-K)
145 lb/ft3 110 lb/ft3
Density, pc
(2 300 kg/m3) (1 800 kg/m3)
Equilibrium (free) moisture content, m,
4% 5%
by volume
TABLE A-4.3.3
Thermal Conductivity of Masonry Units for Steel
Column Encasement
Unit Density, Unit Thermal Conductivity
dm, lb/ft3 (kg/m3) Kc, Btu/hr-ft-°°F (W/m-K)
Concrete Masonry Units
80 (1 300) 0.207 (0.36)
85 (1 400) 0.228 (0.40)
90 (1 400) 0.252 (0.44)
95 (1 500) 0.278 (0.48)
100 (1 600) 0.308 (0.53)
105 (1 700) 0.340 (0.59)
110 (1 800) 0.376 (0.65)
115 (1 800) 0.416 (0.72)
120 (1 900) 0.459 (0.80)
125 (2 000) 0.508 (0.88)
130 (2 100) 0.561 (0.97)
135 (2 200) 0.620 (1.1)
140 (2 200) 0.685 (1.2)
145 (2 300) 0.758 (1.3)
150 (2 400) 0.837 (1.5)
Clay Masonry Units
120 (1 900) 1.25 (2.2)
130 (2 100) 2.25 (3.9)
where
C = compressive force due to unfactored dead load and live load, kips (kN)
D = outside diameter for circular columns, in. (mm)
= outside dimension for square columns, in. (mm)
= least outside dimension for rectangular columns, in. (mm)
Lc = column effective length, ft (mm)
R = fire-resistance rating, hr
a = constant determined from Table A-4.3.4
f c′ = 28-day compressive strength of concrete, ksi (MPa)
The application of Equations A-4-31 and A-4-31M shall be limited by all of the
following conditions:
(1) The required fire-resistance rating, R, shall be less than or equal to the limits
specified in Tables A-4.3.5 or A-4.3.5M.
(2) The specified compressive strength of concrete, f c′, the column effective
length, Lc , the dimension D, the concrete reinforcement ratio, and the thick-
ness of the concrete cover shall be within the limits specified in Tables
A-4.3.5 or A-4.3.5M.
(3)
C shall not exceed the design strength of the concrete or the reinforced con-
crete core determined in accordance with this Specification.
(4) A minimum of two 2-in.- (13-mm-) diameter holes shall be placed oppo-
site each other at the top and bottom of the column and at maximum 12 ft
(3.7 m) on center spacing along the column height. Each set of vent holes
should be rotated 90° relative to the adjacent set of holes to relieve steam
pressure.
TABLE A-4.3.4
Values of Constant a for Normal Weight Concrete
a
Reinforcement Square or
Aggregate Concrete Fill Ratio, Circular Rectangular
Type Type % Columns Columns
siliceous unreinforced NA 0.070 0.060
steel-fiber-
siliceous 2 0.075 0.065
reinforced
steel-bar- 1.5−3 0.080 0.070
siliceous
reinforced 3−5 0.085 0.070
carbonate unreinforced NA 0.080 0.070
steel-fiber-
carbonate 2 0.085 0.075
reinforced
steel-bar- 1.5−3 0.090 0.080
carbonate
reinforced 3−5 0.095 0.085
NA = not applicable
TABLE A-4.3.5
Limits for the Use of Equation A-4-31 Parameters
Concrete Fill Type
Steel-Fiber- Steel-Bar-
Parameter Unreinforced Reinforced Reinforced
R, hr ≤2 ≤3 ≤3
TABLE A-4.3.5M
Limits for the Use of Equation A-4-31M Parameters
Concrete Fill Type
Steel-Fiber- Steel-Bar-
Parameter Unreinforced Reinforced Reinforced
R, hrs ≤2 ≤3 ≤3
TABLE A-4.3.6
Minimum Size and Concrete Cover Limits for Fire
Resistance of Composite Steel Columns Encased in
Concrete with No Unfilled Spaces
Fire-Resistance Minimum Concrete Minimum Column
Rating, hr Cover, h, in. (mm) Outside Dimension, in. (mm)
1 1 (25) 8 (200)
2 2 (50) 10 (250)
3 2 (50) 12 (300)
4 2 (50) 14 (350)
The provisions in this section apply to beams and girders protected with sprayed or
intumescent or mastic fire-resistant materials.
Larger or smaller composite or noncomposite beam and girder shapes protected with
sprayed fire-resistant materials are permitted to be substituted for beams specified in
approved unrestrained or restrained fire-resistance-rated assemblies, provided that
the thickness of the fire-resistant material is adjusted in accordance with Equation
A-4-32 or A-4-32M.
The use of these equations shall be limited by all of the following conditions:
(a) The weight-to-heated-perimeter ratio for the substitute beam or girder, W1 D1 ,
shall be not less than 0.37 (U.S. customary units) or 0.022 (SI units).
(b) The thickness of fire-protection materials calculated for the substitute beam or
girder, T1, shall be not less than a in. (10 mm).
(c) The unrestrained or restrained beam rating shall be not less than 1 hour.
(d) Where used to adjust the material thickness for a restrained beam, the use of this
procedure is limited to sections classified as compact.
where
D = heated perimeter of the beam, in. (mm)
W = weight of the beam or girder, lb/ft (kg/m)
h = thickness of sprayed fire-resistant material, in. (mm)
Subscript 1 refers to the substitute beam or girder and the required thickness of fire-
resistant material.
Subscript 2 refers to the beam and fire-resistant material thickness in the approved
assembly.
User Note: This substitution equation based on W D for beams protected with
spray-applied fire-resistive materials was developed by UL with the given limita-
tions. The minimum W D ratio of 0.37 (0.022) prevents the use of this equation
for determining the fire resistance of very small shapes that have not been tested.
The a in. (10 mm) minimum thickness of protection is a practical application
limit based upon the most commonly used spray-applied fire protection materials.
The fire resistance of composite or noncomposite beams and girders protected with
intumescent or mastic fire-resistant coatings shall be determined on the basis of
standard fire-resistance-rated assemblies, and associated computations and limits as
provided in the applicable rated assemblies.
2e. Trusses
The fire resistance of trusses with members individually protected by fire-resistant
materials applied onto each of the individual truss elements is permitted to be
determined for each member in accordance with Appendix 4, Section 4.3.1. The
protection thickness of truss elements that can be simultaneously exposed to fire on
all sides shall be determined for the same weight-to-heated perimeter ratio, W D, as
columns. The protection thickness of truss elements that directly support a floor or
roof assembly is permitted to be determined for the same weight-to-heated-perimeter
ratio, W D, as for beams and girders.
where
R = fire-resistance rating, min
h1 = concrete slab thickness above steel deck, in. (mm)
h2 = depth of steel deck, in. (mm)
l1 = largest upper width of deck rib, in. (mm)
l2 = bottom width of deck rib, in. (mm)
l3 = width of deck upper flange, in (mm)
m = moisture content of the concrete slab, %. Range of applicability is between
0% (0.0) and 10% (0.1).
User Note: The slab dimensions in Equation A-4-33 are illustrated in the follow-
ing figure.
TABLE A-4.3.7
Coefficients a0 to a16 for Use with Equation A-4-33
Coefficient Value
Coefficient Normal weight concrete Lightweight concrete
a0 38.6 min 68.7 min
a1 -5.08 min/in. (-0.2 min/mm) -36.58 min/in. (-1.44 min/mm)
a2 -1.45 min/in. (-0.057 min/mm) -2.79 min/in. (-0.11 min/mm)
a3 -3.30 min/in. (-0.13 min/mm) -12.70 min/in. (-0.5 min/mm)
a4 -2.08 min/in. (-0.082 min/mm) 20.07 min/in. (0.79 min/mm)
a5 -118.1 min -784.2 min
a6 4.06 min/in.2 (0.0063 min/mm2) 8.84 min/in.2 (0.014 min/mm2)
a7 1.48 min/in.2 (0.0023 min/mm2) 3.61 min/in.2 (0.0056 min/mm2)
a8 1.87 min/in.2 (0.0029 min/mm2) 3.68 min/in.2 (0.0057 min/mm2)
a9 0 -2.39 min/in.2 (-0.0037 min/mm2)
a10 263.1 min/in. (10 min/mm) 444.5 min/in. (18 min/mm)
a11 1.16 min/in.2 (0.0018 min/mm2) 2.06 min/in.2 (0.0032 min/mm2)
a12 0 -3.42 min/in.2 (-0.0053 min/mm2)
a13 0 91.44 min/in. (3.6 min/mm)
a14 -0.65 min/in.2 (-0.001 min/mm2) -0.97 min/in.2 (-0.0015 min/mm2)
a15 0 42.42 min/in. (1.67 min/mm)
a16 0 -66.04 min/in. (-2.6 min/mm)
User Note: If moisture content values are not available, m = 4% can be used for
normal weight concrete, and m = 5% can be used for lightweight concrete, con-
sistent with Annex D of Eurocode 4. Dry conditions (m = 0%) will yield the most
conservative fire-resistance rating.
L tsc
0.24 −
Pu 1.9tsc
230
R = −18.5 + 15 − 1 (A-4-34)
Pn 8
0.24 −
L tsc
Pu 230 1.9tsc
R = −18.5 + 15 − 1 (A-4-34M)
P 200
n
where R is the fire rating in hours, Pu is the required axial load in kips (N), and L,
Pn, and tsc are as defined in Chapter I.
3. Restrained Construction
For floor and roof assemblies and individual beams in buildings, a restrained condi-
tion exists when the surrounding or supporting structure is capable of resisting forces
and accommodating deformations caused by thermal expansion throughout the range
of anticipated elevated temperatures. Cast-in-place or prefabricated concrete floor or
roof construction secured to steel framing members, and individual steel beams and
girders that are welded or bolted to integral framing members, shall be considered
restrained construction.
4. Unrestrained Construction
Steel beams, girders, and frames that do not support a concrete slab shall be
considered unrestrained unless the members are bolted or welded to surrounding
construction that has been specifically designed and detailed to resist the effects of
elevated temperatures.
A steel member bearing on a wall in a single span or at the end span of multiple spans
shall be considered unrestrained unless the wall has been designed and detailed to
resist the effects of thermal expansion.
APPENDIX 5
EVALUATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES
This appendix applies to the evaluation of the strength and stiffness of existing structures
by structural analysis, by load tests, or by a combination of structural analysis and load
tests where specified by the engineer of record or in the contract documents. Load testing in
accordance with this appendix applies to static vertical gravity load effects.
The appendix is organized as follows:
5.1. General Provisions
5.2. Material Properties
5.3. Evaluation by Structural Analysis
5.4. Evaluation by Load Tests
5.5. Evaluation Report
2. Tensile Properties
Tensile properties of members shall be established for use in evaluation by structural
analysis (Section 5.3) or load tests (Section 5.4). Such properties shall include the
yield stress, tensile strength, and percentage of elongation. Certified material test
reports or certified reports of tests made by the fabricator or a testing laboratory in
accordance with ASTM A6/A6M or ASTM A568/A568M, as applicable, are permit-
ted for this purpose. Otherwise, tensile tests shall be conducted in accordance with
ASTM A370 from samples taken from components of the structure.
3. Chemical Composition
Where welding is anticipated for repair or modification of existing structures,
the chemical composition of the steel shall be determined for use in preparing a
welding procedure specification. Results from certified material test reports or certi-
fied reports of tests made by the fabricator or a testing laboratory in accordance with
ASTM procedures are permitted for this purpose. Otherwise, analyses shall be con-
ducted in accordance with ASTM A751 from the samples used to determine tensile
properties or from samples taken from the same locations.
5. Weld Metal
Where structural performance is dependent on existing welded connections, repre-
sentative samples of weld metal shall be obtained. Chemical analysis and mechanical
tests shall be made to characterize the weld metal. A determination shall be made of
the magnitude and consequences of imperfections. If the requirements of Structural
Welding Code—Steel, AWS D1.1/D1.1M, are not met, the EOR shall determine if
remedial actions are required.
1. Dimensional Data
All dimensions used in the evaluation, such as spans, column heights, member
spacings, bracing locations, cross-section dimensions, thicknesses, and connection
details, shall be determined from a field survey. Alternatively, it is permitted to
determine such dimensions from applicable project design or fabrication documents
with field verification of critical values.
2. Strength Evaluation
Forces (load effects) in members and connections shall be determined by structural
analysis applicable to the type of structure evaluated. The load effects shall be deter-
mined for the loads and factored load combinations stipulated in Section B2.
Table A-5.3.1
Nominal Strength of Rivets
Nominal Tensile Strength, Nominal Shear Strength,
Description of Rivet Fnt, ksi (MPa)[a] Fnv, ksi (MPa)[b]
The available strength of members and connections shall be determined from appli-
cable provisions of Chapters B through K and Appendix 5 of this Specification.
2a. Rivets
The design tensile or shear strength, φRn, and the allowable tensile or shear strength,
Rn Ω , of a driven rivet shall be determined according to Section J3.7, and driven
rivets under combined tension and shear shall satisfy the requirements of Section
J3.8,
where
Ab = nominal body area of undriven rivet, in.2 (mm2)
Fnt = nominal tensile strength of the driven rivet from Table A-5.3.1, ksi (MPa)
Fnv = nominal shear strength of the driven rivet from Table A-5.3.1, ksi (MPa)
3. Serviceability Evaluation
Where required, the deformations at service loads shall be calculated and reported.
1. General Requirements
This section applies only to static vertical gravity loads applied to existing roofs or
floors.
Where load tests are used, the EOR shall first analyze the structure, prepare a testing
plan, and develop a written procedure for the test. The plan shall consider collapse
and/or excessive levels of permanent deformation, as defined by the EOR, and shall
include procedures to preclude either occurrence during testing.
The tested strength of the structure shall be taken as the maximum applied test load
plus the in-situ dead load. The live load rating of a floor structure shall be determined
by setting the tested strength equal to 1.2D + 1.6L, where D is the nominal dead load
and L is the nominal live load rating for the structure. For roof structures, Lr, S, or R
shall be substituted for L,
where
Lr = nominal roof live load
R = nominal load due to rainwater or snow, exclusive of the ponding contribution
S = nominal snow load
More severe load combinations shall be used where required by the applicable build-
ing codes.
Periodic unloading is permitted once the service load level is attained, and after the
onset of inelastic structural behavior is identified, to document the amount of perma-
nent set and the magnitude of the inelastic deformations. Deformations of the structure,
such as member deflections, shall be monitored at critical locations during the test,
referenced to the initial position before loading. It shall be demonstrated, while main-
taining maximum test load for one hour, that the deformation of the structure does not
increase by more than 10% above that at the beginning of the holding period. It is per-
missible to repeat the test loading sequence if necessary to demonstrate compliance.
Deformations of the structure shall also be recorded 24 hours after the test loading is
removed to determine the amount of permanent set.
Where it is not feasible to load test the entire structure, a segment or zone of not less
than one complete bay representative of the most critical condition shall be selected.
3. Serviceability Evaluation
Where load tests are prescribed, the structure shall be loaded incrementally to the
service load level. The service test load shall be held for a period of one hour and
deformations shall be recorded at the beginning and at the end of the one-hour hold-
ing period.
APPENDIX 6
MEMBER STABILITY BRACING
This appendix addresses the minimum strength and stiffness necessary for bracing to
develop the required strength of a column, beam, or beam-column. The appendix is orga-
nized as follows:
6.1. General Provisions
6.2. Column Bracing
6.3. Beam Bracing
6.4. Beam-Column Bracing
User Note: Stability requirements for lateral force-resisting systems are provided
in Chapter C. The provisions in this appendix apply to bracing that is not gener-
ally included in the analysis model of the overall structure, but is provided to
stabilize individual columns, beams, and beam-columns. Guidance for applying
these provisions to stabilize trusses is provided in the Commentary.
User Note: More detailed analyses for bracing strength and stiffness are pre-
sented in the Commentary.
A panel brace (formerly referred to as a relative brace) limits the angular devia-
tion of a segment of the braced member between braced points (that is, the lateral
displacement of one end of the segment relative to the other). A point brace
(formerly referred to as a nodal brace) limits the movement at the braced point
without direct interaction with adjacent braced points. A continuous bracing
system consists of bracing that is attached along the entire member length.
The available strength and stiffness of the bracing members and connections shall
equal or exceed the required strength and stiffness, respectively, unless analysis
indicates that smaller values are justified.
Columns, beams, and beam-columns with end and intermediate braced points
designed to meet the requirements in Sections 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4, as applicable, are
permitted to be designed based on lengths Lc and Lb , as defined in Chapters E and F,
taken equal to the distance between the braced points.
User Note: The stability bracing requirements in Sections 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4 are
based on buckling analysis models involving idealizations of common bracing
conditions. Computational analysis methods may be used for greater generality,
accuracy, and efficiency for more complex bracing conditions. The Commentary
to Section 6.1 provides guidance on these considerations.
User Note: This section provides requirements only for lateral bracing. Column
lateral bracing is assumed to be located at the shear center of the column. When
lateral bracing does not limit twist, the column is susceptible to torsional buck-
ling as addressed in Section E4. When the lateral bracing is offset from the shear
center, the column is susceptible to constrained-axis torsional buckling, which is
also addressed in Section E4 and its accompanying Commentary.
1. Panel Bracing
The panel bracing system shall have the strength and stiffness specified in this sec-
tion. The connection of the bracing system to the column shall have the strength
specified in Section 6.2.2 for a point brace at that location.
User Note: If the stiffness of the connection to the panel bracing system is com-
parable to the stiffness of the panel bracing system itself, the panel bracing system
and its connection to the column function as a panel and point bracing system
arranged in series. Such cases may be evaluated using the alternative analysis
methods listed in Section 6.1.
In the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the column, the required
shear strength of the bracing system is
Vbr = 0.005Pr (A-6-1)
1 2 Pr
βbr = (LRFD) (A-6-2a)
φ Lbr
2P
βbr = Ω r (ASD) (A-6-2b)
L br
φ = 0.75 (LRFD) Ω = 2.00 (ASD)
where
Lbr = unbraced length within the panel under consideration, in. (mm)
Pr = required axial strength of the column within the panel under consideration
using LRFD or ASD load combinations, kips (N)
2. Point Bracing
In the direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the column, the required
strength of end and intermediate point braces is
Pbr = 0.01Pr (A-6-3)
and the required stiffness of the brace is
1 8 Pr
βbr = (LRFD) (A-6-4a)
φ L br
8P
βbr = Ω r (ASD) (A-6-4b)
L br
φ = 0.75 (LRFD) Ω = 2.00 (ASD)
where
Lbr = unbraced length adjacent to the point brace, in. (mm)
Pr = largest of the required axial strengths of the column within the unbraced
lengths adjacent to the point brace using LRFD or ASD load combinations,
kips (N)
When the unbraced lengths adjacent to a point brace have different Pr L br values, the
larger value shall be used to determine the required brace stiffness.
For intermediate point bracing of an individual column, Lbr in Equations A-6-4a or
A-6-4b need not be taken as less than the maximum effective length, Lc , permitted
for the column based upon the required axial strength, Pr .
The requirements of this section shall apply to bracing of doubly and singly sym-
metric I-shaped members subjected to flexure within a plane of symmetry and zero
net axial force.
1. Lateral Bracing
Lateral bracing shall be attached at or near the beam compression flange, except as
follows:
(a) At the free end of a cantilevered beam, lateral bracing shall be attached at or near
the top (tension) flange.
(b) For braced beams subjected to double curvature bending, bracing shall be at-
tached at or near both flanges at the braced point nearest the inflection point.
It is permitted to use either panel or point bracing to provide lateral bracing for
beams.
User Note: The stiffness contribution of the connection to the panel bracing
system should be assessed as provided in the User Note to Section 6.2.1.
1 4 Mr Cd
βbr = (LRFD) (A-6-6a)
φ L br ho
4 Mr Cd
βbr = Ω (ASD) (A-6-6b)
L br ho
10 Mr Cd
βbr = Ω (ASD) (A-6-8b)
L br ho
2. Torsional Bracing
It is permitted to attach torsional bracing at any cross-section location, and it need
not be attached near the compression flange.
User Note: Torsional bracing can be provided as point bracing, such as cross-
frames, moment-connected beams, or vertical diaphragm elements, or as continu-
ous bracing, such as slabs or decks.
where
22
11 3.36.6LL MM r r
ββ
T T== (LRFD) (A-6-11a)
φφnEI
nEIyeff CC
yeff b b
22
33.6.6LL MMr r
ββT T==ΩΩ (ASD) (A-6-11b)
nEI
nEIyeff
yeff CC
b b
and
f = 0.75 (LRFD); W = 3.00 (ASD)
User Note: The relationship between f and W used in Equations A-6-11a and
A-6-11b is Ω = 1.52 φ = 3.00, because the moment term is squared.
bsec can be taken as equal to infinity, and βbr = βT , when a cross-frame is attached
near both flanges or a vertical diaphragm element is used that is approximately the
same depth as the beam being braced.
User Note: If βsec < βT, Equation A-6-10 is negative, which indicates that tor-
sional beam bracing will not be effective due to inadequate web distortional
stiffness.
User Note: For doubly symmetric members, c = t and Iyeff = out-of-plane moment
of inertia, Iy, in.4 (mm4).
When required, a web stiffener shall extend the full depth of the braced member and
shall be attached to the flange if the torsional brace is also attached to the flange.
Alternatively, it is permissible to stop the stiffener short by a distance equal to 4tw
from any beam flange that is not directly attached to the torsional brace.
When the expression, ( Mr Cb ) L br , within the unbraced lengths adjacent to a point
2
brace, has different values, the larger value shall be used to determine the required
brace strength and stiffness.
In Equation A-6-9, Lbr need not be taken as less than the maximum unbraced length
permitted for the beam based upon the required flexural strength, Mr .
A-6-8. In Equations A-6-4 and A-6-8, Lbr for beam-columns shall be taken as the
actual unbraced length; the provision in Sections 6.2.2 and 6.3.1b, that Lbr need
not be taken as less than the maximum permitted effective length based upon Pr
and Mr , shall not be applied.
(c) When torsional bracing is provided for flexure in combination with panel or
point bracing for the axial force, the required strength and stiffness shall be com-
bined or distributed in a manner that is consistent with the resistance provided by
the element(s) of the actual bracing details.
(d) When the combined stress effect from axial force and flexure results in compres-
sion to both flanges, either lateral bracing shall be added to both flanges or both
flanges shall be laterally restrained by a combination of lateral and torsional
bracing.
User Note: For case (d), additional guidelines are provided in the Commentary.
APPENDIX 7
ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF DESIGN FOR STABILITY
This appendix presents alternatives to the direct analysis method of design for stability
defined in Chapter C. The two alternative methods covered are the effective length method
and the first-order analysis method.
The appendix is organized as follows:
7.1. General Stability Requirements
7.2. Effective Length Method
7.3. First-Order Analysis Method
1. Limitations
When using the effective length method, the following conditions shall be met:
(a) The structure supports gravity loads primarily through nominally vertical col-
umns, walls, or frames.
(b) The ratio of maximum second-order drift to maximum first-order drift (both
determined for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) load combinations or
1.6 times allowable strength design (ASD) load combinations, with stiffness not
adjusted as specified in Section C2.3) in all stories is equal to or less than 1.5.
User Note: The ratio of second-order drift to first-order drift in a story may
be taken as the B2 multiplier, calculated as specified in Appendix 8.
2. Required Strengths
The required strengths of components shall be determined from an elastic analysis
conforming to the requirements of Section C2.1, except that the stiffness reduction
indicated in Section C2.1(a) shall not be applied; the nominal stiffnesses of all struc-
tural steel components shall be used. Notional loads shall be applied in the analysis
in accordance with Section C2.2b.
User Note: Because the condition specified in Section C2.2b(d) will be satisfied
in all cases where the effective length method is applicable, the notional load need
only be applied in gravity-only load cases.
3. Available Strengths
The available strengths of members and connections shall be calculated in accor-
dance with the provisions of Chapters D through K, as applicable.
For flexural buckling, the effective length, Lc, of members subjected to compression
shall be taken as KL, where K is as specified in (a) or (b), in the following, as appli-
cable, and L is the laterally unbraced length of the member.
(a) In braced-frame systems, shear-wall systems, and other structural systems where
lateral stability and resistance to lateral loads does not rely on the flexural stiffness
of columns, the effective length factor, K, of members subjected to compression
shall be taken as unity unless a smaller value is justified by rational analysis.
(b) In moment-frame systems and other structural systems in which the flexural stiff-
nesses of columns are considered to contribute to lateral stability and resistance
to lateral loads, the effective length factor, K, or elastic critical buckling stress,
Fe , of those columns whose flexural stiffnesses are considered to contribute
to lateral stability and resistance to lateral loads shall be determined from a
sidesway buckling analysis of the structure; K shall be taken as 1.0 for columns
whose flexural stiffnesses are not considered to contribute to lateral stability and
resistance to lateral loads.
Exception: It is permitted to use K = 1.0 in the design of all columns if the ratio
of maximum second-order drift to maximum first-order drift (both determined
for LRFD load combinations or 1.6 times ASD load combinations) in all stories
is equal to or less than 1.1.
User Note: Methods of calculating the effective length factor, K, are dis-
cussed in the Commentary.
Bracing intended to define the unbraced lengths of members shall have sufficient
stiffness and strength to limit member movement at the braced points.
User Note: The ratio of second-order drift to first-order drift in a story may
be taken as the B2 multiplier, calculated as specified in Appendix 8.
(d) The required axial compressive strengths of all members whose flexural stiff-
nesses are considered to contribute to the lateral stability of the structure satisfy
the following limitation:
αPr ≤ 0.5Pns (A-7-2)
where
Pns = cross-section compressive strength; for nonslender-element sections,
Pns = Fy Ag, and for slender-element sections, Pns = Fy Ae , where Ae is as
defined in Section E7 with Fn = Fy , kips (N)
2. Required Strengths
The required strengths of components shall be determined from a first-order analysis,
with additional requirements (a) and (b) given in the following. The analysis shall
consider flexural, shear, and axial member deformations, and all other deformations
that contribute to displacements of the structure.
(a) All load combinations shall include an additional lateral load, Ni , applied in
combination with other loads at each level of the structure:
Ni = 2.1α(∆ L)Yi ≥ 0.0042Yi (A-7-3)
where
α = 1.0 (LRFD); α = 1.6 (ASD)
Yi = gravity load applied at level i from the LRFD load combination or ASD
load combination, as applicable, kips (N)
∆ L = maximum ratio of ∆ to L for all stories in the structure
User Note: For most building structures, the requirement regarding the direc-
tion of Ni may be satisfied as follows: (a) For load combinations that do not
include lateral loading, consider two alternative orthogonal directions for the
additional lateral load in a positive and a negative sense in each of the two
directions, same direction at all levels; (b) for load combinations that include
lateral loading, apply all the additional lateral loads in the direction of the
resultant of all lateral loads in the combination.
3. Available Strengths
The available strengths of members and connections shall be calculated in accor-
dance with the provisions of Chapters D through K, as applicable.
The effective length for flexural buckling of all members shall be taken as the
unbraced length unless a smaller value is justified by rational analysis.
Bracing intended to define the unbraced lengths of members shall have sufficient
stiffness and strength to limit member movement at the braced points.
APPENDIX 8
APPROXIMATE ANALYSIS
This appendix provides approximate analysis procedures for determining the required
strength of structural members and connections.
The appendix is organized as follows:
8.1. Approximate Second-Order Elastic Analysis
8.2. Approximate Inelastic Moment Redistribution
User Note: The two first-order elastic analyses are (1) restrained against lateral
translation (ntno translation), and (2) lateral translation (lt), using the subscript
notation in Equations A-8-1 and A-8-2.
1. Calculation Procedure
The required second-order flexural strength, Mr , and axial strength, Pr , of all mem-
bers shall be determined as
Mr = B1Mnt + B2Mlt (A-8-1)
Pr = Pnt + B2Plt (A-8-2)
where
B1 = multiplier to account for P-δ effects, determined for each member subjected
to compression and flexure, and each direction of bending of the member
in accordance with Appendix 8, Section 8.1.2. B1 shall be taken as 1.0 for
members not subjected to compression.
B2 = multiplier to account for P-∆ effects, determined for each story of the struc-
ture and each direction of lateral translation of the story in accordance with
Appendix 8, Section 8.1.3.
Mlt = first-order moment using LRFD or ASD load combinations, due to lateral
translation of the structure only, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mnt = first-order moment using LRFD or ASD load combinations, with the struc-
ture restrained against lateral translation, kip-in. (N-mm)
Mr = required second-order flexural strength using LRFD or ASD load combina-
tions, kip-in. (N-mm)
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
Plt = first-order axial force using LRFD or ASD load combinations, due to lateral
translation of the structure only, kips (N)
Pnt = first-order axial force using LRFD or ASD load combinations, with the
structure restrained against lateral translation, kips (N)
Pr = required second-order axial strength using LRFD or ASD load combina-
tions, kips (N)
User Note: Equations A-8-1 and A-8-2 are applicable to all members in all
structures. Note, however, that B1 values other than unity apply only to moments
in beam-columns; B2 applies to moments and axial forces in components of the
lateral force-resisting system (including columns, beams, bracing members, and
shear walls). See the Commentary for more on the application of Equations A-8-1
and A-8-2.
User Note: The story gravity load (Pstory and Pmf ) includes loading from levels
above and on nonframe columns and walls, and the weight of wall panels later-
ally supported by the lateral force-resisting system; it need not include the vertical
component of the seismic force.
User Note: RM can be taken as 0.85 as a lower-bound value for stories that
include moment frames, and RM = 1 if there are no moment frames in the story.
H and DH in Equation A-8-7 may be based on any lateral loading that provides a
representative value of story lateral stiffness, H ∆ H .
(b) For solid rectangular bars and for rectangular HSS and symmetric box beams
bent about their major axis
M E E
L m = 0.17 + 0.10 1 ry ≥ 0.10 ry (A-8-10)
M 2 Fy Fy
where
Fy = specified minimum yield stress of the compression flange, ksi (MPa)
M1 = smaller moment at end of unbraced length, kip-in. (N-mm)
M2 = larger moment at end of unbraced length, kip-in. (N-mm)
ry = radius of gyration about y-axis, in. (mm)
( M1 M 2) is positive when moments cause reverse curvature and negative for
single curvature
There is no limit on Lb for members with round or square cross sections or for any
beam bent about its minor axis.
COMMENTARY
on the Specification for Structural Steel Buildings
August 1, 2022
(The Commentary is not a part of ANSI/AISC 360-22, Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings, but is included for informational purposes only.)
INTRODUCTION
The Specification is intended to be complete for normal design usage.
The Commentary furnishes background information and references for the benefit of the
design professional seeking further understanding of the basis, derivations, and limits of
the Specification.
The Specification and Commentary are intended for use by design professionals with demon-
strated engineering competence.
COMMENTARY SYMBOLS
The Commentary uses the following symbols in addition to the symbols defined in the
Specification. The section number in the right-hand column refers to the Commentary sec-
tion where the symbol is first used.
COMMENTARY GLOSSARY
The Commentary uses the following terms in addition to the terms defined in the Glossary
of the Specification.
Alignment chart. Nomograph for determining the effective length factor, K, for some types
of columns.
Biaxial bending. Simultaneous bending of a member about two perpendicular axes.
Brittle fracture. Abrupt cleavage with little or no prior ductile deformation.
Column curve. Curve expressing the relationship between axial column strength and slen-
derness ratio.
Critical load. Load at which a perfectly straight member under compression may either
assume a deflected position or may remain undeflected, or a beam under flexure may
either deflect and twist out-of-plane or remain in its in-plane deflected position, as
determined by a theoretical stability analysis.
Drift damage index. Parameter used to measure the potential damage caused by interstory
drift.
Effective moment of inertia. Moment of inertia of the cross section of a member that remains
elastic when partial plastification of the cross section takes place, usually under the
combination of residual stress and applied stress; also, the moment of inertia based on
effective widths of elements that buckle locally; also, the moment of inertia used in the
design of partially composite members.
Effective stiffness. Stiffness of a member computed using the effective moment of inertia
of its cross section.
Fatigue threshold. Stress range at which fatigue cracking will not initiate regardless of the
number of cycles of loading.
First-order plastic analysis. Structural analysis based on the assumption of rigid-plastic
behavior—in other words, that equilibrium is satisfied throughout the structure and the
stress is at or below the yield stress—and in which equilibrium conditions are formu-
lated on the undeformed structure.
Flexible connection. Connection permitting a portion, but not all, of the simple beam rota-
tion of a member end.
Inelastic action. Material deformation that does not disappear on removal of the force that
produced it.
Interstory drift. Lateral deflection of a floor relative to the lateral deflection of the floor
immediately below, divided by the distance between floors, (δ n − δn −1 ) h.
Permanent load. Load in which variations over time are rare or of small magnitude. All
other loads are variable loads.
Plastic plateau. Portion of the stress-strain curve for uniaxial tension or compression in
which the stress remains essentially constant during a period of substantially increased
strain.
Primary member. For ponding analysis, beam or girder that supports the concentrated reac-
tions from the secondary members framing into it.
Residual stress. Stress that remains in an unloaded member after it has been formed into
a finished product. (Examples of such stresses include, but are not limited to, those
induced by cold bending, cooling after rolling, or welding.)
Rigid frame. Structure in which connections maintain the angular relationship between
beam and column members under load.
Secondary member. For ponding analysis, beam or joist that directly supports the distributed
ponding loads on the roof of the structure.
Sidesway. Lateral movement of a structure under the action of lateral loads, unsymmetrical
vertical loads, or unsymmetrical properties of the structure.
Sidesway buckling. Buckling mode of a multistory frame precipitated by the relative lateral
displacements of joints leading to failure by sidesway of the frame.
Shape factor. Ratio of the plastic moment to the yield moment, Mp My, also given by Z S.
St. Venant torsion. Portion of the torsion in a member that induces only shear stresses in
the member.
Strain hardening. Phenomenon wherein ductile steel, after undergoing considerable defor-
mation at or just above yield point, exhibits the capacity to resist substantially higher
loading than that which caused initial yielding.
Stub-column. A short compression test specimen utilizing the complete cross section, suf-
ficiently long to provide a valid measure of the stress-strain relationship as averaged
over the cross section, but short enough so that it will not buckle as a column in the
elastic or plastic range.
Total building drift. Lateral frame deflection at the top of the most occupied floor divided
by the height of the building to that level, ∆ H.
Undercut. Notch resulting from the melting and removal of base metal at the edge of a weld.
Variable load. Load with substantial variation over time.
Warping torsion. Portion of the total resistance to torsion that is provided by resistance to
warping of the cross section.
CHAPTER A
GENERAL PROVISIONS
Chapter A includes the following major changes and additions in this edition of the
Specification:
(1) Referenced specifications, codes, and standards have been updated to the most recent
and applicable versions.
(2) ASTM F3148 bolts have been added as an acceptable bolt product.
(3) Section A3.1 has been revised to present the approved ASTM standards in Table A3.1,
which lists the permissible strengths and grades and other limitations for the referenced
ASTM standards.
(4) Section A4 has been expanded to include information from the AISC Code of Standard
Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges (AISC, 2022a) that is to be provided in the
structural design documents. Clarification has been added regarding requirements for
structural design documents issued for construction or issued for any purpose.
(5) Section A5, Approvals, has been added to include requirements for review and approval
of documents by the engineer of record or registered design professional.
A1. SCOPE
The scope of this Specification is essentially the same as the 2016 Specification for
Structural Steel Buildings (AISC, 2016) that it replaces.
The basic purpose of the provisions in this Specification is the determination of the
nominal and available strengths of the members, connections, and other components
of steel building structures.
This Specification provides two methods of design:
(a) Load and resistance factor design (LRFD): The nominal strength is multiplied
by a resistance factor, φ, resulting in the design strength, which is then required
to equal or exceed the required strength determined by structural analysis for the
appropriate LRFD load combinations specified by the applicable building code.
(b) Allowable strength design (ASD): The nominal strength is divided by a safety
factor, Ω, resulting in the allowable strength, which is then required to equal or
exceed the required strength determined by structural analysis for the appropri-
ate ASD load combinations specified by the applicable building code.
This Specification gives provisions for determining the values of the nominal
strengths according to the applicable limit states and lists the corresponding values of
the resistance factor, φ, and the safety factor, Ω. Nominal strength is usually defined
in terms of resistance to a load effect, such as axial force, bending moment, shear,
or torque, but in some instances it is expressed in terms of a stress. The ASD safety
factors are calibrated to give the same structural reliability and the same component
size as the LRFD method at a live-to-dead load ratio of 3. The term “available
strength” is used throughout the Specification to denote design strength and allow-
able strength, as applicable.
This Specification is applicable to both buildings and other structures. Many struc-
tures found in petrochemical plants, power plants, and other industrial applications
are designed, fabricated, and erected in a manner similar to buildings. It is not in-
tended that this Specification address steel structures with vertical and lateral force-
resisting systems that are not similar to buildings, nor those constructed of shells or
catenary cables.
The Specification may be used for the design of structural steel elements, as defined
in the AISC Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges (AISC,
2022a), hereafter referred to as the Code of Standard Practice, when used as com-
ponents of nonbuilding structures or other structures. Engineering judgment must
be applied to the Specification requirements when the structural steel elements are
exposed to environmental or service conditions and loads not usually applicable to
building structures.
The Code of Standard Practice defines the practices that are the commonly accepted
standards of custom and usage for structural steel fabrication and erection. As
such, the Code of Standard Practice is primarily intended to serve as a contractual
document to be incorporated into the contract between the buyer and seller of fabri-
cated structural steel. Some parts of the Code of Standard Practice, however, form
the basis for some of the provisions in this Specification. Therefore, the Code of
Standard Practice is referenced in selected locations in this Specification to maintain
the ties between these documents, where appropriate.
The Specification disallows seismic design of buildings and other structures using
the provisions of Appendix 1, Section 1.3. The R-factor specified in ASCE/SEI 7-22
(ASCE, 2022) used to determine the seismic loads is based on a nominal value of
system overstrength and ductility that is inherent in steel structures designed by
elastic analysis using this Specification. Therefore, it would be inappropriate to
take advantage of the additional strength afforded by the inelastic design approach
presented in Appendix 1, Section 1.3, while simultaneously using the code specified
R-factor. In addition, the provisions for ductility in Appendix 1, Section 1.3.2, are
not fully consistent with the intended levels for seismic design.
In the Specification, which is used in general commercial applications, the quality
assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) terms primarily refer to fabrication and
erection procedures, qualifications, documents, and inspection, and they distinguish
between responsibilities of the representatives of the owner and the authority having
jurisdiction and the responsibilities of the steel contractor. In the AISC Specification
for Safety-Related Steel Structures for Nuclear Facilities (AISC, 2018b), QA refers
to evaluation of all parts of the process that have an effect on the final product,
including structural analysis and design, as well as fabrication and erection, and QC
refers to inspection and testing performed during the steel fabrication and erection
process. The elements of QA in the nuclear industry are based on the U.S. Code of
Federal Regulations.
A3. MATERIAL
steel producer can supply steel with improved through-thickness properties by imple-
menting additional metallurgical or heat treatment processing.
The geometry of the welded connections should be designed to avoid through-thick-
ness tensile stresses and configure the joint to best limit restraint and reduce weld
metal volume. See recommendations in AWS D1.1/D1.1M Commentary C-4.7.3
(AWS, 2020) and “Commentary on Highly Restrained Welded Connections” (AISC,
1973).
Other measures the engineer can specify to mitigate through-thickness challenges
are listed below:
(1) Expand use of ultrasonic testing (UT) to inspect the steel at the location of the
weld and surrounding area before and after welding. AISC Seismic Provisions
for Structural Steel Buildings (AISC, 2022c) Section J7.2c requires the UT of
base metal thicker than 12 in. (38 mm) after joint (weld) completion behind and
adjacent to the fusion line, and refers to AWS D1.1/D1.1M (AWS, 2020), Table
8.2, for acceptance criteria.
(2)
Specify nondestructive examination (NDE) during the fabrication process.
Visual examination, liquid penetrant, and magnetic particle testing can be used
to identify surface discontinuities. UT can be used to detect internal discontinui-
ties. Plate can be mill ordered with supplementary requirement S8, “Ultrasonic
Examination,” of ASTM A6/A6M, specifically ASTM A435/A435M (ASTM,
2017b) and ASTM A578/A578M (ASTM, 2017c). Radiography is not recom-
mended because the relevant orientation of the discontinuities of interest are
difficult to detect with this method. Results of NDE will enable the fabricator to
locate steel members such that particularly susceptible material is not subjected
to excessive through-thickness strains.
(3) Specify through-thickness tensile testing. For steel plates this is achieved in
accordance with ASTM A770/A770M (ASTM, 2018b). This test evaluates sus-
ceptibility to lamellar tearing, where a minimum area reduction value of 20% has
generally been shown to provide adequate ductility to help mitigate the problem,
though a minimum value of 15% may be acceptable. CEN (2005c) gives a pro-
cedure for specifying area reductions of 15% and greater.
Including any of these measures should be carefully considered with input from the
contractor and steel supplier regarding the cost, ease of implementation, and relative
effectiveness.
Fracture Control Design for Service Conditions. For especially demanding service
conditions, such as structures exposed to low temperatures, particularly those with
cyclic or impact loading, the specification of steels with superior notch toughness
may be warranted. However, for most buildings, the steel is relatively warm, strain
rates are essentially static, and the stress intensity and number of cycles of full design
stress are low. Accordingly, the probability of fracture in most building structures is
low. Good workmanship and good design details incorporating joint geometry that
avoids severe stress concentrations are generally the most effective means of provid-
ing fracture-resistant construction (AASHTO, 2014).
TABLE C-A3.1
Recommended CVN Requirements for
Exposure Below −30°°F (−
−34°°C)
Minimum Average
Actual Yield Maximum Absorbed Energy, Test Temperature,
Strength, ksi (MPa) Thickness, in. (mm) ft-lbf (J) °F (°°C)
All / (13)
12 No recommendation provided
The Charpy V-notch (CVN) test allows for the measurement of the amount of energy
absorbed during the fracture of standardized test specimens at a given temperature.
The absorbed energy is the measure of the material’s notch toughness. The CVN test-
ing temperature can be significantly different from the material’s service temperature
to account for the difference in strain rate between the Charpy impact test (on the
order of 10 sec−1in./in.) and the designed strain rate of the structure (typically 10−3
sec−1in./in. for static, wind, and seismic loadings) (Barsom and Rolfe, 1999).
Shapes produced with no minimum specified CVN requirements will generally pro-
vide some level of toughness, although no minimum values are guaranteed. In appli-
cations where increased fracture resistance is required, specified minimum CVN
properties may offer improved reliability. For structures that are exposed to tempera-
tures below −30°F (−34°C), contract documents should specify steel that meets the
minimum average absorbed energy recommended in Table C-A3.1 for main members
that are statically loaded and subjected to bending or tension.
Plates. Portions of the Commentary for hot-rolled shapes are also applicable for
plates.
Hollow Structural Sections (HSS). Specified minimum tensile properties are sum-
marized in Table C-A3.2 for various HSS material specifications and grades. ASTM
A53/A53M Grade B is a pipe specification included as an approved HSS material
specification because it is the most readily available round product in the United
States. Other North American HSS products that have properties and characteristics
that are similar to the approved ASTM products are produced in Canada under the
General Requirements for Rolled or Welded Structural Quality Steel (CSA, 2013).
In addition, pipe is produced to other specifications that meet the strength, ductility,
and weldability requirements of the materials in Section A3, but may have additional
requirements for notch toughness or pressure testing. As stated in Section A3.1b,
TABLE C-A3.2
Minimum Tensile Properties of HSS Steels
Fy, Fu,
Specification Grade ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa)
ASTM A53/A53M B 35 (240) 60 (415)
ASTM A500/A500M B 46 (315) 58 (400)
(square, rectangular, round) C 50 (345) 62 (425)
A 36 (250) 58 (400)
ASTM A501/A501M
B 50 (345) 70 (485)
ASTM A618/A618M I and II 50 (345) 70 (485)
(round) [t ≤ 3/4 in. (19 mm)]
III 50 (345) 65 (450)
ASTM A847/A847M − 50 (345) 70 (485)
materials not specifically listed in Table A3.1 are permitted when suitability is deter-
mined by the engineer of record (EOR).
Round HSS can be readily obtained in ASTM A53/A53M material and ASTM
A500/A500M Grade C is also common. For rectangular HSS, ASTM A500/A500M
Grade C is the most commonly available material and a special order would be
required for any other material. Depending upon size, either welded or seamless
round HSS can be obtained. In North America, however, all ASTM A500/A500M
rectangular HSS for structural purposes are welded. Rectangular HSS differ from
box sections in that they have uniform thickness, except for some thickening in the
rounded corners.
Nominal strengths of directly welded T-, Y-, and K-connections of HSS have been
developed analytically and empirically. Connection deformation is anticipated and
is an acceptance limit for connection tests. Ductility is necessary to achieve the
expected deformations. The ratio of the specified minimum yield strength to the
specified minimum tensile strength (yield/tensile ratio) is one measure of material
ductility. Materials in HSS used in connection tests have had a yield/tensile ratio
of up to 0.80 and therefore that ratio has been adopted as a limit of applicability
for directly welded HSS connections. ASTM A500/A500M Grade A material does
not meet this ductility “limit of applicability” for direct connections in Chapter K.
ASTM A500/A500M Grade C has a yield/tensile ratio of 0.807 but it is reasonable
to use the rounding method described in ASTM E29 (ASTM, 2019c) and find this
material acceptable for use.
weld shrinkage strains, to the finer grained and/or more notch-tough surface material
of ASTM A6/A6M shapes and heavy built-up cross sections, the potential for crack-
ing is significantly lower. An example is a complete-joint-penetration groove welded
connection of a nonheavy cross-section beam to a heavy cross-section column.
For critical applications, such as primary tension members, material should be
specified to provide adequate notch toughness at service temperatures. Because of
differences in the strain rate between the Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact test and the
strain rate experienced in actual structures, the CVN test is conducted at a tempera-
ture higher than the anticipated service temperature for the structure. The location of
the CVN test specimens (“alternate core location”) is specified in ASTM A6/A6M,
Supplemental Requirement S30.
The notch toughness requirements of Sections A3.1d and A3.1e are intended only to
provide structural steel material with a nominal yield strength of 50 ksi with reason-
able notch toughness for ordinary service applications [enclosed structures or lowest
anticipated service temperature of 50°F (10°C) or higher]. For unusual applications,
low temperature service, and/or higher strength material, more restrictive require-
ments and/or notch toughness requirements for other section sizes and thicknesses
may be appropriate (Barsom and Rolfe, 1999). To minimize the potential for frac-
ture, the notch toughness requirements of Sections A3.1d and A3.1e must be used in
conjunction with good design and fabrication procedures. Specific requirements are
given in Sections J1.5, J1.6, J2.6, and J2.7.
2015a); for magnetic particle and liquid penetrant surface and subsurface examina-
tion, refer to ASTM A903/A903M (ASTM, 2012b); for radiographic examination,
refer to ASTM E1030/E1030M (ASTM, 2015b); and for ultrasonic examination, refer
to ASTM A609/A609M (ASTM, 2012a). ASTM A958/A958M (ASTM, 2021b) is
a cast steel used in the Kaiser Bolted Bracket Moment Connection, a prequalified
moment connection in ANSI/AISC 358 (AISC, 2022b), but it may also be specified
in some nonseismic applications. Additional information about cast steels can be
found in the Steel Castings Handbook, Supplement 2 (SFSA, 2009).
Steel Forgings. There are a number of ASTM specifications for steel forgings.
The Forging Industry Association’s Forging Industry Handbook (FIA, 1985) dis-
cusses some typical forging issues, but more detailed information can be obtained at
www.forging.org. Steel forgings should conform to ASTM A668/A668M (ASTM,
2021a) and the related ASTM testing requirements. UT should be in compliance with
ASTM A388/A388M (ASTM, 2019b) and MPI in accordance with ASTM A275/
A275M (ASTM, 2018a). Many of the frequently used structural forgings are catalog
items for which the testing has been established. For custom forgings, the frequency
and type of testing required should be established to conform to ASTM requirements.
scope of the Specification. It is not intended or necessary to list all the requirements
stated in the Specification for listing in the design documents and specifications
issued for construction. The items specified in this section are deemed to be impor-
tant for specific mention and to be listed. When modified or additional requirements
are warranted for a particular project, these should be considered by the designer and
direct references to the Specification should be employed where appropriate.
The information specified to be shown on design documents issued for construction
is considered important for ensuring that all applicable elements of the structural
steel frame, including connections, are documented and addressed by the engineer
of record (EOR) as required by the Specification. The 2021 International Building
Code (IBC) (ICC, 2021) requires that a registered design professional in responsible
charge be assigned the role of reviewing and coordinating submittal documents pre-
pared by others, including phased and deferred submittals as defined in Chapter 1 of
the IBC. Some design information required for final construction as listed in Section
A4 may be contained in deferred submittals prepared by a specialty structural engi-
neer, if approved by the authority having jurisdiction. This practice may be used
for metal buildings and for joists and joist girders. The authority having jurisdiction
(AHJ) is the final authority dictating requirements for design documents issued for
permit and for final construction. Refer to the 2021 IBC and CASE Document 962-B
(CASE, 1996) for further information.
For projects that use a design-build delivery method, where the EOR or internal
design engineer, as applicable, is employed by the fabricator or incorporate deferred
submittals, such as buckling-restrained braces, custom fabricated trusses, or steel
connections, some information specified in Section A4 is transmitted between the
designer and fabricator internally and there may be no need to issue documents from
one entity to the other in order for construction to commence. However, the intent of
Section A4 is to document the information between parties. Section A4 anticipates
that this documentation would be in the form of structural design documents and
specifications as specified, although it is recognized that other means of documenting
the required information are possible.
When the AHJ, applicable building code, purchaser, owner, or EOR judge that
supplemental life safety requirements are advisable, such requirements should be
indicated in the documents that are released for construction. Such requirements
might include, for example, material testing, reporting and traceability, additional
quality control and nondestructive testing, specific erection requirements, or other
important items critical to life safety.
In reference to item (k), preset elevation requirements at free ends of cantilevered
members relative to their fixed-end elevations, it may be necessary to specify a rela-
tive elevation to which the free end of a cantilever must be erected (preset) prior to
load application, with the fixed end stabilized before the member is released from
the crane or temporary support and any other load is applied to it. This is needed so
that the cantilevered member can be detailed and fabricated to allow for any required
preset. This does not apply to a beam that is continuous over a support, which is
controlled by camber, not preset.
the releasing entity (for example, owner, general contractor, construction manager, or
other party) releases the documents for bidding, negotiating for, or executing a con-
tract, this Specification requires that documents released be so labeled by the EOR for
such purpose. The EOR is the only party that fully understands and can interpret the
design status and whether sufficient information is shown on the documents for the
purpose of bidding or contract. Release of documents for bidding or contract that are
not sufficiently complete could have life safety implications if the structural design is
not advanced to allow proper definition of the scope of work. The issuance of design
documents and specifications for construction by the EOR and the requirements listed
under Section A4.1 are deemed to protect life safety and public welfare. It is recom-
mended that structural design documents issued for permit, ordering structural steel,
or placing a mill order also meet the stated requirements for documents issued for
construction. Issuance of structural design documents for these purposes, when the
documents are partially complete and the design is evolving, requires good commu-
nication among the parties and careful coordination of handling items that are not yet
designed and shown on the design documents. While ideally all design information
should be provided at the start of construction, this is not always practical or possible
with an accelerated design schedule. The safety of the structure mandates that the
requirements for design documents in this section be satisfied before construction on
the specified portion of the structure is initiated. Revisions to design documents may
require adjustments to the contract price and schedule. However, such contractual
matters are beyond the scope of the Specification and are addressed in the Code of
Standard Practice. Refer to the Code of Standard Practice Section 3.2 for require-
ments when issuing structural design documents and specifications that serve as the
basis for contract documents as defined therein.
A5. APPROVALS
Code of Standard Practice (AISC, 2022a) Section 4.4 addresses the approval process.
Engineers do not commonly construct buildings; instead, they produce design docu-
ments and specifications to inform the construction process. The review and approval
of the approval documents is a vital part of the construction process and is a confirma-
tion that the engineer of record's (EOR) design intent has been correctly interpreted; it
is an important part of the design and construction process, the ultimate goal of which
is the safety of the structure, and, therefore, is now addressed in this Specification.
CASE Document 962-D (CASE, 2020) indicates that when the design of some ele-
ment of the primary structural system is delegated to someone other than the struc-
tural EOR, “…such elements, including connections designed by others, should be
reviewed by the structural engineer of record or other responsible engineer. He [or
she] should review such designs and details, accept or reject them and be responsible
for their effects on the primary structural system.” Historically, the Code of Standard
Practice has embraced this same concept.
Submittal documents as prepared by a specialty structural engineer and approved by
the EOR or registered design professional in responsible charge is commonly accepted
practice with manufacturers of metal buildings, proprietary seismic components, and
steel joist manufacturers, provided it is approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
Refer to the 2021 IBC Chapter 1, Section 107 (ICC, 2021), for additional information.
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, August 1, 2022
American Institute of Steel Construction
CHAPTER B
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
Chapter B includes the following major changes and additions in this edition of the
Specification:
(1) The approximate method for inelastic moment redistribution (often referred to as the
nine-tenths rule) has been relocated to Appendix 8.
(2) Clarification is provided for use of partially restrained (PR) moment connections by
expanding the requirements.
(3) Design for ponding provisions have been expanded, given that Appendix 2, Ponding,
has been removed from the Specification.
(4) Section B4.1 has clarified the requirement that webs and flanges be continuously
attached.
(5) Section B4.3 has clarified that the holes being considered are bolt holes.
(6) Section B8, Dimensional Tolerances, has been added to clarify that the provisions of
the Specification are based on tolerances provided in the Code of Standard Practice and
referenced ASTM standards.
The return period associated with earthquake loads was revised in both the 2003 and
2009 editions of the NEHRP Recommended Seismic Provisions for New Buildings
and Other Structures (FEMA, 2003, 2009). In the 2009 edition, adopted as the basis
for ASCE/SEI 7-10 (ASCE, 2010), the earthquake loads at most locations were
intended to produce a collapse probability of 1% in a 50 year period, a performance
objective that is achieved by requiring that the probability of incipient collapse,
given the occurrence of the maximum considered earthquake (MCE), is less than
10%. This continues to be the basis of the current version of ASCE/SEI 7 (ASCE,
2022). At some sites in regions of high seismic activity, where high intensity events
occur frequently, deterministic limits on the ground motion result in somewhat
higher collapse probabilities. The ASCE/SEI 7, Chapter 1 Commentary, provides
information on the intended maximum probability of structural failure under earth-
quake and other loads.
Load combinations of ASCE/SEI 7, Section 2.3, which apply specifically to cases
in which the structural actions due to lateral forces and gravity loads counteract one
another and the dead load stabilizes the structure, incorporate a load factor on dead
load of 0.9.
ASD Load Combinations. If the ASD approach is selected, the load combination
requirements are defined in ASCE/SEI 7, Section 2.4.
The load combinations in ASCE/SEI 7, Section 2.4, are similar to those traditionally
used in allowable stress design. In ASD, safety is provided by the safety factor, Ω,
and the nominal loads in the basic combinations involving gravity loads, earth pres-
sure, or fluid pressure are not factored. The reduction in the combined time-varying
load effect in combinations incorporating wind or earthquake load is achieved by the
load combination factor 0.75. This load combination factor dates back to the 1972
edition of ANSI Standard A58.1 (ANSI, 1972), the predecessor of ASCE/SEI 7. It
should be noted that in ASCE/SEI 7, the 0.75 factor applies only to combinations of
variable loads; it is irrational to reduce the dead load because it is always present and
does not fluctuate with time. It should also be noted that certain ASD load combina-
tions may actually result in a higher required strength than similar load combinations
for LRFD. Load combinations that apply specifically to cases in which the structural
actions due to lateral forces and gravity loads counteract one another, where the
dead load stabilizes the structure, incorporate a load factor on dead load of 0.6. This
eliminates a deficiency in the traditional treatment of counteracting loads in ASD
and emphasizes the importance of checking stability. The earthquake load effect is
multiplied by 0.7 in applicable combinations involving that load to align ASD for
earthquake effects with the definition of E in the sections of ASCE/SEI 7 defining
seismic load effects and combinations.
The load combinations in ASCE/SEI 7, Sections 2.3 and 2.4, apply to design for
strength limit states. They do not account for gross error or negligence. Loads and
load combinations for nonbuilding structures and other structures may be defined in
ASCE/SEI 7 or other applicable industry standards and practices.
1. Design for Strength Using Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Design for strength by LRFD is performed in accordance with Equation B3-1. The
left side of Equation B3-1, Ru , represents the required strength computed by struc-
tural analysis based on load combinations stipulated in ASCE/SEI 7, Section 2.3 (or
their equivalent) (ASCE, 2022), while the right side, φRn, represents the limiting
structural resistance, or design strength, provided by the member or element.
The resistance factor, φ, in this Specification is equal to or less than 1.00. When
compared to the nominal strength, Rn, computed according to the methods given in
Chapters D through K, a φ of less than 1.00 accounts for approximations in the theory
and variations in mechanical properties and dimensions of members and frames. For
limit states where φ = 1.00, the nominal strength is judged to be sufficiently conser-
vative when compared to the actual strength that no reduction is needed.
The LRFD provisions are based on (1) probabilistic models of loads and resistance,
(2) a calibration of the LRFD provisions to the 1978 edition of the ASD Specification
for selected members (AISC, 1978), and (3) the evaluation of the resulting provi-
sions by judgment and past experience aided by comparative design office studies of
representative structures.
In the probabilistic basis for LRFD (Ravindra and Galambos, 1978; Ellingwood et
al., 1982), the load effects, Q, and the resistances, R, are modeled as statistically
independent random variables. In Figure C-B3.1, relative frequency distributions
for Q and R are portrayed as separate curves on a common plot for a hypothetical
case. As long as the resistance, R, is greater than (to the right of) the effects of the
loads, Q, a margin of safety for the particular limit state exists. However, because Q
and R are random variables, there is a small probability that R may be less than Q.
The probability of this limit state is related to the degree of overlap of the frequency
distributions in Figure C-B3.1, which depends on the positioning of their mean
values (Rm versus Qm) and their dispersions.
The probability that R is less than Q depends on the distributions of the many vari-
ables (material, loads, etc.) that determine resistance and total load effect. Often, only
the means and the standard deviations or coefficients of variation of the variables
involved in the determination of R and Q can be estimated. However, this informa-
tion is sufficient to build an approximate design provision that is independent of the
knowledge of these distributions, by stipulating the following design condition:
6 D 1 1.5 (C-B3-5)
Ω= =
φ 4 D φ
Throughout this Specification, the values of Ω were obtained from the values of φ
by Equation C-B3-5.
Based on Equation C-B3-5, the relationship between available strengths for LRFD
and ASD is seen to be a constant of 1.5. However, that cannot be said for the rela-
tionship between required strengths for LRFD and ASD that are based on the load
combinations given in ASCE/SEI 7. Thus, the exact level of safety will vary between
LRFD and ASD. For the gravity load combinations given in Equations C-B3-3 and
C-B3-4, and the assumed L = 3D, ASD safety is equivalent to that for LRFD accord-
ing to Equation C-B3-5. An alternative way to present the relationship between
LRFD and ASD is to consider the ratio of the LRFD demand-to-capacity ratio
( DCRLRFD = Ru φRn ) to the ASD demand-to-capacity ratio [ DCRASD = Ra ( Rn Ω)]
(Salmon et al., 2008). Thus,
DCRLRFD Ru φRn
= (C-B3-6)
DCRASD Ra ( Rn Ω )
The larger ratios of DCRs, values exceeding 1.2, were observed for B2 values in
excess of 1.1 and L D ratios in excess of 2.0. It is noted that steel buildings with
such B2 values and L D ratios may not be uncommon. Similar results were obtained
for lateral load combinations including earthquake loads, E, although the ratio of
DCRs tended to be smaller. Designers should thus be aware of the differences in
design results between the two methods at these higher ratios of W D, E D, and
L D, with ASD potentially being less conservative than LRFD and having a lower
level of safety and reliability.
One way to bring the safety and reliability of ASD into alignment with that of LRFD
when considering lateral load combinations is to supplement the ASD lateral load
combinations with LRFD lateral load combinations divided by 1.5. By also using an
ASD/LRFD force level adjustment factor of α = 1.5 instead of α = 1.6, as prescribed
in Section C2, lateral systems designed using ASD will be exactly the same as those
designed by LRFD. The resulting ASD designs would then be consistent with LRFD
load combinations and would thus achieve the same level of safety and reliability
as LRFD designs. A better approach, however, is to completely switch to design by
LRFD. This will provide an approach to design with safety and reliability at a con-
sistent level across all conditions.
3. Required Strength
This Specification permits the use of elastic or inelastic, which includes plastic,
structural analysis. Generally, design is performed by elastic analysis. Provisions
for inelastic and plastic analysis are given in Appendix 1. The required strength is
determined by the appropriate methods of structural analysis.
In some circumstances, as in the proportioning of stability bracing members that
carry no calculated forces (see, for example, Appendix 6), the required strength is
explicitly stated in this Specification.
In certain cases, the deformation of the connection elements affects the way the
structure resists load and hence the connections must be included in the analysis of
the structural system. These connections are referred to as partially restrained (PR)
moment connections. For structures with PR connections, the connection flexibility
must be estimated and included in the structural analysis, as described in the fol-
lowing sections. Once the analysis is complete, the load effects and deformations
computed for the connection can be used to check the adequacy of the connecting
elements.
For simple and FR connections, the connection proportions are established after the
final analysis of the structural design is completed, thereby greatly simplifying the
design cycle. In contrast, the design of PR connections (like member selection) is
inherently iterative because one must assume values of the connection proportions in
order to establish the force-deformation characteristics of the connection needed to
perform the structural analysis. The life-cycle performance characteristics must also
be considered. The adequacy of the assumed proportions of the connection elements
can be verified once the outcome of the structural analysis is known. If the con-
nection elements are inadequate, then the values must be revised and the structural
analysis repeated. The potential benefits of using PR connections for various types of
framing systems are discussed in the literature referenced in the following.
Connection Classification. The basic assumption made in classifying connections
is that the most important behavioral characteristics of the connection can be mod-
eled by a moment-rotation, M-θ, curve. Figure C-B3.2 shows a typical M-θ curve.
Implicit in the moment-rotation curve is the definition of the connection as being a
region of the column and beam along with the connecting elements. The connection
response is defined this way because the rotation of the member in a physical test
is generally measured over a length that incorporates the contributions of not only
the connecting elements, but also the ends of the members being connected and the
column panel zone.
Structural Analysis and Design. When a connection is classified as PR, the relevant
response characteristics of the connection must be included in the analysis of the
structure to determine the member and connection forces, displacements, and the
frame stability. Therefore, PR construction requires, first, that the moment-rotation
characteristics of the connection be known and, second, that these characteristics be
incorporated in the analysis and member design.
Typical moment-rotation curves for many PR connections are available from one of
several databases (Goverdhan, 1983; Ang and Morris, 1984; Nethercot, 1985; Kishi
and Chen, 1986). Care should be exercised when utilizing tabulated moment-rotation
curves not to extrapolate to sizes or conditions beyond those used to develop the
database because other failure modes may control (ASCE, 1997). When the connec-
tions to be modeled do not fall within the range of the databases, it may be possible
to determine the response characteristics from tests, simple component modeling, or
finite element studies (FEMA, 1995). Examples of procedures to model connection
behavior are given in the literature (Bjorhovde et al., 1988; Chen and Lui, 1991;
Bjorhovde et al., 1992; Lorenz et al., 1993; Chen and Toma, 1994; Chen et al., 1995;
Bjorhovde et al., 1996; Leon et al., 1996; Leon and Easterling, 2002; Bijlaard et al.,
2005; Bjorhovde et al., 2008).
The degree of sophistication of the analysis depends on the problem at hand. Design
for PR construction usually requires separate analyses for the serviceability and
strength limit states. For serviceability, an analysis using linear springs with a stiff-
ness given by Ks (see Figure C-B3.2) is sufficient if the resistance demanded of the
connection is well below the strength. When subjected to strength load combinations,
a procedure is needed whereby the characteristics assumed in the analysis are con-
sistent with those of the connection response. The response is especially nonlinear
as the applied moment approaches the connection strength. In particular, the effect
of the connection nonlinearity on second-order moments and other stability checks
needs to be considered (ASCE, 1997). The use of the direct analysis method with
PR connections has been demonstrated (Surovek et al., 2005; White and Goverdhan,
2008).