ALGORITHMS

SEARCHING TECHIQUES
Algorithms
• An algorithm is a well defined list of steps for solving a particular problem.
• The time and space are two major measures of the efficiency of an algorithm.
• The complexity of an algorithm is the function which gives the running time and /
or space in terms of input size.
Searching Algorithms
• Searching Algorithms are designed to check for an element or retrieve an element
from any data structure where it is stored.
• Based on the type of search operation, these algorithms are generally classified
into two categories:
• Linear Search
• Binary Search
Linear Search
• Linear search is a very basic and simple search algorithm.
• In Linear search, we search an element or value in a given array by traversing the
array from the starting, till the desired element or value is found or we can
establish that the element is not present.
• It compares the element to be searched with all the elements present in the array
and when the element is matched successfully, it returns the index of the element
in the array, else it return -1.
• Linear search is applied on unsorted or unordered lists, when there are fewer
elements in a list.
Linear Search - Example
• Search each record of the file, one at a time, until finding the given value.
Algorithm for Linear Search
• In Steps 1 and 2 of the algorithm, we initialize the
value of POS and I.
• In Step 3, a while loop is executed that would be
executed till I is less than N.
• In Step 4, a check is made to see if a match is
found between the current array element and VAL.
• If a match is found, then the position of the array
element is printed, else the value of I is
incremented to match the next element with VAL.
• If all the array elements have been compared with
VAL and no match is found, then it means that
VAL is not present in the array.
Program for Linear Search
Linear Search - Advantages
• When a key element matches the first element in the array, then linear search
algorithm is best case because executing time of linear search algorithm is O(n),
where n is the number of elements in an array.
• The list doesn’t have to sort. Contrary to a binary search, linear searching does not
demand a structured list.
• Not influenced by the order of insertions and deletions. Since the linear search
doesn’t call for the list to be sorted, added elements can be inserted and deleted.
Linear Search - Disadvantages
• The drawback of a linear search is the fact that it is time consuming if the size of
data is huge.
• Every time a vital element matches the last element from the array or an essential
element does not match any element Linear search algorithm is the worst case.
Binary Search
• Binary Search is used with sorted array or list. In binary search, we follow the
following steps:
1) We start by comparing the element to be searched with the element in the
middle of the list/array.
2) If we get a match, we return the index of the middle element and terminate
the process
3) If the element/number to be searched is greater than the middle element, we
pick the elements on the left/right side of the middle element, and move to
step 1.
4) If the element/number to be searched is lesser in value than the middle
number, then we pick the elements on the right/left side of the middle
element, and move to step 1.
Binary Search - Example
• Binary Search is useful when there are large number of elements in an array and
they are sorted.
Algorithm for Binary Search
• In Step 1, we initialize the value of variables, BEG,
END, and POS.
• In Step 2, a while loop is executed until BEG is less
than or equal to END.
• In Step 3, the value of MID is calculated.
• In Step 4, we check if the array value at MID is equal to
VAL. If a match is found, then the value of POS is
printed and the algorithm exits. If a match is not found,
and if the value of A[MID] is greater than VAL, the
value of END is modified, otherwise if A[MID] is
greater than VAL, then the value of BEG is altered.
• In Step 5, if the value of POS = –1, then VAL is not
present in the array and an appropriate message is
printed on the screen before the algorithm exits.
Program for Binary Search
Binary Search (Cont..)
Advantages Disadvantages
• It eliminates half of the list from • It employs recursive approach which
further searching by using the result of requires more stack space.
each comparison. • Programming binary search algorithm
• It indicates whether the element being is error prone and difficult.
searched is before or after the current • The interaction of binary search with
position in the list. memory hierarchy i.e. caching is poor.
• This information is used to narrow the
search.
• For large lists of data, it works
significantly better than linear search.
Difference between Linear & Binary Search
Linear Search Binary Search
• Linear Search necessitates the input • Binary Search necessitates the input
information to be not sorted information to be sorted.
• Linear Search needs equality • Binary Search necessitates an ordering
comparisons. contrast.
• Linear search has complexity C(n)= • Binary Search has complexity C(n)=
n/2. log 2 n.
• Linear Search needs sequential access. • Binary Search requires random access
to this information.
 COMPLEXITY
TIME, SPACE MATRIX
Linear Search – Time & Space Matrix
• Time Complexity
o We need to go from the first element to the last so, in the worst case we have
to iterate through ‘n’ elements, n being the size of a given array.

Time Complexity is O(n)

• Space Complexity
o We don't need any extra space to store anything.
o We just compare the given value with the elements in an array one by one.

Space Complexity is O(1)

Binary Search – Time & Space Matrix
• Time Complexity
o We start from the middle of the array and keep dividing the search area by
half.
o In other words, search interval decreases in the power of 2 (2048, 1024, 512,
..).

Time Complexity is O(Log n)

• Space Complexity
o We just need to store three values: `lower_bound`, `upper_bound`, and
`middle_position`.

Space Complexity is O(1)

Review Questions
• The worst case complexity is ______ when compared with the average case
complexity of a binary search algorithm.
(a) Equal (b) Greater (c) Less (d) None of these
• The complexity of binary search algorithm is
(a) O(n) (b) O(n2) (c) O(n log n) (d) O(log n)
• Which of the following cases occurs when searching an array using linear search
the value to be searched is equal to the first element of the array?
(a) Worst case (b) Average case (c) Best case (d) Amortized case
• Performance of the linear search algorithm can be improved by using a ______.
• The complexity of linear search algorithm is ______.
ALGORITHM
SORTING
SORTING
• Sorting is a technique to rearrange the elements of a list in ascending or descending
order, which can be numerical, lexicographical, or any user-defined order.
• Sorting is a process through which the data is arranged in ascending or descending
order.
Sorting can be classified in two types;
1. Internal Sorts
2. External Sorts
SORTING - INTERNAL SORTS
• Internal Sorts:- This method uses only the primary memory during sorting process.
All data items are held in main memory and no secondary memory is required for this
sorting process.
• If all the data that is to be sorted can be accommodated at a time in memory is called
internal sorting. There is a limitation for internal sorts; they can only process
relatively small lists due to memory constraints. There are 3 types of internal sorts
based on the type of process used while sorting.
(i) SELECTION :- Ex:- Selection sort algorithm, Heap Sort algorithm
(ii) INSERTION :- Ex:- Insertion sort algorithm, Shell Sort algorithm
(iii) EXCHANGE :- Ex:- Bubble Sort Algorithm, Quick sort algorithm
SORTING – EXTERNAL SORTS
• External Sorts:- Sorting large amount of data requires external or secondary memory.
This process uses external memory such as HDD, to store the data which is not fit into
the main memory. So, primary memory holds the currently being sorted data only.
• All external sorts are based on process of merging. Different parts of data are sorted
separately and merged together. Ex:- Merge Sort
INSERTION SORT
• Insertion Sort Algorithm sorts array by shifting elements one by one and inserting
the right element at the right position

• It works similar to the way you sort playing cards in your hands
INSERTION SORT
• Insertion sorts works by taking
elements from the list one by one and Pseudo code
inserting them in their current position
into a new sorted list. INSERTION-SORT(A)
• Insertion sort consists of N - 1 passes, for i = 1 to n
where N is the number of elements to key ← A [i]
be sorted. j←i–1
• The ith pass of insertion sort will while j > = 0 and A[j] > key
insert the ith element A[i] into its A[j+1] ← A[j]
j←j–1
rightful place among A[1], A[2] to
End while
A[i - 1]. After doing this insertion the A[j+1] ← key
records occupying A[1]....A[i] are in End for
sorted order.
 Working of insertion sort – Ascending order
• We start by considering the second element of the given array, i.e. element at index 1, as
the key.
• We compare the key element with the element(s) before it, i.e., element at index 0:
– If the key element i.e index 1 is less than the first element, we insert the key element
before the first element.(swap)
– If the key element is greater than the first element, then we insert it remains at its
position
– Then, we make the third element of the array as key and will compare it with elements
to it's left and insert it at the right position.
• And we go on repeating this, until the array is sorted
.
Example
Let us now understand working with the
following example:
Consider the following array: 25, 17, 31,
13, 2 where N=5

First Iteration: Compare 17 with 25. The

comparison shows 17< 25. Hence swap
17 and 25.
The array now looks like:
17, 25, 31, 13, 2
EXAMPLE (Cont..)
Second Iteration:.
• Now hold on to the third element
(31) and compare with the ones
preceding it.
• Since 31> 25, no swapping takes
place.
• Also, 31> 17, no swapping takes
place and 31 remains at its position.
• The array after the Second iteration
looks like:
17, 25, 31, 13, 2
EXAMPLE (Cont..)
Third Iteration: Start the following Iteration with the
fourth element (13), and compare it with its preceding
elements.
• Since 13< 31, we swap the two.
• Array now becomes: 17, 25, 13, 31, 2.
• But there still exist elements that we haven’t yet
compared with 13. Now the comparison takes place
between 25 and 13. Since, 13 < 25, we swap the two.
• The array becomes 17, 13, 25, 31, 2.
• The last comparison for the iteration is now between
17 and 13. Since 13 < 17, we swap the two.
• The array now becomes 13, 17, 25, 31, 2.
 EXAMPLE (Cont..)
Fourth Iteration: The last 13, 17, 2, 25, 31.
iteration calls for the • Compare 2 with 17 and 13.
comparison of the last • Since, 2<17. Swap 2 and 17.
element (2), with all the • Array now becomes:
preceding elements and make
the appropriate swapping 13, 2, 17, 25, 31.
between elements. • The last comparison for the
Iteration is to compare 2 with
• Since, 2< 31. Swap 2 and 13.
31. • Since 2< 13. Swap 2 and 13.
Array now becomes: 13, 17, • The array now becomes:
25, 2, 31. 2, 13, 17, 25, 31.
• Compare 2 with 25, 17, 13. • This is the final array after all
the corresponding iterations
• Since, 2< 25. Swap 25 and and swapping of elements.
Insertion sort consists of N - 1 passes
Where N=5 So 5-1=4
2. Number of pass=4(4th iteration all the
elements are sorted)
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages
• The main advantage of the insertion sort is its simplicity
• It also exhibits a good performance when dealing with a small list.
• The insertion sort is an in-place sorting algorithm so the space requirement is
minimal
Disadvantages
• The disadvantage of the insertion sort is that it does not perform when compared
to few other, sorting algorithms
• With n-squared steps required for every n element to be sorted, the insertion sort
does not deal well with a huge list.
• The insertion sort is particularly useful only when sorting a list of few items
INSERTION SORT -TIME COMPLEXITY