SEMI-CONDUCTOR

*What is Semi-conductor?

-Semiconductors have a unique property where their conductivity can be altered by

factors like temperature, light, or voltage. Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), and Gallium
arsenide (GaAs} are commonly used semiconductor materials. In electronics,
semiconductors are crucial for creating integrated circuits (ICs) and transistors,
enabling the construction of various electronic devices, including computers,
smartphones, and microcontrollers. The manipulation of semiconductor properties
allows for the control of electrical currents, forming the foundation of modern
electronic technology.

*Why Si more used than Ge?

Silicon (Si) is more commonly used than germanium (Ge) in semiconductor devices for
several reasons:
1. Abundance: Silicon is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, while
germanium is relatively rare. The availability of silicon makes it more economically
viable for mass production.
2. Temperature Stability: Silicon has a higher melting point and better thermal stability
than germanium. This makes silicon devices more robust and reliable under various
operating conditions.
3. Wider Band gap: Silicon has a larger energy band gap compared to germanium. A
larger band gap allows for better insulation between the conduction and valence bands,
leading to improved performance in electronic devices.
4. Compatibility with Oxides: Silicon dioxide (SiO2) forms a stable and excellent
insulating layer on silicon, which is crucial for creating reliable transistors and integrated
circuits. Germanium does not form a similarly stable oxide layer, making it less suitable
for modern semiconductor technology.
5. Process Technology: Silicon has been extensively researched and developed for
semiconductor technology over many decades. The infrastructure and manufacturing
processes for silicon-based devices are well-established, making it more practical for
large-scale production.
6. Lower Intrinsic Carrier Concentration: Silicon has a lower intrinsic carrier
concentration compared to germanium. This property allows for better control of
electrical properties in semiconductor devices.

While germanium was historically used in early semiconductor devices, silicon's superior
properties, abundance, and well-established manufacturing processes have made it the
dominant choice in modern electronics.

*Intrinsic semiconductor:
An intrinsic semiconductor is an un-doped semiconductor. This means that holes in the
valence band are vacancies created by electrons that have been thermally excited to the
conduction band, as opposed to doped semiconductors where holes or electrons are
supplied by a “foreign” atom acting as an impurity.
a
*Extrinsic semiconductor:

Extrinsic carriers in a semiconductor are those that result from intentional doping,
where specific impurity atoms are added to the crystal lattice. Doping is a common
practice to modify the electrical properties of semiconductors for various applications.
There are two main types of extrinsic carriers: electrons (negfative charge carriers) and
holes (positive charge carriers).

1. N-Type Semiconductor (Negative Extrinsic Carriers):

- In an N-type semiconductor, atoms with more valence electrons than the
semiconductor material (called donor atoms) are added.
- These donor atoms contribute extra electrons to the crystal lattice, creating an
excess of negative charge carriers (electrons).
- Common donor impurities include Phosphorus (P) or Arsenic (As) in the case of
Silicon (Si).
-Majority careers- electron; minority careers-holes;
2. P-Type Semiconductor (Positive Extrinsic Carriers):
- In a P-type semiconductor, atoms with fewer valence electrons than the
semiconductor material (called acceptor atoms) are added.
- Acceptor atoms create holes in the crystal lattice by accepting electrons from
neighboring atoms.
- This results in an excess of positive charge carriers (holes).
- Common acceptor impurities include Boron (B) or Gallium (Ga) in the case of Silicon
(Si).
-Majority careers- elctron; minority careers-holes;

Semi-conductor Diode:

-No bias:

When P-type and N-type are touched the majority careers electron and hole arrives to
the touching surface and cancel themselves out. The current generated by this is called
Diffusion Current. Because of this the immobile ions become uncovered at the surface.
As there is no mobile charge available this region is called Depletion Layer. As we can
see that there is a positive layer and a negative layer, there should free an electric field
N toward P. Inspite of having this electric field, the remaining electrons can’t move
because there is a negatively charged wall made of immobile particles preventing them
from going to the P region. The force .that is preventing the electrons from moving is
called Barrier potential. Because of this electric field, the minority careers of N-type
(electrons) move toward P-type. This flow of electron is called Drift Current. Drift
Current is the opposite of Diffusion Current.
Under steady state, Diffusion Current = Drift Current. And hence the net current is 0.
That’s why in no bias Semi-conductor Diodes work as open circuit.

* Barrier potential:
Barrier Potential , V b=V T
( N AND
n
2
i
) ; V T=
KT
e
Here,
VT= Thermal voltage;
K = Boltzmann’s constant;
T = Absolute temperature;
e = Charge of an electron;
NA= Acceptors’ Concentration;
ND= Donors’ Concentration;
ni= Intrinsic Career Density.

-Forward bias:
In forward bias, a Voltage (VD) is applied across a semiconductor diode in such a way
that it allows the current to flow easily. This decreases the Barrier potential(Vb),
enabling electrons to move from the n-type material to the p-type material and holes
to move in the opposite direction. As a result, the diode conducts electricity and allows
current to pass through.
 -Forward bias:
Reverse bias in a semiconductor occurs when a voltage is applied in the direction that
increases the width of the depletion zone within a diode. This reduces the flow of
current, making the diode less conductive. It's a crucial aspect in semiconductor devices
like diodes and transistors for controlling the flow of electrical current.
If an external potential of V volts is applied across the P-N junction, such as the positive
terminal is connected to the N-type material and the negative terminal is connected to
the P-type material. The number of uncovered positive ions in the depletion region of
the N-type material will increase due to the large number of free electrons drawn to the
positive potential of the applied voltage. The current that exists under reverse bias
conditions is called the Reverse Saturation Current and represented by IS.
The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few micro-amperes, except for
high power devices. The term saturation comes from the fact that it reaches the
maximum level quickly and does not change significantly with the increase in the
reverse bias potential.

The current flow can be determined by Shockley’s equation like this:

I D =I S ¿)
Here,IS = Reverse Saturation Current;
VD = Forward bias Voltage;
n = Ideality factor;
VT = Thermal voltage.

The equation replies;

→ I D =I S ¿)
VD
→ I =I e n V −I T
D S S

VD
For VD>0; I D =I S e n V ;
T For VD<0; I D =−I S;

Leakage current:
Leakage current in a diode is a small current that flows through the diode even when it
is reverse biased, meaning the voltage across the diode is in the opposite direction to its
normal forward bias.
Breakdown Voltage:
Breakdown voltage is a critical parameter that signifies the point at which the insulating
properties break down and the semiconductor transitions from being an insulator to a
conductor. This can occur in reverse-biased p-n junctions or between the terminals of a
semiconductor device. The breakdown voltage is important for designing reliable
semiconductor devices and preventing unintended breakdown and damage.

Breakdown Region:
The breakdown region in a semiconductor refers to a condition where the reverse-
biased voltage across a semiconductor device exceeds a critical threshold, leading to a
sudden increase in current.

Zener Voltage:
The Zener voltage is the specific voltage at which a Zener diode begins to conduct in the
reverse-biased direction. Beyond this voltage, the Zener diode maintains a relatively
constant voltage drop across its terminals, making it useful for voltage regulation in
electronic circuits.
Zener region:
The Zener region refers to the reverse-biased operating mode where the diode exhibits
its voltage-regulating properties. In this region, the Zener diode maintains a nearly
constant voltage drop across its terminals, even as the reverse-biased voltage varies
within a specified range. This characteristic makes Zener diodes valuable for voltage
regulation in electronic circuits, ensuring a stable output voltage despite changes in
input voltage or load conditions.

Zener breakdown:
Zener breakdown occurs in a Zener diode when it is reverse-biased beyond a certain
voltage threshold, known as the Zener voltage. In the Zener breakdown region, the
electric field across the depletion region becomes strong enough to enable quantum
tunneling. This process generates electron-hole pairs, creating a sudden increase in
current while maintaining a relatively constant voltage drop across the Zener diode.
Zener diodes are often used for voltage regulation in electronic circuits, as they can
provide a stable output voltage even when subjected to varying input voltages or
changes in load. The ability to operate in the Zener breakdown region distinguishes
Zener diodes from regular diodes and is a key feature in their application for voltage
reference and regulation purposes.

Different Types of Diodes

General diode:
Cross-section:
Definition:
…
A Diode is a semi-conductor device that
essentially acts as a one-way switch for Characteristic graph:
current.

Symbol:

Application:
Operating principle: General Diodes are used in general
A general Diode allows an electric purpose switching, voltage clamping,
current to pass in one direction (called reverse polarity protection, automotive,
the diode’s forward direction), while communication, UPS, battery chargers,
blocking it in the opposite direction (the welding and traction.
reverse direction).

Zener Diode:
Definition: Definition:
A Zener Diode is a highly doped semi- The Schottky diode is a type of metal
conductor device specially designed to semiconductor junction diode, which is
function in reverse direction. also known as hot carrier diode, low
voltage diode, or Schottky barrier diode.
Symbol: Symbol:

Cross-section:
Cross-section:

Characteristic graph:
Characteristics graph:

Operating principle:
In this diode, there is a Schottky barrier,
which is a depletion layer formed at the
junction of the metal and N-type
semiconductor. The electrons have to
Operating principle; overcome the potential energy of this
A Zener Diode is always reverse Schottky barrier in order to flow across
connected. When forward biased, its the diode.
characteristics are just like an ordinary
diode. It has a sharp breakdown voltage Application:
called Zener voltage. Solar cell, Power or electric circuits
Power rectifier (like bridge rectifier), RF
Application: mixer and detector diode.
Zener Diodes are used as voltage
regulators.
Schottky Diode: Tunnel Diode:
Definition: Definition:
A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n A light Emitting Diode (LED) is an optical
junction diode in which the electric semiconductor device that emits light
current decreases as when voltage is applied.
the voltage increases.
Symbol:
Symbol:
.
Cross-section:
Cross-section:

Characteristic graph:
Characteristic graph:

Operating principle:
When LED is forward biased, free
electrons from n-type semiconductor
and holes from p-type semiconductor
are pushed towards the active region.
Operating principle: When free electrons from n-side and
Electrons with energy greater than holes from p-side recombine with the
barrier potential can pass over the opposite charge carriers (free electrons
barrier and vice versa. with holes or holes with free electrons)
in active region, an invisible or visible
Application: light is emitted.
Tunnel Diodes can be used as a switch,
amplifier and oscillator. Application:
All types of lights.

Light Emitting Diode: PhotoDiode:

 Varicap:
Definition:
A photodiode is a p-n junction or pin Definition:
semiconductor device that consumes Vricap is a p-n junction diode whose
light energy to generate electric current. capacitance is varied by varying the
Symbol: reverse voltage.
Symbol:

Cross-section: Cross-section: Characteristic graph:

Characteristic graph:

Operating principle:
The Vricap should always be operated in
reverse bias. Because in reverse bias, the
Operating principle: electric current does not flow. When a
When exposed to light, the photons forward bias voltage is applied, the
energize electrons in the semiconductor electric current flows through the diode.
material, creating electron-hole pairs. As a result, the depletion region
The electric field within the photodiode becomes negligible. We know that
then separates these charge carriers, depletion region consists of stored
generating a flow of current. This charges. So stored charges becomes
photocurrent is proportional to the negligible which is undesirable. A Vricap
intensity of the incident light. is designed to store electric charge not
Photodiodes are commonly used in to conduct electric current. So Vricap
various applications, including light should always be operated in reverse
detection in electronic devices and bias.
communication systems.
Application:
Application: Frequency multipliers, parametric
CDs, smoke detectors, pulse oximeter. amplifiers, voltage-controlled oscillators.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier: Application: Electric motors, relay
controls or induction heating elements.
Definition: Avalanche diode:
A Silicon Controlled Rectifier is a 3
terminal and 4 layer semiconductor Definition:
current controlling device. It is mainly An avalanche diode is a special type of
used in the devices for the control of semiconductor device designed to
high power. operate in reverse breakdown region.
Symbol: Cross-section: Avalanche diodes are used as relief
valves to protect electrical systems from
excess voltages.

Symbol: Cross-section:
Characte
ristic graph:

Characteristic graph:

Operating principle:
Silicon controlled rectifier is a
unidirectional current controlling device. Operating principle:
Just like a normal p-n junction diode, it An avalanche diode allows electric
allows electric current in only one current in both forward and reverse
direction and blocks electric current in directions, though it’s specifically
another direction. A normal p-n junction designed to operate in reverse biased
diode is made of two semiconductor condition. Avalanche diode allows
layers namely P-type and N-type. electric current in reverse direction
However, a SCR diode is made of 4 when reverse bias voltage exceeds the
semiconductor layers of alternating P breakdown voltage When the reverse
and N type materials. bias voltage applied to the avalanche
diode exceeds the breakdown voltage,
avalanche breakdown occurs.
 White noise generators.
Application: