Definition of Computer Graphics : - Computer Graphics is the creation of pictures with the help of a

computer. The end product of the computer graphics is a picture it may be a business graph,
drawing, and engineering.

In computer graphics, two or three-dimensional pictures can be created that are used for
research. Many hardware devices algorithm has been developing for improving the speed of
picture generation with the passes of time. It includes the creation storage of models and image
of objects. These models for various fields like engineering, mathematical and so on.

It is the use of computers to create and manipulate pictures on a display device. It comprises of
software techniques to create, store, modify, represents pictures.

Types of Computer Graphics

 Raster Graphics: In raster, graphics pixels are used for an image to be
drawn. It is also known as a bitmap image in which a sequence of images is
into smaller pixels. Basically, a bitmap indicates a large number of pixels
together.
 Vector Graphics: In vector graphics, mathematical formulae are used to
draw different types of shapes, lines, objects, and so on.

Application of Computer Graphics

1. Education and Training: Computer-generated model of the physical, financial and
economic system is often used as educational aids. Model of physical systems,
physiological system, population trends or equipment can help trainees to understand
the operation of the system.

For some training applications, particular systems are designed. For example Flight
Simulator.

Flight Simulator: It helps in giving training to the pilots of airplanes. These pilots spend
much of their training not in a real aircraft but on the ground at the controls of a Flight
Simulator.

Advantages:
1. Fuel Saving
2. Safety
 3. Ability to familiarize the training with a large number of the world's airports.

2. Use in Biology: Molecular biologist can display a picture of molecules and gain
insight into their structure with the help of computer graphics.

3. Computer-Generated Maps: Town planners and transportation engineers can use

computer-generated maps which display data useful to them in their planning work.

4. Architect: Architect can explore an alternative solution to design problems at an

interactive graphics terminal. In this way, they can test many more solutions that would
not be possible without the computer.

5. Presentation Graphics: Example of presentation Graphics are bar charts, line graphs,
pie charts and other displays showing relationships between multiple parameters.
Presentation Graphics is commonly used to summarize

o Financial Reports
o Statistical Reports
o Mathematical Reports
o Scientific Reports
o Economic Data for research reports
o Managerial Reports
o Consumer Information Bulletins
o And other types of reports

6. Computer Art: Computer Graphics are also used in the field of commercial arts. It is
used to generate television and advertising commercial.

7. Entertainment: Computer Graphics are now commonly used in making motion

pictures, music videos and television shows.

8. Visualization: It is used for visualization of scientists, engineers, medical personnel,

business analysts for the study of a large amount of information.

9. Educational Software: Computer Graphics is used in the development of educational

software for making computer-aided instruction.
10. Printing Technology: Computer Graphics is used for printing technology and
textile design.

Example of Computer Graphics Packages:

1. LOGO
2. COREL DRAW
3. AUTO CAD
4. 3D STUDIO
5. CORE
6. GKS (Graphics Kernel System)
7. PHIGS
8. CAM (Computer Graphics Metafile)
9. CGI (Computer Graphics Interface)

Interactive and Passive Graphics

(a) Non-Interactive or Passive Computer
Graphics:
Back

In non-interactive computer graphics, the picture is produced on the monitor, and the
user does not have any controlled over the image, i.e., the user cannot make any change
in the rendered image. One example of its Titles shown on T.V.

Non-interactive Graphics involves only one-way communication between the computer

and the user, User can see the produced image, and he cannot make any change in the
image.

(b) Interactive Computer Graphics:

In interactive Computer Graphics user have some controls over the picture, i.e., the user
can make any change in the produced image. One example of it is the ping-pong game.
Interactive Computer Graphics require two-way communication between the computer
and the user. A User can see the image and make any change by sending his command
with an input device.

Advantages:
1. Higher Quality
2. More precise results or products
3. Greater Productivity
4. Lower analysis and design cost
5. Significantly enhances our ability to understand data and to perceive trends.

wardWorking of Interactive Computer

Graphics:
The modern graphics display is very simple in construction. It consists of three
components:

1. Frame Buffer or Digital Memory

2. A Monitor likes a home T.V. set without the tuning and receiving electronics.
3. Display Controller or Video Controller: It passes the contents of the frame buffer to

the monitor.
Frame Buffer: A digital frame buffer is large, contiguous piece of computer memory
used to hold or map the image displayed on the screen.

o At a minimum, there is 1 memory bit for each pixel in the raster. This amount of memory
is called a bit plane.
o A 1024 x 1024 element requires 220 (210=1024;220=1024 x 1024)sq.raster or 1,048,576
memory bits in a single bit plane.
o The picture is built up in the frame buffer one bit at a time.
o ∵ A memory bit has only two states (binary 0 or 1), a single bit plane yields a black and
white (monochrome display).
o As frame buffer is a digital device write raster CRT is an analog device.

Properties of Video Monitor:

1. Persistence: Persistence is the duration of phosphorescence. Different kinds of
phosphors are available for use in CRT. Besides color, a major difference between
phosphor in their persistence how they continue to emit light after the electron beam is
removed.

2. Resolution: Use to describe the number of pixels that are used on display image.
3. Aspect Ratio: It is the ratio of width to its height. Its measure is unit in length or
number of pixels.

Aspect Ratio = width unit/height unit

i Display Devices:
The most commonly used display device is a video monitor. The operation of most
video monitors based on CRT (Cathode Ray Tube). The following display devices are
used:

1. Refresh Cathode Ray Tube

2. Random Scan and Raster Scan
3. Color CRT Monitors
4. Direct View Storage Tubes
5. Flat Panel Display
6. Lookup Table

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer
monitors and televisions. The image on CRT display is created by firing electrons from
the back of the tube of phosphorus located towards the front of the screen.

Once the electron heats the phosphorus, they light up, and they are projected on a
screen. The color you view on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue and green
light.
Components of CRT:
Main Components of CRT are:

1. Electron Gun: Electron gun consisting of a series of elements, primarily a heating

filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons which
are focused into a narrow beam directed at the face of the CRT.

2. Control Electrode: It is used to turn the electron beam on and off.

3. Focusing system: It is used to create a clear picture by focusing the electrons into a
narrow beam.

4. Deflection Yoke: It is used to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates an
electric or magnetic field which will bend the electron beam as it passes through the
area. In a conventional CRT, the yoke is linked to a sweep or scan generator. The
deflection yoke which is connected to the sweep generator creates a fluctuating electric
or magnetic potential.

5. Phosphorus-coated screen: The inside front surface of every CRT is coated with
phosphors. Phosphors glow when a high-energy electron beam hits them.
Phosphorescence is the term used to characterize the light given off by a phosphor after
it has been exposed to an electron beam.

Random Scan and Raster Scan

Display:
Random Scan Display:

Random Scan System uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line image
on the CRT screen. The picture is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line segments. Each
line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from one point on the
screen to the next, where its x & y coordinates define each point. After drawing the picture. The
system cycles back to the first line and design all the lines of the image 30 to 60 time each
second. The process is shown in fig:
Random-scan monitors are also known as vector displays or stroke-writing displays or
calligraphic displays.

Advantages:
1. A CRT has the electron beam directed only to the parts of the screen where an image is
to be drawn.
2. Produce smooth line drawings.
3. High Resolution

Disadvantages:
1. Random-Scan monitors cannot display realistic shades scenes.

Raster Scan Display:

A Raster Scan Display is based on intensity control of pixels in the form of a rectangular
box called Raster on the screen. Information of on and off pixels is stored in refresh
buffer or Frame buffer. Televisions in our house are based on Raster Scan Method. The
raster scan system can store information of each pixel position, so it is suitable for
realistic display of objects. Raster Scan provides a refresh rate of 60 to 80 frames per
second.

Frame Buffer is also known as Raster or bit map. In Frame Buffer the positions are called
picture elements or pixels. Beam refreshing is of two types. First is horizontal retracing
and second is vertical retracing. When the beam starts from the top left corner and
reaches the bottom right scale, it will again return to the top left side called at vertical
retrace. Then it will again more horizontally from top to bottom call as horizontal
retracing shown in fig:
Types of Scanning or travelling of beam in Raster Scan

1. Interlaced Scanning
2. Non-Interlaced Scanning

In Interlaced scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to bottom.
Due to which fading of display of object may occur. This problem can be solved by Non-
Interlaced scanning. In this first of all odd numbered lines are traced or visited by an
electron beam, then in the next circle, even number of lines are located.

For non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. But it gives
flickers. For interlaced display refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used.

Advantages:
1. Realistic image
2. Million Different colors to be generated
3. Shadow Scenes are possible.

Disadvantages:
1. Low Resolution
2. Expensive
Differentiate between Random and Raster
Scan Display:
Random Scan Raster Scan

1. It has high Resolution 1. Its resolution is low.

2. It is more expensive 2. It is less expensive

3. Any modification if needed is easy 3.Modification is tough

4. Solid pattern is tough to fill 4.Solid pattern is easy to fill

5. Refresh rate depends or resolution 5. Refresh rate does not depend on the
picture.

6. Only screen with view on an area is 6. Whole screen is scanned.

displayed.

7. Beam Penetration technology come 7. Shadow mark technology came under

under it. this.

8. It does not use interlacing method. 8. It uses interlacing

9. It is restricted to line drawing

applications

Color CRT Monitors:

The CRT Monitor display by using a combination of phosphors. The phosphors are
different colors. There are two popular approaches for producing color displays with a
CRT are:

1. Beam Penetration Method

 2. Shadow-Mask Method

1. Beam Penetration Method:

The Beam-Penetration method has been used with random-scan monitors. In this
method, the CRT screen is coated with two layers of phosphor, red and green and the
displayed color depends on how far the electron beam penetrates the phosphor layers.
This method produces four colors only, red, green, orange and yellow. A beam of slow
electrons excites the outer red layer only; hence screen shows red color only. A beam of
high-speed electrons excites the inner green layer. Thus screen shows a green color.

Advantages:
1. Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
1. Only four colors are possible
2. Quality of pictures is not as good as with another method.

2. Shadow-Mask Method:
o Shadow Mask Method is commonly used in Raster-Scan System because they produce a
much wider range of colors than the beam-penetration method.
o It is used in the majority of color TV sets and monitors.

Construction: A shadow mask CRT has 3 phosphor color dots at each pixel position.
 o One phosphor dot emits: red light
o Another emits: green light
o Third emits: blue light

This type of CRT has 3 electron guns, one for each color dot and a shadow mask grid
just behind the phosphor coated screen.

Shadow mask grid is pierced with small round holes in a triangular pattern.

Figure shows the delta-delta shadow mask method commonly used in color CRT system.
Working: Triad arrangement of red, green, and blue guns.

The deflection system of the CRT operates on all 3 electron beams simultaneously; the 3
electron beams are deflected and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which
contains a sequence of holes aligned with the phosphor- dot patterns.

When the three beams pass through a hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dotted
triangle, which occurs as a small color spot on the screen.

The phosphor dots in the triangles are organized so that each electron beam can
activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes through the shadow mask.

Inline arrangement: Another configuration for the 3 electron guns is an Inline

arrangement in which the 3

electron guns and the corresponding red-green-blue color dots on the screen, are
aligned along one scan line rather of in a triangular pattern.

This inline arrangement of electron guns in easier to keep in alignment and is commonly used in
high-resolution color CRT's.
Advantage:
1. Realistic image
2. Million different colors to be generated
3. Shadow scenes are possible

Disadvantage:
1. Relatively expensive compared with the monochrome CRT.
2. Relatively poor resolution
3. Convergence Problem

Direct View Storage Tubes:

DVST terminals also use the random scan approach to generate the image on the CRT
screen. The term "storage tube" refers to the ability of the screen to retain the image
which has been projected against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image
constantly.

Function of guns: Two guns are used in DVST

1. Primary guns: It is used to store the picture pattern.

 2. Flood gun or Secondary gun: It is used to maintain picture display.

Advantage:
1. No refreshing is needed.
2. High Resolution
3. Cost is very less

Disadvantage:
1. It is not possible to erase the selected part of a picture.
2. It is not suitable for dynamic graphics applications.
3. If a part of picture is to modify, then time is consumed.

Flat Panel Display:

The Flat-Panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume,
weight and power requirement compare to CRT.

Example: Small T.V. monitor, calculator, pocket video games, laptop computers, an
advertisement board in elevator.

1. Emissive Display: The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. Examples are Plasma Panel, thin film electroluminescent display and LED
(Light Emitting Diodes).

2. Non-Emissive Display: The Non-Emissive displays use optical effects to convert

sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Examples are LCD
(Liquid Crystal Device).

Plasma Panel Display:

Plasma-Panels are also called as Gas-Discharge Display. It consists of an array of small
lights. Lights are fluorescent in nature. The essential components of the plasma-panel
display are:

1. Cathode: It consists of fine wires. It delivers negative voltage to gas cells. The voltage is
released along with the negative axis.
2. Anode: It also consists of line wires. It delivers positive voltage. The voltage is supplied
along positive axis.
 3. Fluorescent cells: It consists of small pockets of gas liquids when the voltage is applied
to this liquid (neon gas) it emits light.
4. Glass Plates: These plates act as capacitors. The voltage will be applied, the cell will glow
continuously.

The gas will slow when there is a significant voltage difference between horizontal and
vertical wires. The voltage level is kept between 90 volts to 120 volts. Plasma level does
not require refreshing. Erasing is done by reducing the voltage to 90 volts.

Each cell of plasma has two states, so cell is said to be stable. Displayable point in
plasma panel is made by the crossing of the horizontal and vertical grid. The resolution
of the plasma panel can be up to 512 * 512 pixels.

Figure shows the state of cell in plasma panel display

Advantage:
1. High Resolution
2. Large screen size is also possible.
3. Less Volume
 4. Less weight
5. Flicker Free Display

Disadvantage:
1. Poor Resolution
2. Wiring requirement anode and the cathode is complex.
3. Its addressing is also complex.

LED (Light Emitting Diode):

In an LED, a matrix of diodes is organized to form the pixel positions in the display and picture
definition is stored in a refresh buffer. Data is read from the refresh buffer and converted to
voltage levels that are applied to the diodes to produce the light pattern in the display.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display):

Liquid Crystal Displays are the devices that produce a picture by passing polarized light from the
surroundings or from an internal light source through a liquid-crystal material that transmits the
light.

LCD uses the liquid-crystal material between two glass plates; each plate is the right angle to
each other between plates liquid is filled. One glass plate consists of rows of conductors arranged
in vertical direction. Another glass plate is consisting of a row of conductors arranged in
horizontal direction. The pixel position is determined by the intersection of the vertical &
horizontal conductor. This position is an active part of the screen.

Liquid crystal display is temperature dependent. It is between zero to seventy degree

Celsius. It is flat and requires very little power to operate.
Advantage:
1. Low power consumption.
2. Small Size
3. Low Cost
Disadvantage:
1. LCDs are temperature-dependent (0-70°C)
2. LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
3. LCDs have no color capability.
4. The resolution is not as good as that of a CRT.

Look-Up Table:
Image representation is essentially the description of pixel colors. There are three
primary colors: R (red), G (green) and B (blue). Each primary color can take on intensity
levels produces a variety of colors. Using direct coding, we may allocate 3 bits for each
pixel, with one bit for each primary color. The 3-bit representation allows each primary
to vary independently between two intensity levels: 0 (off) or 1 (on). Hence each pixel
can take on one of the eight colors.

Bit 1:r Bit 2:g Bit 3:b Color name

0 0 0 Black

0 0 1 Blue

0 1 0 Green

0 1 1 Cyan

1 0 0 Red

1 0 1 Magenta

1 1 0 Yellow

1 1 1 White
A widely accepted industry standard uses 3 bytes, or 24 bytes, per pixel, with one byte
for each primary color. The way, we allow each primary color to have 256 different
intensity levels. Thus a pixel can take on a color from 256 x 256 x 256 or 16.7 million
possible choices. The 24-bit format is commonly referred to as the actual color
representation.

Lookup Table approach reduces the storage requirement. In this approach pixel values
do not code colors directly. Alternatively, they are addresses or indices into a table of
color values. The color of a particular pixel is determined by the color value in the table
entry that the value of the pixel references. Figure shows a look-up table with 256
entries. The entries have addresses 0 through 255. Each entry contains a 24-bit RGB
color value. Pixel values are now 1-byte. The color of a pixel whose value is i, where 0
<i<255, is persistence by the color value in the table entry whose address is i. It reduces
the storage requirement of a 1000 x 1000 image to one million bytes plus 768 bytes for
the color values in the look-up table.

Input Devices
The Input Devices are the hardware that is used to transfer transfers input to the computer. The
data can be in the form of text, graphics, sound, and text. Output device display data from the
memory of the computer. Output can be text, numeric data, line, polygon, and other objects.
 1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Trackball
4. Spaceball
5. Joystick
6. Light Pen
7. Digitizer
8. Touch Panels
9. Voice Recognition
10. Image Scanner

Keyboard:
The most commonly used input device is a keyboard. The data is entered by pressing
the set of keys. All keys are labeled. A keyboard with 101 keys is called a QWERTY
keyboard.

The keyboard has alphabetic as well as numeric keys. Some special keys are also
available.

1. Numeric Keys: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
2. Alphabetic keys: a to z (lower case), A to Z (upper case)
3. Special Control keys: Ctrl, Shift, Alt
4. Special Symbol Keys: ; , " ? @ ~ ? :
5. Cursor Control Keys: ↑ → ← ↓
6. Function Keys: F1 F2 F3....F9.
7. Numeric Keyboard: It is on the right-hand side of the keyboard and used for fast entry
of numeric data.

Function of Keyboard:
1. Alphanumeric Keyboards are used in CAD. (Computer Aided Drafting)
 2. Keyboards are available with special features line screen co-ordinates entry, Menu
selection or graphics functions, etc.
3. Special purpose keyboards are available having buttons, dials, and switches. Dials are
used to enter scalar values. Dials also enter real numbers. Buttons and switches are used
to enter predefined function values.

Advantage:
1. Suitable for entering numeric data.
2. Function keys are a fast and effective method of using commands, with fewer errors.

Disadvantage:
1. Keyboard is not suitable for graphics input.

Mouse:
A Mouse is a pointing device and used to position the pointer on the screen. It is a small
palm size box. There are two or three depression switches on the top. The movement of
the mouse along the x-axis helps in the horizontal movement of the cursor and the
movement along the y-axis helps in the vertical movement of the cursor on the screen.
The mouse cannot be used to enter text. Therefore, they are used in conjunction with a
keyboard.
Advantage:
1. Easy to use
2. Not very expensive

Trackball
It is a pointing device. It is similar to a mouse. This is mainly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted, and by changing
fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.

Advantage:
1. Trackball is stationary, so it does not require much space to use it.
2. Compact Size

Spaceball:
It is similar to trackball, but it can move in six directions where trackball can move in two
directions only. The movement is recorded by the strain gauge. Strain gauge is applied
with pressure. It can be pushed and pulled in various directions. The ball has a diameter
around 7.5 cm. The ball is mounted in the base using rollers. One-third of the ball is an
inside box, the rest is outside.
Applications:
1. It is used for three-dimensional positioning of the object.
2. It is used to select various functions in the field of virtual reality.
3. It is applicable in CAD applications.
4. Animation is also done using spaceball.
5. It is used in the area of simulation and modeling.

Joystick:
A Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to change cursor position on a monitor
screen. Joystick is a stick having a spherical ball as its both lower and upper ends as
shown in fig. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be changed in
all four directions. The function of a joystick is similar to that of the mouse. It is mainly
used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light Pen (similar to the pen) is a pointing device which is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube. When its tip is moved over the monitor screen, and pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signals to
the CPU.