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HANDBOOK OF RECYCLING State-of-the-art for Practitioners,

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 HANDBOOK
OF RECYCLING
State-of-the-art for Practitioners,
Analysts, and Scientists

SECOND EDITION
Edited by

CHRISTINA MESKERS
SINTEF Manufacturing, Trondheim, Norway;
Department of Energy and Process Engineering, NTNU—Norwegian
University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

ERNST WORRELL
Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands

MARKUS A. REUTER
WASM: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering,
Faculty of Science and Engineering,
Curtin University, Perth, Australia;
SMS Group GmbH, D€ usseldorf, Germany
Elsevier
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 Contents

Contributors xiii 3.2 Dimensions of MFA 30

3.3 Components for Monitoring the Physical
About the editors xvii
Economy 32
3.4 Application of the Framework: Maps of the
1 Aluminum Cycle 34
3.5 Recommendations 41
Recycling in context Acknowledgments 43
References 43
1. Introduction
ERNST WORRELL, MARKUS A. REUTER,
4. Material efficiency—Squaring the circular
AND CHRISTINA MESKERS economy: Recycling within a hierarchy of
material management strategies
1.1 The Challenges 3
JULIAN M. ALLWOOD
1.2 The Role of Materials in Society 4
1.3 From Linear to Circular Economy 6
4.1 Is a Circular Economy Possible or
1.4 Recycling in the Circular Economy 8
Desirable? 45
1.5 The Book 11
4.2 Hierarchies of Material Conservation 48
References 13
4.3 When Is Recycling Not the Answer? 65
4.4 Discussion 74
2. The fundamental limits of circularity References 76
quantified by digital twinning
MARKUS A. REUTER, ERNST WORRELL, 5. Material and product-centric recycling:
AND CHRISTINA MESKERS
design for recycling rules and
2.1 Introduction 15 digital methods
2.2 A Product and Material Focus on Recycling MARKUS A. REUTER AND ANTOINETTE VAN SCHAIK
Within the CE 16
2.3 Digital Twinning of the CE System: 5.1 Introduction 79
Understanding the Opportunities and Limits 23 5.2 Recyclability Index and Ecolabeling
2.4 Opportunities and Challenges 25 of Products 81
References 25 5.3 DfR Rules and Guidelines 84
5.4 Product-Centric Recycling 86
3. Maps of the physical economy to inform 5.5 Examples of Recycling System
sustainability strategies Simulation 91
€
5.6 Summary 93
DANIEL B. MULLER, ROMAIN G. BILLY, MARK U. SIMONI,
EVI PETAVRATZI, GANG LIU, HELMUT RECHBERGER, AND
5.7 Future Challenges 93
JONATHAN CULLEN Acknowledgements 94
References 94
3.1 Introduction 27 Additional Reading 95

v
vi Contents

6. Developments in collection 9. Sensor-based sorting

of municipal waste XIAOZHENG CHEN, NILS KROELL, ALEXANDER FEIL,
AND KATHRIN GREIFF
GIJS LANGEVELD AND MAARTEN GOORHUIS

6.1 Introduction 97 9.1 Mechanical Treatment of Waste 145

6.2 Definitions and Models 99 9.2 Principle of Sensor-Based Sorting 146
6.3 A Global Picture of SWM 102 9.3 Requirements for Optimal Sorting Results 148
6.4 Collection and Recovery Systems 107 9.4 Available Sensors 149
6.5 Future Developments 110 9.5 Application of Different Sensors in Recycling 157
6.6 Conclusion and Outlook 113 9.6 Recent Developments 158
References 113 9.7 Outlook 158
References 159

7. The path to inclusive recycling: 10. Mixed bulky waste

Developing countries and the informal sector SANDOR KARREMAN

SONIA VALDIVIA AND MATHIAS SCHLUEP

10.1 Introduction 161
7.1 Introduction 115 10.2 The Circular Process for Mixed Bulky Waste 161
7.2 Definition and Links With the Formal 10.3 Conditions for Economically Viable Sorting 162
Sector 117 10.4 Sorting of Mixed Bulky Waste 163
7.3 Informal Waste Tire Recycling: Challenges 10.5 Sorting Process 165
and Opportunities 118 10.6 Recycling Efficiency 166
7.4 Approaches Towards Inclusive Recycling 119 10.7 Conclusion and Outlook 166
7.5 Policies and Standardization Developments Reference 168
for Inclusive Recycling 121
7.6 Conclusion and Outlook 125 11. Packaging
References 126 ERNST WORRELL

11.1 Introduction 169

11.2 Packaging Waste 169
2 11.3 Composition 172
11.4 Recovery and Recycling 173
Recycling from a product perspective 11.5 Collection and Recovery Schemes 175
11.6 Conclusion and Outlook 178
8. Physical separation References 179
KARI HEISKANEN
12. End-of-life vehicles
8.1 Introduction 131 PIETER KUIPER AND SUSANNE VAN BERKUM
8.2 Properties and Property Spaces 133
8.3 Breakage 134 12.1 Introduction 181
8.4 Particle Size Classification 136 12.2 Vehicle Composition 182
8.5 Gravity Separation 137 12.3 Recycling Chain 184
8.6 Flotation 140 12.4 Recycling of Automotive Parts 188
8.7 Magnetic Separation 141 12.5 Recycling of Automotive Fluids 191
8.8 Eddy Current Separation 142 12.6 Automotive Shredder Residue 193
8.9 Electrostatic Separation 143 12.7 Future Developments and Outlook 196
8.10 Sorting 143 12.8 Conclusions 199
8.11 Conclusion 143 References 199
References 144 Further Reading 201
 Contents vii
13. Electrical and electronic equipment 17. Industrial by-products
(WEEE) €
JAANA SORVARI AND MARGARETA WAHLSTROM
MATHIAS SCHLUEP AND FABIAN OTTIGER
17.1 Waste, By-product, or Product? 259
13.1 Introduction 203 17.2 Major By-products 260
13.2 Waste Characterization 204 17.3 Where and How to Use By-products 268
13.3 Recycling Chain and Technologies 206 17.4 Technical and Environmental Requirements 276
13.4 Future Developments 210 17.5 Sustainability Aspects 280
13.5 Conclusions 214 17.6 Conclusions, Challenges, and Outlook 281
References 214 References 283

14. Photovoltaic and wind energy equipment 18. Mine tailings

OLGA IGNATENKO, NEILL J. BARTIE, CHRISTINA MESKERS, PRISCILLA P. NELSON AND D. ERIK SPILLER
AND MARKUS A. REUTER
18.1 Introduction 287
14.1 Introduction 217 18.2 Future Opportunities for Tailings Management 290
14.2 Wind Turbines 219 18.3 Main Drivers for Change 290
14.3 Photovoltaic Modules 221 18.4 Emerging Technologies 291
14.4 Wind Turbine Recycling 225 18.5 Conclusions and Outlook 295
14.5 PV Recycling 226 References 296
14.6 Future Developments 228 Further Reading 297
14.7 Key Issues and Challenges 229
14.8 Conclusions and Outlook 231
References 232 3
15. Buildings
Recycling from a material perspective
DAVID PECK
19. Steel
15.1 The Why: Buildings and Circularity 235 THILO KRESCHEL AND OLENA VOLKOVA
15.2 The How and Who: A Framework 236
15.3 The When: Shearing Layers 241 19.1 Introduction 301
15.4 The What: Materials in Buildings 242 19.2 Use Phase and Recycling Examples 303
15.5 Improving Data on Materials 244 19.3 Classification of Steel Scrap 303
15.6 The How, Who, When, and What 245 19.4 Requirements for Scrap 304
15.7 Outlook 246 19.5 Treatment Process 305
References 247 19.6 Steel Scrap Smelting Process 306
19.7 Steel 308
16. Construction and demolition waste 19.8 Alloy or Tramp Elements? 309
VIVIAN W.Y. TAM, MAHFOOZ SOOMRO, AND 19.9 Purification of Scrap 311
ANA CATARINA JORGE EVANGELISTA 19.10 Outlook 314
References 315
16.1 Introduction 249 Further Reading 318
16.2 C&D Waste Use 250
16.3 Recycling 251 20. Aluminum
16.4 Recycling Technologies and Practice 252 DON DOUTRE AND ANNE KVITHYLD
16.5 Future Developments 253
16.6 Conclusion and Outlook 255 20.1 Introduction 319
Acknowledgments 256 20.2 Alloys and Their Recycling 320
References 256 20.3 Melt Loss 323
viii Contents

20.4 Used Beverage Can (UBC) Recycling 326 25.3 Scrap Types and Quantities 401
20.5 Wheel Recycling 329 25.4 Recycling Technologies 406
20.6 Dross Processing 330 25.5 Future Challenges 410
20.7 Purification and Refining 332 25.6 Conclusions and Outlook 412
20.8 Future Trends and Challenges 334 Further Reading 413
References 335 References 413

21. Copper
MARK E. SCHLESINGER
26. Concrete and aggregates
VIVIAN W.Y. TAM, MAHFOOZ SOOMRO,
21.1 Sources of Copper Scrap 339 AND ANA CATARINA JORGE EVANGELISTA
21.2 Smelting and Refining of Copper Scrap 345
21.3 Conclusions and Outlook 351 26.1 Introduction 417
References 351 26.2 Waste Flows 418
Further Reading 353 26.3 Recovery Rates 420
26.4 Recycled Aggregate Concrete
22. Lead Applications 421
S. ARNOUT, B. BLANPAIN, D.R. SWINBOURNE,
26.5 Concrete Recycling Technologies 421
M. CHINTINNE, AND M. STEVENSON 26.6 Future Developments 423
26.7 Conclusion 426
22.1 Introduction 355 Acknowledgment 426
22.2 Material Use 355 References 427
22.3 The Lead-Acid Battery 357
22.4 Recycling Technologies 358
22.5 Future Developments 366 27. Cementitious binders incorporating
22.6 Key Issues and Challenges 367 residues
References 368 Y. PONTIKES AND R. SNELLINGS

23. Zinc 27.1 Introduction 429

J. ANTREKOWITSCH, S. STEINLECHNER, G. HANKE, 27.2 Clinker Production: Process, and Alternative
AND U. BRANDNER Fuels and Raw Materials 430
27.3 From Clinker to Cement: Residues in
23.1 Introduction 371 Blended Cements 433
23.2 Recycling Technologies 372 27.4 Alternative Cements With Lower
23.3 Key Issues and Challenges 380 Environmental Footprint 436
References 381 27.5 Conclusions and Outlook 440
References 441
24. Ferroalloy elements
STEFAN LUIDOLD AND EVA GEROLD
28. Glass
24.1 Introduction 385 THOMAS D. DYER
24.2 Use and Recycling 386
24.3 Recycling of Residues 387 28.1 Introduction 445
24.4 Conclusion 395 28.2 Types of Glass 445
References 395 28.3 Manufacturing 446
28.4 Recovery for Reuse and Recycling 446
25. Precious and technology metals 28.5 Reuse 449
CHRISTINA MESKERS AND MARKUS A. REUTER 28.6 Closed-Loop Recycling 449
28.7 Open-Loop Recycling 451
25.1 Introduction 397 28.8 Conclusion and Outlook 458
25.2 Applications 398 References 458
 Contents ix
29. Lumber 33. Textiles
AMBROSE DODOO, LEIF GUSTAVSSON, AND ROGER SATHRE JANA M. HAWLEY

29.1 Introduction 463 33.1 Introduction 523

29.2 Wood Material Uses 464 33.2 The Recycling Process 525
29.3 Postuse Wood Recovery for Recycling 465 33.3 Secondhand Clothing 527
29.4 Postuse Wood Recycling 466 33.4 Vintage Collectibles 527
29.5 Case Study Scenarios 471 33.5 Conversion to New Products 527
29.6 Future Developments 474 33.6 Conversion of Mattresses 528
29.7 Concluding Remarks 476 33.7 Conversion of Carpet 530
References 476 33.8 Landfill and Incineration 530
33.9 Circular Economy 531
30. Paper☆ 33.10 Outlook 531
Recommended Reading 532
HARALD GROSSMANN, TONI HANDKE, AND TOBIAS BRENNER
References 532
30.1 Introduction 481
30.2 Collection and Utilization 482
30.3 Collection and Sorting Systems 484 34. Carbon fibers
30.4 Stock Preparation 485 €
MAREEN ZOLLNER, DOROTHEA HAMANN,
30.5 Key Issues and Future Challenges 493 €
THOMAS KRAMPITZ, SOPHIA THUM,
References 495 AND HOLGER LIEBERWIRTH
Further Reading 496
34.1 Introduction 535
34.2 Material Use 535
31. Plastic recycling 34.3 Recycling 537
LI SHEN AND ERNST WORRELL 34.4 Recycling Technologies 539
34.5 Applications of rCF 543
31.1 Introduction 497 34.6 Future Developments and Challenges 546
31.2 Use 498 34.7 Conclusion and Outlook 547
31.3 Recycling 499 References 548
31.4 Mechanical Recycling 502
31.5 Chemical Recycling 505
31.6 Impact of Recycling 505
31.7 Conclusions and Outlook 508
References 509 4
Further Reading 509
Recycling and the circular economy
32. Black rubber products
H.C. VAN ZYL AND MARKUS A. REUTER
35. From waste management to circular
economy—The role of recycling in policy
32.1 Introduction 511 ERNST WORRELL
32.2 Mechanical Rubber Good (MRGs) 512
32.3 Rubber Tires 512 35.1 Introduction 553
32.4 Recycling of Tires 515 35.2 A Brief History of Waste Management 554
32.5 Circular Economy of Tires 520 35.3 Integrating Recycling in Waste Management
References 521 Policy Design 555
Further Reading 522 References 558

☆
Revised by Ernst Worrell, Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, the Netherlands.
x Contents

36. Geopolitics of resources and recycling 40. Exploring the economics of recycling in a
BENJAMIN SPRECHER AND ERNST WORRELL dynamic global context
PIETER VAN BEUKERING, ONNO KUIK, FRANS OOSTERHUIS,
36.1 Introduction 559 AND JAN BRUSSELAERS
36.2 Scarcity 560
36.3 Criticality 561 40.1 Introduction 601
36.4 Recycling in the Geopolitical Context 564 40.2 Economic Trends and Drivers 601
36.5 Outlook 566 40.3 Environmental and Social Costs and Benefits 605
References 566 40.4 Economic Instruments 609
40.5 Conclusion and Outlook 611
References 612
37. Information and communication
ERNST WORRELL
41. Economic policy instruments
37.1 Introduction 569 MAARTEN DUBOIS AND JOHAN EYCKMANS
37.2 Target Groups 570
37.3 Communication Tools 571 41.1 Introduction 615
37.4 Messaging: Information and Communication 572 41.2 Criteria to Compare Policy Instruments 615
37.5 Conclusion 573 41.3 Basic Environmental Policy Instruments
References 574 Aimed at Stimulating Recycling 616
41.4 Empirical Evaluation of the Effectiveness
of Policy Instruments to Stimulate Recycling 618
38. Recycling, law, and the circular 41.5 Incentives for Upstream Green Product
economy Design 619
41.6 Multiproduct and Mixed Waste Streams 620
CHRIS BACKES
41.7 EPR and Recycling Certificates 620
38.1 Introduction 575 41.8 Durable Goods 621
38.2 Regulating Recycling to Foster a Circular 41.9 Imperfect Competition in Product,
Economy 575 Recycling, and Remanufacturing Markets 622
38.3 Legal Instruments Fostering Recycling 576 41.10 Policy Instruments in an International
38.4 Legal Requirements That May Hamper Market for Waste and Materials 623
Recycling 581 41.11 Recycling and Nonrenewable Resources
38.5 Concluding Remarks 583 in a Macroeconomic Perspective 623
References 583 41.12 Conclusion 624
References 624

39. Extended producer responsibility 42. Economic aspects of metal recycling

W.J.V. VERMEULEN AND K. CAMPBELL-JOHNSTON €
CHRISTIAN HAGELUKEN AND CHRISTINA MESKERS

39.1 Introduction 587 42.1 Introduction 627

39.2 Defining EPR 587 42.2 General Principles of Recycling Economics 629
39.3 Current Practice of EPR 590 42.3 Income Perspective 633
39.4 Effectiveness 592 42.4 Cost Perspective 639
39.5 The Future of EPR and Circular Economy? 596 42.5 Current and Future Challenges 641
References 596 42.6 Conclusions and Outlook 642
Further Reading 600 References 643
 Contents xi
45.3 Thermoeconomics 677
5 45.4 Applications in Industrial Processes 681
45.5 Conclusion 682
Recycling fundamentals References 683

43. Physical separation fundamentals 46. Process simulation—Thermodynamics

KARI HEISKANEN
and process technology to understand
recycling systems
43.1 Particle Size 647 NEILL J. BARTIE, ALEJANDRO ABADÍAS LLAMAS,
43.2 Sampling 648 CHRISTINA MESKERS, AND MARKUS A. REUTER
43.3 Liberation 649
43.4 Grade-Recovery Curves 650 46.1 Introduction 685
43.5 Mass Balances and Process Dynamics 651 46.2 Methodology 688
43.6 Material Balancing 655 46.3 Information From Simulation Models 690
43.7 Mechanical Operations 657 46.4 Applications 691
43.8 Conclusion 662 46.5 Conclusion and Outlook 698
References 662 References 699

44. Thermodynamics 47. Life cycle assessment (LCA)

PATRICK WOLLANTS AND B. BLANPAIN CHRISTINA MESKERS, NEILL J. BARTIE, AND
MARKUS A. REUTER

44.1 Metals Use and Availability 665

47.1 Introduction 701
44.2 Recycling: An Energy Issue 666
47.2 Life Cycle Assessment—Key Concepts 702
44.3 Recycling: An Entropy Issue 667
47.3 Product-Oriented, Attributional LCA 709
44.4 Reaction Equilibrium 668
47.4 Process-Oriented, Attributional LCA 709
44.5 Stability of Compounds 669
47.5 End-of-Life Treatment in the LCA Context 710
44.6 The Carbon Tragedy 669
47.6 Recycling Cases 716
44.7 H2: An Alternative Reducer 669
47.7 c-Si Scrap and PV Module Recycling 717
44.8 Very Stable Oxides 671
47.8 Conclusions and Outlook 717
44.9 Solutions and Purity Levels 671
References 719
44.10 Conclusions 673
References 674
Index 723
45. Exergy—Quantification of resource
dissipation
ALEJANDRO ABADÍAS LLAMAS, NEILL J. BARTIE,
CHRISTINA MESKERS, AND MARKUS A. REUTER

45.1 Introduction 676

45.2 What Is Exergy? 676
 Contributors

Julian M. Allwood University of Cambridge, Thomas D. Dyer School of Science and Engineering,
Cambridge, United Kingdom University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
J. Antrekowitsch University of Leoben, Leoben, D. Erik Spiller Colorado School of Mines, Golden,
Austria CO, United States
S. Arnout InsPyro, Leuven, Belgium Ana Catarina Jorge Evangelista Engineering Insti-
Chris Backes Utrecht Centre for Water, Oceans and tute of Technology, Perth, WA, Australia
Sustainability Law (UCWOSL), Utrecht University, Johan Eyckmans Center for Economics and Corpo-
Utrecht, The Netherlands rate Sustainability (CEDON), KU Leuven Brussels,
Neill J. Bartie Helmholtz Centre Berlin for Materials Belgium
and Energy (HZB), PVcomB, Berlin, Germany Alexander Feil Department of Anthropogenic
Romain G. Billy Industrial Ecology Programme, Material Cycles, RWTH Aachen University,
Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Aachen, Germany
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Eva Gerold Department of Metallurgy, University
Trondheim, Norway of Leoben, Leoben, Austria
B. Blanpain Department of Materials Engineering, Maarten Goorhuis De Vuilnisman, Arnhem, The
KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium Netherlands
U. Brandner University of Leoben, Leoben, Austria Kathrin Greiff Department of Anthropogenic
Tobias Brenner Papiertechnische Stiftung (PTS), Material Cycles, RWTH Aachen University,
Heidenau, Germany Aachen, Germany
Jan Brusselaers Institute for Environmental Studies Harald Grossmann Technische Universit€
at Dres-
(IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, den, Dresden, Germany
The Netherlands Leif Gustavsson LG, Silogatan 1, Lund, Sweden
K. Campbell-Johnston Department of ICT, Strategy uken Director Government Affairs
Christian Hagel€
and Policy, TNO, The Hague, The Netherlands (Retired), Umicore, Hanau, Germany
Xiaozheng Chen Department of Anthropogenic Dorothea Hamann Institute for Mineral Processing
Material Cycles, RWTH Aachen University, Machines and Recycling Systems Technology,
Aachen, Germany Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Frei-
M. Chintinne Aurubis Beerse, Beerse, Belgium berg, Sachsen, Germany
Jonathan Cullen Department of Engineering, Toni Handke Technische Universit€
at Dresden,
Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Dresden, Germany
Kingdom G. Hanke University of Leoben, Leoben, Austria
Ambrose Dodoo Department of Building Technol- Jana M. Hawley College of Merchandising, Hospi-
ogy, Linnaeus University, V€axj€
o, Sweden tality and Tourism, University of North Texas,
Don Doutre Novelis Inc., Kingston, Canada Denton, TX, United States
Maarten Dubois Deloitte Consulting Belgium, Kari Heiskanen Metso, Espoo, Finland
Sustainability & Circular Economy, Brussels, Olga Ignatenko Independent Professional, Kyiv,
Belgium Ukraine

xiii
xiv Contributors

Sandor Karreman Renewi, Nieuwegein, The Fabian Ottiger World Resources Forum Associa-
Netherlands tion, St. Gallen, Switzerland
Thomas Krampitz Institute for Mineral Processing David Peck Circular Built Environment and Critical
Machines and Recycling Systems Technology, Materials, Faculty of Architecture and Built Envi-
Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Frei- ronment, Delft University of Technology, Delft,
berg, Sachsen, Germany The Netherlands
Thilo Kreschel Institute of Iron and Steel Technol- Evi Petavratzi Decarbonisation and Resource Man-
ogy, Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, agement, British Geological Survey, Keyworth,
Freiberg, Germany United Kingdom
Nils Kroell Department of Anthropogenic Material Y. Pontikes KU Leuven, Department of Materials
Cycles, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Engineering, Leuven, Belgium
Germany Helmut Rechberger Institute for Water Quality and
Onno Kuik Institute for Environmental Studies Resource Management, Vienna University of Tech-
(IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, nology, Vienna, Austria
The Netherlands Markus A. Reuter WASM: Minerals, Energy and
Pieter Kuiper Auto Recycling Nederland, Breuke- Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engi-
len, The Netherlands neering, Curtin University, Perth, Australia
Anne Kvithyld SINTEF, Trondheim, Norway Roger Sathre Sustainable Built Environment Group,
Gijs Langeveld Project Gijs B.V., Amersfoort, The Department of Built Environment and Energy Tech-
Netherlands nology, Linnaeus University, V€
axj€
o, Sweden
Holger Lieberwirth Institute for Mineral Processing Mark E. Schlesinger Missouri University of Science
Machines and Recycling Systems Technology, and Technology, Rolla, MO, United States
Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Frei- Mathias Schluep World Resources Forum Associa-
berg, Sachsen, Germany tion, St. Gallen, Switzerland
Gang Liu College of Urban and Environmental Sci- Li Shen Copernicus Institute of Sustainable
ences, Peking University, Beijing, China Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The
Alejandro Abadı́as Llamas Nordenham Metall Netherlands
GmbH, Nordenham, Germany Mark U. Simoni Industrial Ecology Programme,
Stefan Luidold Department of Metallurgy, Univer- Department of Energy and Process Engineering,
sity of Leoben, Leoben, Austria Norwegian University of Science and Technology;
Section Mineral Resources, Geological Survey of
Christina Meskers Department of Industrial Eco-
Norway, Trondheim, Norway
systems, SINTEF Manufacturing; Department of
Energy and Process Engineering, Faculty of R. Snellings KU Leuven, Department of Mate-
Engineering Sciences, NTNU—Norwegian Univer- rials Engineering; KU Leuven, Department of
sity of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Leuven,
Norway Belgium
uller Industrial Ecology Programme,
Daniel B. M€ Mahfooz Soomro School of Engineering, Design
Department of Energy and Process Engineering, and Built Environment, Western Sydney Univer-
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, sity, Penrith, NSW, Australia
Trondheim, Norway Jaana Sorvari Finnish Environment Institute,
Priscilla P. Nelson Colorado School of Mines, Helsinki, Finland
Golden, CO, United States Benjamin Sprecher Delft University of Technology,
Frans Oosterhuis Institute for Environmental Stud- Delft, The Netherlands
ies (IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amster- S. Steinlechner University of Leoben, Leoben,
dam, The Netherlands Austria
 Contributors xv
M. Stevenson Global Lead Technologies, Antoinette van Schaik MARAS—Material Recy-
Melbourne, VIC, Australia cling and Sustainability, The Hague, The
D.R. Swinbourne School of Civil, Environmental Netherlands
and Chemical Engineering, RMIT University, H.C. van Zyl Curtin University, Perth, Australia
Melbourne, VIC, Australia W.J.V. Vermeulen Copernicus Institute of Sustain-
Vivian W.Y. Tam School of Engineering, Design able Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht,
and Built Environment, Western Sydney Univer- The Netherlands
sity, Penrith, NSW, Australia; College of Civil Olena Volkova Institute of Iron and Steel Technol-
Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, ogy, Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg,
China Freiberg, Germany
Sophia Th€ um Institute for Mineral Processing Margareta Wahlstr€ om VTT Technical Research
Machines and Recycling Systems Technology, Centre of Finland, VTT, Espoo, Finland
Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg,
Patrick Wollants Department of Materials Engi-
Freiberg, Sachsen, Germany
neering, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Sonia Valdivia World Resources Forum Associa-
Ernst Worrell Copernicus Institute of Sustainable
tion, St. Gallen, Switzerland
Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The
Susanne van Berkum Auto Recycling Nederland, Netherlands
Breukelen, The Netherlands
Mareen Z€ollner Institute for Mineral Processing
Pieter van Beukering Institute for Environmental Machines and Recycling Systems Technology,
Studies (IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, Frei-
Amsterdam, The Netherlands berg, Sachsen, Germany
 About the editors

symposia. She served on the advisory boards

of international master programs, innovation
networks, the Board of Directors of The Min-
erals, Metals and Materials Society (2020-2023),
and is associate editor of the Journal of Sus-
tainable Metallurgy. Christina was a 2020
Brimacombe Medalist and awarded the TMS
Young Leaders Professional Development
Award (2008).

Christina Meskers, Ph.D. is senior research

scientist at SINTEF, in the Industrial eco-
systems department. Prior to this, she was senior
advisor at the Industrial Ecology programme
of the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology (2021-2022), and senior manager
open innovation, and market intelligence &
business research at Umicore, Belgium. She
graduated from Delft University of Technology
with degrees in resource engineering and mate-
rials science. Christina has a passion for innova- Ernst Worrell (PhD) is a professor of Energy,
tion and strategy, connecting people and ideas Resources and Technological Change at Utrecht
across disciplines, industries, organisations University in the Copernicus Institute, The Neth-
and value chains. Her work focuses on the erlands. His research focuses on the technical, eco-
contribution of metals and materials industry nomic, and policy aspects of the energy-resource
to the transition to sustainable products and a nexus, including energy, material, and resource
sustainable society. She has over 15 years of efficiency improvement, as well as waste manage-
experience in the (raw) materials sector, includ- ment and processing. The research includes the
ing co-authoring a United Nations’ International transition to a circular economy working on recy-
Resource Panel report on recycling (2013), and cling and material efficiency. He led the industrial
contributing to Principles of metal refining & energy assessment work at Lawrence Berkeley
recycling (2021), as well as organizing numerous National Laboratory until 2008 and was Director,

xvii
xviii About the editors

Energy Use and Efficiency at the sustainable Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology;
energy consulting company Ecofys between chief technologist, Ausmelt Australia; and direc-
2004 and 2010. He is (co-) author of over 300 pub- tor of technology management, Outotec (now
lications, of which over 200 are peer-reviewed Metso) Australia and Finland. He also worked
articles. For 12 years, until 2013, he was Editor- at Mintek and Anglo American Corporation,
in-Chief of the peer-reviewed journal Resources, both in South Africa. In addition, he has served
Conservation and Recycling, and he also serves as as a full professor at TU Delft in the Netherlands
Associate Editor of Energy, the International Journal and the University of Melbourne in Australia,
and of Energy Efficiency. and has held honorary and adjunct professor-
ships at Aalto University in Finland, at Central
South University in China, and presently ongo-
ing positions at TU Bergakademie Freiberg in
Germany, as well as Curtin University Perth in
Australia. He holds honorary doctorates from
the University of Liège in Belgium and the Uni-
versity of Stellenbosch in South Africa; DEng
and PhD degrees from Stellenbosch University;
and a Dr. habil. From RWTH Aachen in Ger-
many. Recent honors include receiving The Min-
erals, Metals & Materials Society (TMS)
Extraction & Processing Division Distinguished
Lecture Award in 2016; delivering the TMS
Extraction & Processing Division (EPD) and
Light Metals Luncheon Lectures in 2020 and
Markus A. Reuter is a chief expert with SMS 2022, respectively; receiving three TMS Science
Group in D€ usseldorf, Germany. Prior to holding Awards in 2022 and 2014; as well as receiving
this position, Reuter was director at Helmholtz an Outotec Technology award in 2014.
 P A R T 1

Recycling in context
 C H A P T E R

1
Introduction
Ernst Worrell1, Markus A. Reuter2, and Christina Meskers3
1
Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
2
WASM: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Curtin
University, Perth, Australia 3Department of Industrial Eco-systems, SINTEF Manufacturing,
Trondheim, Norway

1.1 THE CHALLENGES 2022), largely related to the way that we pro-
duce, use, and discard materials. This is
Materials form the fabric of our society; they reflected in the sustainable development goals
are everywhere and life as we know it would be (SDGs) of the United Nations, as well as in the
impossible without them. Terms such as the global challenges formulated by various organi-
Bronze Age and Iron Age demonstrate that zations (e.g., European Commission, World Eco-
materials have defined our society in the past nomic Forum). Governments around the world
and will in the future. Materials are the enabler are starting to address unsustainable production
in the transition of our society towards sustain- and consumption. Hence, around the world
ability. They are essential for renewable energy countries and corporations have set off on a
production, clean mobility, cities of the future, pathway to a so-called circular economy, i.e.,
and the drive to further digitalization, to name an economy that builds on resource efficiency,
just a few areas. The demand for all materials of which recycling is an essential part.
has been increasing and they are used in increas- Recycling is the essential, loop-closing step
ingly complex products. in the circular economy. All materials and
The challenge of a sustainable society is products—whether their life has been long or
rooted in the way that material resources are short—will have to be recycled at some point.
processed to make materials and products, During recycling, the materials’ quality (and
how these are used, and the fact that these often quantity) need to be preserved so they can stay
are discarded at the end of life. Besides using as long as possible in the cycle at very high func-
material resources, energy and water are con- tionality and performance levels. In this way
sumed and waste and other emissions gener- the unsustainable pattern of mine-make-use-
ated. This linear economy is now running into discard can be broken. Although this sounds
its limits, given the large demand for materials straightforward, the practical reality is much
and resources of an increasing (and increasingly more complicated and complex. Recycling
affluent) global population. We are increasingly effectiveness is impacted not only by the perfor-
exceeding planetary boundaries (Persson et al., mance of the recycling processes and

Handbook of Recycling. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85514-3.00008-7 3 Copyright # 2024 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
 Index

Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures and t indicate tables.

A direct fired dry hearth furnace, Ar. See Argon (Ar)

Active policymaking, 565 323–324 Argon (Ar), 307–308, 314, 325–326
Ag. See Silver (Ag) molten metal treatment, 325–326 Arsenic (As), 275, 310f, 394, 470, 560t
Agglomeration, 503 multichamber furnace, 324 scarcity, 560t
Al. See Aluminum (Al) operating parameters impact on, As. See Arsenic (As)
Alkali-activated cements, 437–439 326f Athletic shoe recycling, 528
Fe-Al-rich amorphous silicates, 438 sidewell melter, 324–325 Au. See Gold (Au) and precious metals
final binding phase, 437 tilting rotary furnace, 325 Authorized treatment facilities (ATFs),
in hybrid systems, 439 metal treatment, 325–326 185
zeolite-containing, 438 near-net casting, 334 Automated sorting, 343
Alloying elements, 310f, 315, 345 printed circuit boards from WEEE, Automotive catalyst (autocats), 627,
Alloys, 308, 308t, 315 408 640–641. See also Catalytic
remelting, 372 recycling of, 15, 319, 691–695 converter (autocat)
Aluminum (Al), 118, 209, 260, 274–275, energy requirement, 334 composition, 408–409, 627
310f, 681–682, 691–695, 716 flowsheet simulation model of, recycling, 402
alloys 691–695, 693f Automotive lead-acid battery,
recycling, 18–19, 320–323 future trends, 334–335 357f
specification, 320–323 reuse, 389–390, 449 Automotive shredder residue (ASR),
in batteries, 390 salt slag (salt cake), 325 187–188
cascading use of, 37–38, 321–322, processing of, 331–332, 331f composition, 193–194, 193f, 194t
322f strategies, 322 economics, 196
cast alloys, 321 used beverage can recycling, 327–329 final products, 195f, 196, 198t
concrete applications, 421 (see also Used beverage cans flowsheet, 195f
construction and demolition waste, (UBCs)) heavy, 188, 193–196
273 wheels (recycling), 329–330 light fraction, 187–188, 193f, 194
dross, 325 in wind and solar energy, 217–218 technologies, 194–196
burn-off rate, 326f wrought alloys, 321, 321t flip-flop screen, 195, 196f
salt-based rotary furnace American/direct process, 372–373 separating tables, 195–196
treatment, 331, 331f Anthropogenic stocks, 564 sink-float, 196
salt-free processing, 332 Antimony (Sb), 310f, 358, 361, 364, 366, vertical rotor impact mill, 196
types, 330, 330f 399–401, 403, 560t
electrical properties, 394 applications, 399, 400f B
global cycle of, 35–38 criticality, 560t B. See Boron (B)
impurity removal technologies, in industrial ecosystems, 243f Ba. See Barium (Ba)
332–334 printed circuit boards from WEEE, Barium (Ba), 446–447
electrorefining, 332 408 in industrial ecosystems, 243f
chlorination, 333 recycling, 403 Basel Convention, 205–206, 212–213,
fractional crystallisation, 333 scarcity, 560t 565–566, 604–605
in-use inventory of, 319 Apparent density, 661 Basic oxygen furnace (BOF), 301
melt loss, 323–326, 323f Apparent viscosity, 661–662, 662t steelmaking, 307–308

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