Rural Infrastructure II

Background
• Uncertainties of weather conditions prevailing on
earth surface affect the total production of food
grains and other food materials
• Hence, all the countries will have to maintain a
buffer stock of food grains, fruits and vegetables,
feed and fodder, sugar and oils to sustain human and
animal population
• The materials need to be stored in small godowns,
warehouses, cold storages, silos and open yards
• Demands of food materials are increasing due to
ever increasing human and animal population as
well as due to carbonic requirement to match the
higher standard of living
 Background (contd….)
• Increased food demands can be met by increased
production and productivity, reducing post-harvest
losses, and improvement of inefficient traditional
storage technologies in processing and value
addition
• It is reported that 10% of the food grains and 35% of
fruits and vegetable are lost in post harvest handling
• Modernization of milk processing and rice milling
industries have made tremendous impact on
availability of these materials in hygienic condition
and abundant quantities per capita
• Different storage structures are in rural areas to
store food grains, animal feeds and fodders,
fertilizers, seeds, vegetables, milk and milk products,
and farm machinery
 Background (contd….)
• All these products need different kind of storage
conditions and are stored in special types of storage
structures
• Sizes and design of the structures vary depending upon
the quantity and the storage duration
• No structures are claimed to be most appropriate and
depend upon different requirements of the farmers
• The dairy cattle raised on modern farms are provided with
nutritive and balanced feed and fodder which require
scientific storage system
• While, seeds and fertilizers stored in bags in dry climate
and dry place meet the total requirement, but, need big
silos and warehouses for huge quantity to be stored
 Background (contd….)
• In the rural areas, food grains are stored in most
simple structures for small quantity to most modern
silos having mechanized material handling, drying,
and storage equipments for big quantities
• Generally, food grains for family use are stored in:
a) Bag storage
b) Metal bins
c) Mud bins
d) Bamboo bins, and
e) Earthen pitchers
Design Considerations for Storage Structure:

1. Economy of space
2. Reduction in storage losses
3. Improvement in quality
4. Economy in storage cost
5. Durability of structures
6. Free of hazards, and
7. Simplicity in operation
The four-in-one technology of grain
storage and grain storage
Grain condition measurement and control

• An electronic sensor element for detecting

temperature and humidity is installed in the
granary. Through the grain condition
measurement and control system, the
temperature and humidity in the warehouse
can be controlled, and data storage and
printing can be performed.
 Intelligent ventilation

• According to the
temperature
measurement system,
when the temperature in
the warehouse rises, the
fan can be started to
exchange heat between
the cold air and the
material to achieve the
purpose of cooling and
dehumidification.
 High grain cooling
• Through low temperature
storage, food “breathing” can
be greatly slowed down, food
can be stored and preserved
for a long time, and grain and
insects can be prevented from
breeding. While cooling, it can
maintain and adjust the grain
moisture in an appropriate
amount. It has three functions
of maintaining moisture
cooling and ventilation,
reducing water cooling and
ventilation, and regulating
cooling and ventilation. It is an
important technical measure
for green grain preservation
and maintains and improves
the quality of stored grain.
 Airtight storage
• Through the insulation layer
and the fumigation system,
the generation of pests and
molds is prevented. If the gas
concentration is lower than
the specified value during the
fumigation, the automatic
replenishment of the
fumigant body is required,
and when the predetermined
gas concentration is reached,
the automatic stop is
automatically
performed.Effective
insecticide and prevent mold
production, ensuring safe
food storage.
•
 Warehousing Integration Systems

1) Warehousing system
2) Drying system
3) Conveyor system
4) Grain protection system
5) Supporting system
Silos
Classification of silos
1. Tower silos: having a cylindrical shape, made of
masonry, wood or metal
(a) Flat bottom type
(b) Hopper bottom type
2. Horizontal silos: pit, bunker, trench or stack type
• Assembling Silos
• Spiral Silos
• Insulation Silos
Assembling Silos
Spiral Silos
Insulation silos
 Food Grain Storage Structures
• Inadequate and inappropriate storage structures have resulted
in qualitative and quantitative losses of the harvested grain.
• The qualitative loss may be due to chemical changes in the
protein, carbohydrate, and fat and by the contamination or
mico-toxins, pesticide residues, insect fragments, excreta of
rodents and birds, and their dead bodies.
• The quantitative loss in storage are due to the activities of the
birds, rodents, insects, mites and enzyme activity of micro
organism.
• The quantitative losses also occur on threshing yards,
processing plants, and handling.
• 1.3 billion tons of food are lost globally per year (Gustavasson,
et.al., 2011).
• It is estimated that 60 % of grain produced is used for
consumption and seed purposes by the farmers and remaining
40 % is marketable surplus and needs proper storage system.
18
Rural Storage Structures
Post-harvest Food loss
Components

Quantitative food loss

Qualitative food loss

Food loss

19
 Factors responsible for storage losses of food
grains:
• Insects: cause qualitative as well as quantitative values,
• Rodents: cause serious problem by eating and breaking
the grains into pieces,
• Dampness: in the structure through floor and side walls,
• Leakage of water through roof,
• Excessive oxidation: causing rise in temperature of the
grain heating and cake formation,
• Moisture: encourages fungus, mould, and termite
growth; at times rendering the entire grain stock unfit
for human consumption,
20
Requirements of good storage structures: it should
1. Provide adequate protection from rodents, birds,
insects, and mites etc..
2. Permit aeration and fumigation, when required
3. Prevent losses due to temperature and moisture
(with each 1 % moisture content increase or 5 deg.
C temperature increase, the storage life of grain is
reduced to half)
4. Permit easy inspection
5. Facilitate proper cleaning and should be self
cleaning if it is silo
6. Be economical on unit storage cost basis. 21
 Grain storage system:
• Grain is stored either in bags or in bulk.
• Bag-cum-bulk system is also practiced.
• In villages the bulk storage system is more common than the bag
storage which is used for grain storage in the Govt. godowns as
well as in trade.
• Size of the gunny bag is large enough and contains 93 kg of
grain.
Bulk storage of grain is done in one of the following structures:
1. Bukhari type structure.
2. Kothar type structure.
3. Morai type structure.
4. Grain bins:
a) Cylindrical bins
b) Rectangular bins
c) Pusa bins.
22
 Location of Stores:
1. The structure should be located at the point where there is
no chance of flood.
2. The structure should be at least 500 m far from kilns, bone
crushing mills, garbage dumping ground, and tanneries.
3. The structure should be at least 30 m away from the dairy
and poultry farms and at least 150 m away from factories
and others possible source of fire.
4. There should not be trees near the structure to avoid
chance of damage due to roots.
5. It should be near a main road.
6. There should be sufficient parking space.
7. The structure should always be clean.
8. If the structure is near the railway station there should be
loading and unloading facilities.
23
Some of the major considerations in building a storage structure to
minimize losses are:
• The structure should be elevated and away from
moist places in the house, no chance of flood
• As far as possible, the structure should be airtight,
even at loading and unloading ports
• Rodent-proof materials should be used for
construction of rural storages
• The area surrounding the structure should be
clean to minimize insect breeding, and
• The structure should be plastered with an
impervious clay layer to avoid termite attack, or
attack by other insects.
24
 Design of Grain bins
Bulk storage bins can be made of:
a) Reinforced concrete
b) Galvanized sheet (plain and corrugated)
c) Mild steel black sheet
d) Aluminium sheet
e) Fibre glass
f) Brick
g) Ferro cement
h) Asbestos sheet
 Advantages of bulk storage bins over bag storage
• Handling and quality control are easier and less expensive
• Less space required for construction
• Expenses on ward and watch are minimum
• Bag cost is eliminated
• Automation and mechanization introduced to hasten
transactions and maintain quality of the stored product,
• Losses due to insects, birds, and rodents are avoided
completely.
Classification of bins depending upon dimensions are
classified into two groups :
1. Deep bins
2. Shallow bins
3. Bunkers 26
Shallow and Deep Bins

27
Design of a concrete grain bin:
Design considerations
1) Functional aspects:
(a) ensure safety of stored product against heat,
moisture, insects, rodents,
(b) undue deterioration in quality
(c ) aeration and fumigation facility
(d) self cleaning
2) Structural aspects:
(i) Capacity- volume or weight basis
(ii) Shape and size – circular, rectangular,
hexagonal; flat bottom or conical bottom
 Contd.
3) Resisting the anticipating loads:
a) Dead load of the structure
b) Load of stored grain
c) Dynamic load due to loading and emptying
d) Wind load
Shape of the concrete bins

30
 Management for bag storage
1. Prevent damp (moisture) from floor and walls by stacking the
bags on pallets off the ground and away from walls. Damp
from roof is avoided through proper ventilation and using
damp absorbing materials.
2. Stack the bags properly to allow:
• Optimal use of space
• Ease of sweeping floors
• Ease of inspection for rodents and insects
• Ease of counting the bags
3. Control of insects and rodents:
• Make sure that the building is rodent frook
• Treat the building and protect against pests
• Keep the warehouse clean
• Close all the holes in doors, roof, and windows
• Repair cracks in walls where pests can hide
• Remove and destroy any infested residues. 31
Bag storage structure

32
33
 Silo system: consists of
1. Receiving platform
2. Moisture meter
3. Magnetic separator (s)
4. Grain cleaner
5. Grain dryer (s)
6. Silos
7. Temperature detecting system
8. Aeration blower (s)
9. Grain conveyor
10. Motor controls
Cast-in-still type silos

• Capacity: 20,000 tons

• No. of circular bins:24
• Capacity of single silo: 835
ton
• Dia: 10 m
• Depth of bin:22 m
• Made up of: RCC
• Wall thickness: 10 cm
 Grain Pressure Theories
• The grain pressure in bins were first calculated as for a semi liquid of
same density as the grains
• The lateral pressure was first calculated using the hydrostatic formula:
Py = ϒ.Y
Where, Py = lateral pressure exerted by the grain on the bin wall;
ϒ = Density of grain;
Y = Depth of grain from the top of the grain surface.

This method had serious deficiencies and many structures buckled under
the vertical load arising from the friction of the grain on the walls. This
formula was modified by incorporating Rankine’s earth pressure coefficient,
K. This is known as Rankine’s formula and is given as:
Py = K.ϒ.Y
Where, K = (1 – sinφ)/ (1 + sinφ)
And φ = angle of internal friction of the grain
 Grain Pressure Theories (contd.)
This improvement reduced the magnitude of the lateral
pressure, yet it did not consider the vertical load on the wall
resulting from friction effect. The whole weight of grain was
assumed to be transferred to bottom of the beam.
Janssen (1895): considered the friction between the grain and
the bin wall and proposed the formula for deep bins-
Py = (R.ϒ/µ )[1 – exp ( - (µ.K/R).Y )]
Where, R = Hydraulic radius of the bin;
ϒ = Bulk density of grain;
µ =co-efficient of friction of the grain on the wall(tan φ);
K = Rankine’s coefficient;
= (1 – sinφ)/ (1 + sinφ) = (Py/Pz)
Y= Depth of grain from the top surface of grain
 Grain Pressure Theory (contd.)
• Janssen formula was safe and was used in
structural designs, but, because of lower
factor of safety, many designs buckled and
failed.
• The pressure exerted by the grain on bin wall
are different during filling and emptying.
• The pressure exerted during emptying is very
very critical and increases 2 to 4 times of the
static pressure calculated by Janssen formula,
for bin design purpose.
 Storage structures for semi-perishable
• A very high percentage of animal produce is wasted due to
inadequate and poor storage and transport systems.
• Potatoes, onions, apples, and green vegetables need to be
stored in modified environments.
• Semi-perishables are harvested at comparatively higher
moisture contents, 60 – 90 % and the self life is short.
• Storage requirement of potatoes is to preserve culinary
properties and to prevent the tuber from sprouting.
• Storage temperature of 4 deg C and RH of 85 – 90 % is
best suitable for potato storage.
• Lower temperature below 4 deg C (0 deg) increases
storage life, but, also increases its sweetness.
• By means of evaporative cooling system, 20 tons of
potatoes can be stored for 4 months at about 25 deg. C
and 90 % RH. 39
 Contd….
• The Nasik types of storage structure, though traditional is
quite suitable for onion storage.
• The structure is 16.5 m in length and 3.1 m in width with 1
m centrally alley.
• Proper natural ventilation is created to remove respiratory
heat from onion bulk stored on both sides of alley.
• A sloppy roof prevents rain water entering into the
storage, and is constructed out side the rural settlements
in an open space for natural wind blowing.
• A base for 2 m high heap onion stack of 25 cm thick sand
layer and 10 cm reed matting is prepared .
• The sand offers cooling effect and the mat permits the
flow of air. The rotten and cut onions are removed from
the bulbs before storing. The same structure can be used
for potato and onion. Humidifier is disconnected while
using for onion.
40
Desirable Environmental Conditions for Perishable Products
Product Temp Relative Storage life Product Temp Relative Storage life
⁰C Humidity ⁰C Humidity
% %
Apple 1.0 89 – 90 5 months Cabbage 0 90 – 95 15 months

Banana 16.5-21 90 – 95 7 – 10 days Carrot 0 85 – 90 4- 5 months

Grape -1 to 1 85 – 90 5 – 6 months Garlic 0 70 – 75 6 – 8 months

Lemon 7 to 10 85 - 90 4 months Onion 0 70 – 75 6 – 8 months

Orange -1 to zero 85 - 90 3 months Potato 4-5 85 - 90 5- 6 months

41
 Problems
• Ten tonnes of apple, having specific heat of 0.85, are to be
cooled from 30 ⁰C to 15 ⁰C in 24 hrs. The heat of respiration per
24 hrs is 750 Kcal per tonne. Two men will work for 4 hrs and
lightening load is estimated to be 100 watts. Air charge load can
be assumed as 1000 Kcal in 24 hrs. The store measures 6m X 6m
X 3m on the inside and is constructed of bricks laid in cement
mortar. Wall thickness is 45 cm and there is 10 cm thick cork
insulation on the inside of the four walls. The cement plaster is 1
cm thick. The heat transfer coefficient for the ceiling is 20 %
more than that for the walls. The outside design temperature is
35 ⁰C and the inside is maintained at 5 ⁰C . Estimate the plant
capacity needed in tonnes of refrigeration.
Thermal conductivity of brick = 0.5 Kcal/hr/m ⁰C
Thermal conductivity for cork = 0.025 Kcal/hr/m ⁰C
Thermal conductivity for cement plaster = 0.28 Kcal/hr/m ⁰C
Heat of respiration for persons doing light work at room
temperature = 165 Kcal/hr
Assume no heat transfer through the floor.
42
 Solution
I. Heat for cooling the apples = 10000 X 0.85 (30 – 15) =
1,27,500 Kcal in 24 hrs
II. Heat of respiration from apples = 750 X10 = 7500 Kcal in
24 hrs
III. Heat load due to air charge = 1000 Kcal in 24 hrs
IV. Heat load due to lights = (100 x 24 x 3.6)/4.1868 = 2060
Kcal in 24 hrs
V. Heat load due to workers = 2 x 165 x 3 = 990 Kcal in 24 hrs
VI. Heat load due to conduction from four walls
Q = U x A x ∆T, where,
Q= rate of heat transfer,
U = overall surface coefficient of heat transfer,
A = surface area,
∆T = difference of inside and outside temperatures 43
 Contd….
The overall surface coefficient of heat transfer, U, can be computed from
the relationship 1/U = 1/ Ub +1/ Up +1/ Uc
Where, subscripts b, p, c stand for brick, plaster, and cork, respectively
In general, U = k/x , where, k = thermal conductivity and x = thickness of
the layer, substituting the values of k and x , we get
1/U = (0.45/0.5) + (0.01/0.28) + (0.1/0.025)
Or, U = 0.2025 Kcal/m2 /hr ⁰C
Surface area of walls = 4 x 6 x 3 = 72 m2
Heat transfer through walls = 0.2025 x 72 x (35-5) x 24 = 10, 500 Kcal in 24
hrs
vii. Heat load due to conduction of ceiling is 20% higher than that of walls
Uc = 1.2 x U = 1.2 x 0.2025 = 0.243Kcal/m2 /hr ⁰C
Area of ceiling = 6 x 6 = 36 m2
Heat load through ceiling = 0.243 x 36 x (35-5) x 24 = 6285 Kcal in 24 hrs
Total heat load = 127500 + 7500 + 1000 + 2060 + 990 + 10500 + 6285
= 155835 Kcal in 24 hrs
Because, 1 tonne of refrigeration = 3000 Kcal/hr
Therefore, Plant Capacity = 155835/(3000 x 24) = 2.16 Tonnes
44
Animal Housing Design:
is mainly concerned with the physical
environment i.e. climatic, mechanical and other
factors consideration for good layout where
healthy and high yielding animals can be
provided with:

• Correct feeding
• Easy handling
• Producing without stress
• No physical harm
45
 Climatic factors:
1. Temperature:
• It is the over riding environmental factor affecting the
physiological functions of animals.
• For most farm animals, the mean daily temp range between
10-20 deg C is referred as the “comfort zone”.
• In this range, the animal’s heat exchange can be regulated by
physical means such as constriction and dialation of blood
vessels in the skin, ruffling of fur or feathers, and regulation of
evaporation from lungs and skin.
• At upper or lower critical temperature, the body temp can not
be maintained by physical regulation and the animals must
increase or decrease its metabolic heat production.
• A very young animal, lacking fully developed temp regulating
mechanisms, particularly the ability to increase heat
production by increased metabolism, is much more sensitive
to its thermal environment and requires higher temperature.
46
 Climatic factor:
2. Humidity:
• Poultry do not have sweat glands so all evaporative heat
loss must be through respiratory tract. Other livestock
species have varying abilities to sweat and in descending
order, they are: horse, donkey, cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep
and pigs.
• In hot-dry climate, evaporation is rapid, but, in hot-humid
climate, the ability of air to absorb additional moisture is
limited and the inadequate cooling may result in heat
stress.
• Too low humidity in air may cause irritation of mucous
membrane, while, too high humidity cause growth of
fungus infections.
• High humidity may cause decay of structures.
• Thus, keep the humidity between 40-80 % range.
47
 Climate:
3. Radiation:
• The heat load on grazing animals can be increased by
direct solar radiation and radiation reflected from clouds
and the ground.
• A white hair coat will absorb less radiant energy than dark,
but, the heat penetration is deeper in white loose coat.
• Air movement dispel the heat and reduce the differences.
• Solar radiation may adversely affect the skin of the
animals.
• Heat gain by solar radiation can be efficiently reduced by
provision of shaded area. It should be sufficiently large to
provide enough space between the animals.
• Grassland surrounding the shade will reflect less radiation
than the bare land.
48
 Climate:
4. Air movement:
• A wind velocity of 0.2 m/sec is regarded as the
minimum requirement, but, could be 1 m/sec when
the temperature is nearing the upper critical or
more when it goes beyond that.
• Air movement assist in heat loss by evaporation and
by conduction/convection as the air temperature is
lower.
• When air temp reaches body temp, fast air
movement is experienced as comfortable, but, at
low temp fast air movements will lead to excessive
cooling of unprotected skin areas (cold drought).
• Air movements are required to remove toxic and
noxious gases and to supply fresh air for breathing.
49
 Climate:
5. Precipitation:
• Heavy rain may penetrate the fur of an animal
and decrease its insulation value. A strong wind
in such circumstances lead to excessive cooling.
However, a naturally greasy hair coat will resist
water penetration.
• Provision of shelter will avoid this problem.

50
Animal Housing:
1. Dairy Cattle Housing
2. Poultry Housing
3. Swine Housing
4. Sheep and Goat Housing

51
 Cattle housing
Tail to tail system Face to face system
 Cattle housing
Tai to tail system Face to face system
General housing requirements for cattle:
 Protection from extreme heat i.e. temperature
of 25 – 30 deg C and direct sunshine.
 Sun-shades needed in tropical and sub-tropical
areas.
Free from mud and manure to avoid hoof
infection.
Concrete floor and pavements need.
Ample space.
Earth yard.
Proper slope for good drainage.
54
 Sun-shade:
• Shade structure: 2.5-3 sq. m./head.
Roof area: 3 x 7 sq. m/10 cows
Roof height: 3 m
Floor: paved with concrete (1:2:4)
• Size of the floor area depends upon the orientation of the
shade structure.
• East-West orientation: floor area should be extended 1/3
of its length on the east and on the west, a paved surface
will be provided for the shaded area at all times.
• If the orientation is North – South: the paved area is 3
times the roof area, i.e. 1/3 to east, 1/3 to west, and 1/3
underneath, which mean it is more expensive.

55
 Deciding factors for shade orientation:
1. East – West Orientation: the feed and water trough will be in the
shade and the cows will eat and drink at any time of the day. However,
the shaded area should be 3-4 sq. m./cow and is increased. As feed
consumption is higher, more manure will be dropped in turn, it will
lead to dirty cows.
2. North – South orientation: sunlight will fall at every part of the floor
area and on either side of the roof area during day time which helps in
keeping the floor dry.
3. If paved area is too costly, the N –S orientation is the best choice to
keep the floor dry.
4. If the daily average temperature is 30 deg C or more for up to 5
hrs/day during some period of the year, E – W is the best orientation
and beneficial.
5. Gaveled roof is more beneficial than a single pitch roof and allows for
a centre vent.
6. A woven mat of local material can be installed between rafter and CI
roof to reduce radiation from the sheet and lower temperature just
under the roof by 10 deg C or more.
56
 Floors of cowshed:
 It should be higher than surrounding land area
 It must be laid to follow the inclination of the fall of
the dung channel- 1 in 70
 The fall on the standing from manger to the dung
channel should be 1 inch; 1.5 inch is better
 Standing should be insulated
 Length of the standings: 5 ft + adjustment of the
ties ; for small breeds: 4.5 ft; for large breeds: 5.25 ft
 Non-skid floors: 1 inch top of the floor should be
granolithic concrete – 2.5 parts granite chippings + 1
part cement; finish the floor with wooden float
If required, rubber insulated floor installed in
temperate zone or electrical floor heating provided.
57
Floors of milking parlors:
• Do not requires insulation.
• Slope of floor: 2 to 5 inches.
• It is usual to hose-down parlors.
• More effective to have a trough of water
behind the cows.
• Dip the bucket into the trough and water
thrown to remove cow pat easily.

58
Cattle house structures
Cattle housing
 Floors for pig houses:
• It should be so constructed that the dunging
passes will stand up to the hard traffic of constant
cleaning, either by hand or mechanically.
• The floor should not be insulated.
• Width of floor: not less than 3 ft.
• Drainage should be arranged for each pen.
• Each pen should be insulated.
• Feeding passes should not be less than 3 ft with a
general slope towards doors so that draining
water used for cleaning is easy.
• It makes the building far from too damp and cold.
61
 Mangers and Troughs:
• These are the two main internal fittings which for integral parts of
farm buildings.
• Increased use of bulky food for cows does not change so much
the internal measurements of the cowshed mangers.
• If the shed site is firm, 4 to 5 inches of PCC is enough; 6 inch thick
PCC is needed for the buildings used for heavy machineries.
• Floor slope: 1 inch in 12 ft length.
• Concrete mixture: 1:2:4 can be placed in position by barrow or
mounted mixture.
• Then the floor is tempered down.
• Curing the PCC for 1 week in summer.
• Curing is avoided in cold weather (frost).
• Hardening is done by a solution of Tironal - Dur mixed with water
(2.5 lbs to 1 gallon) and is poured, spread or brushed over surface
at an interval of not less than 8 hrs.
• Hardened floor is impossible to scratch with nail or sharp
instrument.
62
 Slatted floors:
• Calves were often reared on slats in the west
countries.
• The area below slats must be sealed to prevent
draughts blowing up.
• No reduction in milk yield.
• Concrete slat is the best.
• There is doubt that narrower the width of slat the
cleaner it keeps.
Disadvantage of slatted floors:
• Damage to teats
• Cows seem reluctant to lie down
• Cows do not keep quite so clean
63
 Size of slat:
• Roosting hens: tapering 1 to ¾ inch with 1 in. gap
• Pigs (dung passage): ,, 2.5 to 1.5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Calves upto 5 months: ,, 2 to 1.5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Cows of yearlings: ,, 4-8 to 3-5 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
Slat Area required:
• Roosting hens: 1 sq. ft per bird
• Calves : 10 – 15 sq. ft per animal
• Yearlings : 15 – 25 ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Cows : 40 ,, ,, ,, ,,
• Sheep :4 ,, ,, ,, ,, 64
 Dung removal: slat
• Use of removable slats is satisfactory for calves, but,
difficult for large stock.
• For cattle, it is ideal to have the floor at a height which
enables a front mounted fork or scoop to clean out under
the slates.
• Wide feeding trough is best used to prevent food spilling
and wastage.
• In winter, 4 ft build-up of dung is expected from a cattle.
• For pigs, dung passage having a fall of 1 in 50, then pump
the dung out.
• In dry weather, some water may be needed and no
bedding straw should be used.
• Using rubber faced slats would reduce the risk of damage
to teats or feet and make the stock more comfortable. 65
 Floors and fittings: steps for laying
• The area must be roughly leveled.
• Any hollows need making up.
• The leveled area needs rolling.
• A garden roller will be sufficient, but, tractor will do the job
faster with good results.
• Forms of wood will be set up.
• Timber flats 1.5 to 2 inch thickness of required depth is
needed for the frame.
• If the site is firm 4 to 5 inches of PCC is enough, 6 inches
thick PCC is needed for buildings to be used for heavy
machinery.
• Floor slope: 1 inch in 12 ft
• Concrete mixture: 1:2:4 can be placed in position by
barrow or mounted mixture.
• Then, the floor will be tempered down 66
 Contd…
• Curing of the PCC for a week in summer.
• PCC curing is avoided in cold weather (frost).
• Hardening is done by a solution of Tironal –
Dur mixed with water (1.5 lb to 1 gallon) and
is poured, sprayed or brushed over surface at
an interval of not less than 8 hrs.
• Hardened floor is impossible to scratch with
nail or sharp instrument.

67
Insulated floors:
• Concrete floors, where animals lie, are best
insulated. Hollow bricks are expensive.
• Jam jars, bottles, card-board, tubes, or
corrugated asbestos sheets can be used. In
each case.
• In each case insulating materials will be placed
on hardcore and then covered with a thin
layer (1.5 inch) of concrete.
• Air space should be sealed.

68
 Simple way of insulating floors:
• Make the soil loose by hand or machinery.
• Spread paper on the whole area. Cement bags
opened out will do.
• Make “carrot holes” by driving an iron bar through
the paper into the soil.
• Cover the whole area of paper with concrete to a
depth of 2 inch working it well into the holes.
• When the concrete sets, the earth under the paper
will dry and shrink leaving the concrete supported
on the concrete carrots. These need to be about 6
inch apart in each direction.
• Care should be taken not to tread the loose earth
too much while making the holes and filling with
concrete.
69
 Use of electric heating for floors:
• Floors can be insulated and electrically heated.
• The current is supplied through a transformer
and goes into the wire at 6 volts.
• Similar to the soil heating wires used in green
houses for propagation work.
• Ordinary wires are not used.
• Put Figures here.

70
 Cattle housing:
• Dairying in East and South east Africa occurs at an altitude
of 1500 m or more.
• A good cattle housing provides favorable conditions for
good management, proper feeding, and good hygiene.
• Nomadic herdsmen graze their entire herd as one unit.
• The smaller holder with a few herd may keep his heifer
calves for replacement or sell them.
• The commercial dairy producer has about 80% of his cows
for milking and 20% waiting for calving.
• While, heifers 10 months to calving age + calves of
different ages will approx equal the number of milkers.
• Matured dairy cows are bred annually and are milked for
300-330 days after calving.
71
 Herd profile: A herd of 24 cows
• Calving be evenly distributed throughout the year.
• A 12 months calving interval.
• Two calves should born/month, on an average.
• Caves are kept in individual pen, therefore, 4-6 pens are
required.
• The need for calve pens is reduced to half, assuming 50%
of calves are male and removed or sold at 2-3 week age.
• A longer calving interval and high mortality of calves will
decrease the required number of calf-pens.
• While, a concentration of calving season in the herd will
require more number of pens (doubled).
• As cows are culled each year for reasons of low milk yield,
infertility, disease, old age etc. These cows are replaced by
young stock from their own herd which avoids risk of
disease in outside heifers.
72
 Contd…
• Cows are culled after 3 – 5 lactations, replacement rate is 20 –
30 % per year.
• A maximum replacement rate is 40 % per year.
• First calving age of heifers is 24-27 months (European breeds)
and 36 + for Zebu cattle.
• Maturing heifers require little of no housing facilities in tropical
areas.
• Heifers are introduced to housing at least a couple of months
earlier to their calving to become adjusted.
• In loose housing systems with free stalls (cubicals) or in the tie
barns, this may slightly increase the need for stalls.
Special calving Pen:
 One special calving pen for 30 cows.
 One special calving pen for 20 cows for concentrated calving
 Size of calving pen: 3.3 m x 3.3 m
73
 Yards:
• If the space is severely limited and only 4 -5 sq.m./animal
is available then paved floor is desirable, PCC (1:2:4).
• If the available space is 40 – 60 sq. m./cow, then earthen
yard is sufficient provided feed and shade area is paved.
• Well drained yard is most desirable.
• If a farmer can not afford paving and improved structure,
then earthen mounds in the yard with good drainage
ditches will be satisfactory.
• The soil in the mounds can be stabilized by chopped straw
+ manure.
• Spacing of 20 -30 sq.m./cow will keep them free from
mud.
• Fig. here.
74
 Deep Bedded Shades:
• In a deep bedded system, straw, sawdust, shavings
or other bedding material is periodically placed in
the resting area so that a mixture of bedding and
manure builds up in a thick layer.
• Although, this increases bulk of manure, but, it is
easier to handle than wet manure alone.
• This method is most practical when bedding is
plentiful and cheap.
• By designing the building to be partially enclosed on
the Ease and West, the shading characteristics can
be improved. Such a building is cost effective than
shadded area with paving.
75
Area for Bedded shed and dimensions of free stalls (cubicals)
Animal Age Weight Bedded shade Free stall
(month) ( kg) area/animal (sq.m) dimension (m)
A B Length Width
Young stock 1.5-3 70-100 1.5 1.4 1.2 0.6
Young stock 3–6 100-175 2.0 1.8 1.5 0.7
Young stock 6 – 12 175-250 2.5 2.1 1.8 0.8
Young stock 12 – 18 250-350 3.0 2.3 1.9 0.9

Bred heifer & small milking - 400-500 3.5 2.5 2.1 1.1
cows
Milking cow - 500-600 4.0 3.0 2.2 1.2

Large milking cows - > 600 5.0 3.5 2.3 1.2

A- Enclosed and fully covered bedded shed

B- Bedded shed in conjnuction with exercise yard
76
 Loose Housing with Free Stall (cubicals)
 Simple yard and a shed or yard and a bedded shed systems
are quite satisfactory in warm climate, mainly in semi-arid
areas.
 Some farmers may prefer a more protection. A loose
housing yard and a shed with free stalls will satisfy this
need.
 Less bedding will be required and less manure will have to
be removed.
 Free stall must be of right size to keep the animals clean
and to reduce injuries to a minimum.
 When stalls are too small- more injuries to teats and the
cows tend to lie in other areas that are less clean than stall.
 When stalls are too large – cows get more dirty and more
labor required to clean the shed area.
77
 Contd…
 A bar placed across the top of the free stalls will prevent
the cow to move forward in the stall for comfortable lying
down movements, and encourage her to take step
backwards when standing so that manure drop outside the
stall.
 Floor should be non-slippery.
 Young stock may be held in yards with shed or in sheds
with either free stalls or deep bedding.
 Water requirement for cattle- depends on temperature
and dry matter content in ration.
Calf: 4.6 lit/45 kg body weight.
Cows: 5:1:: water:milk production
Dry cow(friesian): 36.5 – 45 lit/day to 70 lit/day during
last part of pregnancy.
On Dry matter intake (DMI) basis in thermal zone (15 – 20
deg C): 4.1 lit/kg DMI + 0.87 lit/kg milk produced.
78
 Poultry housing:
• Poultry, including chicken, turkey, ducks, and
geese are the best sources of animal protein,
both meat and eggs at a cost most people can
afford.
• Chicken are most commonly raised and are
suitable for small holders who keep a few birds
that need minimum protection.
• At the other hand, commercial farming may have
highly mechanized system housings and
thousands of birds supplying meat and eggs to
the city market.
79
General housing requirements for chickens:
• Proper planning of chicken housing facilities
requires the knowledge of management and
environmental needs in the various stages of
their life.
Fertile
Incubation Day Brooding
old Pullet
egg
(3 weeks) Chick (4-5 weeks)
Growing
(6 – 15 weeks)
Culling Laying
Laying Point
(45 – 60 weeks) of lay
80
 Contd…
• The laying period is up to 16 months, but, in
commercial egg production, the hens are culled
after 11 – 12 months or when the egg collection is
dropped to 65% of the total hens in the flock.
• The hens will come to production again after a
couple of months, but, the egg quality is not like
earlier.
• Where the prices of poultry meat are reasonable,
it is economical to cull after one year egg
production, all hens.

81
 Site selection for poultry: Location
• The best site is the one that is
- Well drained,
- Elevated and fairly leveled.
- Adequate drinking water supply.
• Irrespective of type and size of housing system, the
construction site should be selected for
- Adequate ventilation,
- Protection from strong wind,
- Cooler area with low growing crops.
• High trees providing shades and increasing ground level
breezes.
• Bushes on windward corner and also at diagonally opposite
corner which will induce air currents within the buildings.
• As the buildings tend to produce odors, they should be located
down wind from nearby dwellings.
82
 Contd…
• The poultry houses should be separated by 10-15
m to avoid disease spreading.
• Brooding house should be separated from other
poultry houses by 30 m or more and they should
be self contained for feed supplies and
equipments.
• Disinfectant foot bath should be kept at the
entrance of the brooding house.
• The roads near the building should not be muddy
during rainy seasons.
83
Environmental requirements for poultry:
• The birds of the flock must be kept cool in tropical areas. They
should be provided with:
- Shade
- Good ventilation with natural breezes
- Freedom from roof radiation and
- Indirect radiation from ground
• In the temperate area, they should be protected from wind
and low temperatures.
• Very low humidity causes objectionably dusty condition, while,
very high humidity with temperature above 27 deg C interfere
the physiological cooling mechanism and increases mortality.
• Day old chicks require 33 -35 deg C and is maintained for a
week and is lowered gradually to ambient temperature by the
end of 5 weeks.
• The house should be protected from predators, theft, rodents,
and birds.
84
 Contd…
• The rodents and birds will consume the feed up to economic losses.
• A 40-watt electric bulb is needed per 15 sq. m. floor area in a
position 2.2 m above floor level.
• 14 hrs of light/day throughout the laying period is optimum.
• Gradually decreasing lighting hrs may be used in windowless houses
for maturing pullets. This postpones laying, but, results in bigger eggs
production.
• In warm climates near the equator, houses are open for natural
ventilation. The pullets start to lay at 14-18 weeks of age and the egg
size is smaller at first, gradually increases during the first 3 months.
• Broiler houses are provided light for all 24 hrs a day.
• Proper designing and management is needed for prevention of
diseases in the flocks.
• Dry and dust free litter is better to be used.
• Floor surface should be kept cleaned. 85
 Construction Details:
• In hot climate: cool breeze is required rather than
protection from chilling wind.
• Wall:
- Construction of solid base for protection from indirect
radiations from ground.
- An open space covered with wire mesh above it on all four
walls.
- A hessian or reed curtain can be dropped on windward
side, if installed on east and west side protect from direct
sunlight.
- In high altitude areas, off-cuts may be used on the gable
ends, but, 15 -20 mm space is left between them for
proper ventilation.
- Width of wall: not more than 9 m.
- Lower wall design up to 1 m: of solid masonry units. 86
 Contd…
• Bag washing gives smooth cleaned finish
• Adobe blocks require extra protection of plastering to
prevent wall pecking
• Upper wall design: the total wall height should be 2 m
including the solid base
• Gum posts/poles: treated with preservative and set 0.5 m
deep in concrete sufficient for roof and upper wall
structure supporting
• Wire mesh: 18 mm sufficient for rodent and bird control.
• Door: tight fitting essential
• Floor: PCC, gravel, or well drained soil. PCC is the best
(1:2:4 or 1:3:5)
• Floor thickness: 8 – 10 cm
• Floor foundation thickness: 15 cm above ground level.
87
 Standard Poultry House Dimensions

Length
Broilers Layers Area Width (m)
(m)
500 250 50m2 5 10

1,000 500 100m2 6 17

2,000 1,000 200m2 7 30

5,000 2,500 500m2 8 62.5

7,500 3,750 750m2 10 75

10,000 5,000 1000m2 10 100

 Recommended minimum floor, feed, and water space requirement
for chicken
Floor space stocking density Feeding space Water
Low High Trough Tube space
(birds/sq.
(birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.)
m.)
Chicks and Pullets
1 -4 weeks age 15 - 20 25 - 30 40 40 150
5 -10 weeks age 8 – 11 12 - 15 15 - 20 25 75
11 – 15 weeks age 5-6 7-8 9 - 10 12 50
16 weeks age 3 -4 5-7 7-8 10 40
Brooders 3-4 5-6 6-8 9 15
Layers 6 -7 8 10 - 20 - -
Semi-intensive
House-run
House 3 4 -5
Run 0.04 – 0.08 0.1 – 0.13
89
 Floor space stocking density Feeding space Water
space
Low High Trough Tube (birds/sq.
(birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.) (birds/sq. m.)
m.)
Straw yard:
Straw 3 4 -5
Yard 1.5 2.5
Fold system 2 2
Intensive system:
Deep litter floor 3-4 5 -7
Wire floor 7-8 9 – 10
Combination floor 5-6 7–8
Cage incl. alleys 8 - 12 15 - 25 7 - 10

90
Poultry house structures
Poultry house internal facilities
Poultry/Layers house
 Roof structure: with span
• Roofing material : CS sheet.
• Insulation below roof: wooven mat.
• Thatch roof: for better cooling.
• Roof overhang: 0.5 m.
• Ventilation opening: along the ridge supplied in
layer house, but, not in brooder house.
• Transfer pullets from rearing to laying
accomodation: 17 – 18 weeks age.
• Egg laying age: 20 -24 weeks old.
94
Design considerations for housing system
1. Comfort
2. Protection
3. Efficiency
4. Production
5. Labor efficient
6. Reasonable investment
7. Easy manageable

95
 Types of housing of Layers:
1. Semi-intensive
2. Deep litter
3. Slatted or wire floor
4. Combination of slatted and deep litter
5. Cage or battery system

96
97
 Key considerations of Poultry house
Orientation (Direction) of Poultry House:
• The poultry house should be located in such a way that the
long axis is in the east-west direction.
• This will prevent the direct sunshine over the birds.
Size of house:
• Each broiler requires one square foot of floor space while a
layer requires two square feet of floor space under the
deep-litter system of rearing.
• So the size of the house depends on the number of birds
you want to rear.
Length of house:
• The length of the house can be of any extent.
• The number of birds reared and the availability of the land
determines the length of the poultry house.
 (contd…)
Width of the house:
• The open-sided poultry houses in tropical countries should have a width
of not more than 22 to 25 feet in order to allow ample ventilation and
aeration at the mid-portion.
• Sheds wider than this will not provide adequate ventilation during the
hot weather.
• If the width of the shed is more than 25 feet, ridge ventilation at the
middle line of the rooftop with proper overhang is a must.
• Hot air and obnoxious gases which are lighter than air move upward
and escape through ridge ventilation.
• In environmentally controlled poultry houses, the width of the house
maybe even 40 feet or more. You have to control ventilation with the
help of exhaust fans.
Height of the house:
• The height of the sides from foundation to the roofline should be 6 to 7
feet (eaves height) and at the centre 10 to 12 feet.
• In the case of cage houses, the type of cage arrangements (3 tier or 4
tier) determines the height.
 (contd…)
Foundation:
• A good foundation is essential to prevent seepage of water
into the poultry sheds.
• The foundation of the house should of concrete with 1 to 1.5
feet below the surface and 1 to 1.5 feet above the ground
level.
Floor:
• The floor should be made of concrete with a rat-proof device
and free from dampness.
• The floor of the house should be extended 1.5 feet outside
the wall on all sides to prevent rat and snake problems.
Doors:
• The door must be open outside in case of deep-litter poultry
houses.
• The size of the door is preferably 6 x 2.5 feet.
• At the entry, construct a footbath and fill with a disinfectant.
 (contd…)
Sidewalls:
• The sidewall should be of 1-1.5 feet height, and generally at the level of bird’s
back height.
• This sidewall protects the bird during rainy days or chill climate and also
provides sufficient ventilation. In the case of cage houses, you do not need
sidewall.
Roof:
• The roof of the poultry house may be thatched, tiled, asbestos or concrete
one depending upon the cost involvement.
• Different types of roofs are Shed, Gable, half-monitor, full-monitor (Monitor),
Flat concrete, Gambrel, Gothic etc.
• Gable type is mostly preferred in tropical countries.
Overhang:
• The overhang of the roof should not be less than 3.5 feet in order to prevent
the entry of rainwater into the shed.
Lighting:
• Provide light at 7-8 feet above the ground level.
• You must hang it from the ceiling.
• If you use incandescent bulbs, the interval between two bulbs is 10 feet. In
the case of fluorescent lights (tube lights), the interval is 15 feet.
 1. semi-intensive system:
• Used by the small scale producers and are characterized by one or more pens in
which the birds can forage on natural vegetation and insects to supplement the
feed supplies.
• It is desirable to provide atleast two runs for alternating use to avoid build up of
disease and parasites.
• Each run should allow at least 10 – 15 sq.m. per hen and fence.
• But, area requirement will be 40-80 sq.m./hen where they acquire substantial
part from forage.
• A simple and small house which allows 0.3 – 0.4 sq. m./hen with thatched roof
and littered earth floor and slatted or chicken wire walls on at least 3 sides will
provide protection from inclement weather, from predators at night and shade
in the day time.
• For convenience, the house should be situated so that access to each of the
runs can be provided with small outlet “ popholes”.
• The shelter should be large enough to enter to collect eggs and be equipped
with nest boxes, feeders, drinkers, and perches.
• Advantages: low cost, run provided with fencing, have rat guards and ant
protection legs, equipped with skids or wheels for movement as one unit.
• Disadvantages: Egg production and growth of bird is lesser thancloser
confinement, loss of bird by predators, lesser eggs and losses due to laid in
bushes.
102
 2. Deep Litter System:
• To confine the birds in a house, deep litter system is used.
• If well designed with low masonary walls set on a concrete floor
and wire mesh completing upper parts of the walls, the house
will exclude rats and birds.
House dimension:
Width: 9 m
Length: any length
Bird density: 4 – 5 birds/sq.m.
Solid walls: prevailing wind
• Merits: easy access of feeding, watering, and egg gathering,
good protection, and reasonable cost.
• Demerits: Needs high quality litters, litters and manures must
be removed periodically, if produced by the owner, it is of little
significance.
• Figure here
103
 3. Slatted or Wire Floor System:
• Alternatively wire mesh is used for the floor.
• Treated wooden piers provided above 0.8 – 1 m above the ground.
• Ventilation and manure removal facilities are provided.
• No litter required.
• Bird density: 6 – 8 birds/sq.m.
• Feeding, watering, and egg collection is done from outside.
• Gaveled thatched roof or single pitch CI sheet may be used with the eaves of 1.5 m
above the floor.
• In CI sheet, insulation is needed below the roof.
• Deed troughs equipped with hinged covers.
• Rat guards are installed at the top of the each pier.
• House dimension:
Width of house: 2 m
Building orientation: E – W
Length of house: any, needed
Slatted floor: strong for a person walk.
If length > 5 m: nests needed to be put on sides
Floor is removable for cleaning.
• This type of house is cooler.
• Cost is higher with difficult management ;
• Figures here
104
 4. Combination of Slatted Floor and
Deep Litter System:
• Half of the floor area is covered with small gun
pole slats or with wire mesh.
• This area is raised by 0.5 m.
• Cleaning and manure under the slatted portion is
done from outside without disturbing the birds.
• Feeders and waterers can be handled from the
litter area.
• Width of floor: 3 to 4 m
( Figure here) 105
 Merits and Demerits of combination of slatted and deep
litter system:
Merits Demerits

1. More birds/unit area ( 5 – 7 /sq. m. ) 1. Added expense for material and labor
cost

2. Saves on litter 2. Limited width of the house make difficult

operation

3. Increases litter life 3. Need for more litter

4. Reduces contact between birds and

manure

5. Allows manure removal without

disturbing hens

6. Ventilation is improved due to slatted

floor.
106
 5. Cage or Battery System:
• It is well insulated windowless housing used for colder
areas and is very large structure.
• Complete mechanization for feed, water, and egg
collection.
• Manure removal and environmental control easy.
• Two-three people can care for the thousands of birds.
• This is simple and may work well for commercial purpose.
• This consists of stair-step cages in long narrow shelters.
• The thatch roof or metal insulated roof can be completely
open from all sides with hessian curtains in areas where
cold wind is experienced.
• Orientation: East-West and designed to provide shade for
cages near the ends.
• Very large investment required.
107
Contd…
• Width: 3.4 m allow 4 cages.
• Alley length: 0.9 m.
• Floor: concrete or soil.
• Manure collection: loose sand + spread litters
easy.
• Building posts: strong and treated with
preservatives.
• Rat guards provision at 0.8 m to 1.0 m height
from floor.
• Feeding: manually.
• Watering: manually or automatically system.
• (Figure here) 108
Structures of Poultry feeding and watering:
• The cumulative feed consumption from one day to the point of
laying ay 20 – 24 weeks is 1012 kg/ bird.
• The rearing of broiler from one day to marketable weight (2 kg
live weight) at 9 – 12 weeks of age requires 4- 6 kg of feed.
• Feeders:
- Either trough or tube feeders are used for one-day old chicks,
growing birds, and layers.
- No of feeders should be such that the distance of nearest
feeder should not be more than 2 m from any point in the
house.
- Trough should not be too wide, easily cleaned, and where the
hens can not leave droppings in it.
- Small trough feeders are placed on floor, while, the layers are
mounted on the stand to prevent the chickens from kicking
litters into them.
- ( Figures here)
109
 Drinkers:
• An ordinary bucket of 10 – 15 lit serves well for
layers.
• If it is sunk in to the ground, it should be 10 cm
out for chicks.
• Shallow bowls supplied with water from n upside
down bottle.
• Like feeders, they are put on floor for chicks and
on stands for older birds.
• The number of drinkers should be such that each
birds have access to two nipples as clogging of a
nipple is not always readily detected.
110
Feed and water requirement for pullets and layers
Chicken Feed requirement ( kg/week-bird) Water requirement
(lit/day/bird)

Pullets Broiler

1 – 4 weeks of age 0.07 – 0.2 0.1 – 0.4 0.05 – 0.15

5 – 8 weeks of age 0.26 – 0.36 0.5 – 0.9 0.16 – 0.25

9 – 12 weeks of age 0.4 – 0.49 1.0 – 1.1 0.20 – 0.35

13 – 20 weeks of age 0.51 – 0.78 - 0.25 – 0.4

111
Swine housing
Swine House Dimension
Mud floor for goat housing
Manger and Trough for Goats
 Open Manger and Trough and
Elevated Floor for Sheep and Goat
 Low Cost /Cost Effective Housing
• The structure should be:
 Strong
 Functional
 Durable
 Cheaper/Affordable by the targeted groups

• Aim of Low Cost House

 Efficiently utilize available resources like land,
material, and labor (LML)
117
 Approach to Low Cost Housing
• Factors for approaching to low cost housing
a) Planning of Land and Land Development
b) Design of individual building
c) Use of Building materials and Construction Tech.
“ A rupee spent in planning saves rupees ten in
construction “
• 10 % cost reduction by proper planning of land
• 10 % cost reduction by efficient planning and
design of individual building
• 15 % of cost reduction by the use of alternative
building materials and construction technology
118
Advantages of Row House Planning over Existing
pattern of Residential growth and Prevailing
planned growth

• Economy in land area (high density/ha)

• Economy in infrastructure cost
• Efficiency in maintenance
• Privacy between the neighboring houses
• Easy to make land area smaller
• Better Environment

119
 Selection of materials and design considerations
• Selection of materials depends upon:
 Socio-economic condition of rural people
 Climatic condition of the location
 Available natural resources – natural soils, rice husk, second grade
timber, and sand stone pieces/slabs
• The soil stabilizing techniques require only a small quantity of cement as
a stabilizing agent
• Block making is simple and does not require skilled laborers
• Locally available sand stone tiles or earthen tiles can be used for the roof
• Broken stone chips or tiles can be used for floor making
• Lime and “surkhi” can be used for making foundation or roof
• The inner walls can be plastered with a 15 mm thick layer of clay putty, in
the proportion of 12:1
• The external joints of the block masonry are pointed with cement
mortar (1:4) to protect them from weathering
120
• Such a house will be comfortable and durable.
 Contd…
• Building materials and components:
• Nepal has extreme and moderate climate conditions,
thereby, the residential buildings are made to protect from
extreme cold, heat, and high rainfall conditions.
• Temperature ranges from 45 deg C (terai) to – 40 deg C
(mountains) and rainfall of 3345 mm (Pokhara) to 300 mm
(Mustang).
• Different designs and available building materials are used
to suit the weather conditions.
Building materials can be classified as:
i. Materials for basic structure including foundations,
ii. Protective and decorative finishes, and
iii. Fixture, fittings, and accessories.
• Richer people prefer more permanent structures, while,
poor short lived structures.
121
 Contd…
• Rural (farm) buildings have several alternative systems available for walls,
roofs, and floors as:
A. Walls: can be made of (a) hollow cement blocks, (b) burnt clay bricks,
(c ) sun dried clay bricks, (d) stone blocks, (e) MURRAM blocks etc.
B. Roofing materials: (a) Paddy straw and plant leaves (palm or date), (b)
burnt clay tiles, (c ) corrugated steel sheets, (d) Corrugated cement
asbestos sheets, (e) reinforced brick or concrete roof, (f) stone slabs
with concrete cover are in use.
C. Floors: (a) rammed clay, (b) brick laid in cement sand mortar, (c ) R.C.C.,
(d) stone slab, (e) floor tiles etc.
D. Protective and decorative finishes: are selected such that they match
surfaces of application and surroundings e.g. (a) clay cow-dung paste is
applied on earthen wall, (b) cement plaster on burnt clay brick walls
and stone block walls, (c ) pointing of joints.
E. Fittings and fixtures are available in variety of designs and are made up
of metal and non-metal materials. Timbers are replaced by steel
frames, PVC fixtures etc. PVC pipes are replacing cement and glazed
tiles in constructions.

122
 Construction details
• Buildings are made up of five units:
1. Foundations,
2. Walls and pillars,
3. Roofs,
4. Floors,
5. Doors and windows.
1.Foundation:
• should be durable and adequate to support the super structure,
• Lies below the ground and has footing at its lowest portion,
• Its size is expressed as its depth and width and are determined by soil
types and the load acting over it.
• Its size is determined on the basis of bearing pressure of the soil in which
it is built.
• Size of the foundation is calculated as
w = W/P
Where, w = width of the foundation (m)
W = Dead load coming on the foundation per unit length (kg)
P = Safe bearing pressure of the soil (kg/sq. m.)
123
Calculate the width of the masonry foundation
having 4000 kg of dead load per running meter of the
wall. Assume that the building has to be constructed
in alluvial soil of Nepal having the bearing pressure
as 5000 kg per sq. m.
Solution:
Width of foundation,
w = W/P
= 4000/5000 (kg/m)/(kg/sq. m.)
= 0.8 m
In order to avoid the top soft soil, the foundation should be placed at some
depth, preferably 60 cm below for residential and more for heavy storage
buildings.
Stepped foundation is mostly preferred if it is laid with bricks. In making
stepped foundation, rise of the base is generally 1.5 times the projection.

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 Contd…
2. Roofing:
A variety of roofing materials are used depending upon availability and
climatic conditions.
• In high rainfall areas, steep slopping thatched roofs or corrugated steel
sheet roofs are preferred.
• In moderate rainfall areas where summer days are very hot, tiles with
moderate slope are best suited.
• Country clay tiles are good insulators if placed over bamboo or timber
matting.
• In low rainfall areas where good clay is found, flat mud roofs are
common.
• This type of roof keep the house cool during summer days, but, liable to
eroded in rainy days.
• Life of the roofing materials is short (about 2 years), so periodically
replaced. The materials lasting for more than 2 years, need repairing.
• Permanent type of roof (RCC or RBC) is put over brick masonry buildings.
• Corrugated cement asbestos sheet roofing is used for animal shelters or
for cheap residential building, but, is uncomfortable during summer
days.
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Concrete: is a mixture of cement, sand, and aggregate
(gravel) and water in the correct proportion and
thoroughly mixed to form a rock-like mass on setting.
• For best results in concrete work the following
procedure should be observed:
1. All the aggregates are in proper proportion.
2. The coarse aggregates are properly washed and
the sand properly sieved.
3. Thorough mixing of the aggregates is done.
4. Careful pouring and thorough tamping is done.
5. Proper curing is done for 7-10 days after the
concrete is laid.
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Concrete: a major building material for the following
reasons -
1. Can be readily moulded into durable structural
items.
2. Formed to a desirable size and shape with low
labor expenditure.
3. Proportion can be varied with change of
ingredients and by special techniques.
4. Posses adequate plasticity for mechanical working.
5. Ingredients are easily available.
6. Maintenance cost is negligible.
7. Compressive strength of 300 – 700 kg/sq.cm (30 -
70 N/m-sq. m.) can be easily prepared.
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 Properties of concrete:
I. High compressive strength,
II. Free from corrosion and atmospheric weathering,
III. Strength improves with age,
IV. Hard surface is resistant to abrasion,
V. Prone to shrinkage due to evaporation of water
and developing hardness.
Fuller developed a formula for estimating the
quantities of aggregates required for a mix of 0.76
cu. m. (one cubic yard):
C = 42/(c + s + r)
where, C = quantity of cement (cu. Ft.)
c, s, r= cement, sand and aggregate proportion, resp.
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 Calculate the quantities of cement, sand, and gravel required to
prepare 81 cu. ft. of concrete having 1 : 3 : 4 as the proportion of
aggregates.
Solution:
Total quantity of concrete required
= 81/27 = 3 cu. Yards.
Applying the formula we get
C = 42/(1 + 3 + 4) = 42/8 = 5.25 cu. ft. cement per cu. yard of concrete
Quantity of cement required
= 5.25 x 3 x 1 = 15.75 cu. ft.
Quantity of sand required
= 5.25 x 3 x 3 = 47.25 cu. ft.
Quantity of aggregate required
= 5.25 x 3 x 4 = 63 cu. ft.
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 Contd…
• Water cement ratio (w/c) by volume for
hydration hardening = 0.08 (theoretically),
• w/c = 0.66 to 1.0 (practically),
• Thoroughly mixed with shovel or mechanical
mixer,
• After pouring, vigorously tamped and rammed
by mechanical or pneumatic vibrators or by
shovel,
• Mixing helps in strengthening the concrete by
forcing the smaller or larger aggregates close
together, thus making the mass more compact.
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 Placing and compacting concrete:
• Should be deposited on clean surfaces which are well watered.
• For vertical lying, stiff mix should be poured,
• For horizontal layers of not more than 15 cm thickness be laid to
avoid water appearance on the upper surface,
• All corners and edges of concrete should be unbroken, sharp and
straight in line,
• Compacting is done to achieve maximum density by removing air
voids from the concrete,
• Even 5 % voids remaining in the concrete reduces strength
considerably,
• Avoid voids at the joints where fresh concrete are laid in layers,
• Thus, manual compacting is done by rodding, tamping or
ramming,
• These methods of compacting are preferred for vertical sections,
slabs, and heavily reinforced concrete sections, respectively.
• Stop ramming when water appears on the upper surface of the
concrete.
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 Curing:
• Curing of concrete is the process of strengthening
through hydration,
• Moisture is needed for good curing,
• Concrete surface is flooded with 2 cm of ponded
water or covered with moist gunny bags or moist
sand for 7 to 10 days,
• At the lower ratio, the ponded curing gives higher
strength,
• By this time, concrete gains about 90 % of its
strength,
• The rate of increase in strength is rapid at the
beginning, but, continues for many months.
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Finishing:
• Except for a few cases, concrete floors and
surfaces are given a surface finish by a
wooden float followed by a steel trowel just
after the concrete is poured,
• In order to get very smooth and polished
surface, finishing is followed by polishing with
hard grinding stone,
• Generally this is avoided as polished surfaces
tend to be slippery.
• For cattle shed, floors should be non-slippery.

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