Chapter 1

Basic Concepts, Theories, and Principles in Assessing Learning Using

Alternative Models.

Assessment is generally defined as the process of gathering quantitative

and/or qualitative data to make decisions, whereas assessment of learning can be
defined as the systematic and purpose-oriented collection, analysis, and
interpretation of evidence of student learning to make informed decisions relevant to
the learners. In contrast, assessment for learning refers to the use of assessment to
identify the needs of students to modify instruction or the learning activities in the
classroom. Assessment for learning is formative in nature, and it is meant to identify
gaps in the learning experiences of students, so they can be assisted in achieving
the curriculum outcomes.

ASSESSMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF TEACHING-LEARNING

Diagnostic assessment. This is a form of pre-assessment that allows a

teacher to determine individual student’s prior knowledge including misconceptions
before instruction. In short, it is primarily used to diagnose what students already
know and don’t yet know to guide instruction. The results of diagnostic assessment
also provide a basis for comparison to determine how much learning has taken place
after the learning activity is completed: This is usually done by giving diagnostic
pretests.

Formative assessment. Formative assessment takes place during instruction

(during the formative process) to provide the teacher with information regarding how
well the learning objectives of a given learning activity are being met. In formative
assessment, teachers monitor student learning to get ongoing feedback to improve
their teaching and for students to improve their learning. In formative assessment,
students are helped to identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that
need work. Likewise, teachers are also helped to recognize where students are
struggling and so address problems immediately. It is the evidence-based
improvement of ongoing teaching-learning.

Summative assessment is used to evaluate student learning at the end of a

define instructional period

Summative assessments are done through;

 Paper-and-pencil test
 Non-paper-pencil test
Modes of Assessments

1. Traditional Assessment
 It refers to the use of traditional assessment strategies or tools to provide
information on student learning. Typically, objective paper-and-pencil tests are
used to assess students. The traditional assessment
Advantages is classified into two
Disadvantages
 Can cover
objectives. Objective  Time-consuming
Supply includes identification,
a lot of material. to prepare.
labeling test, enumeration,
 Fair will test,
completion answerandthe cloze
set of questions.  Easy for students
test. Objective Selection such as to cheat, guess,choice,
multiple or
 Effective assessing in declarative bluff.
matching type, true or false, and rearrangement.
knowledge of content.  Encourages rote memory rather than
 Easier to score/administer deep understanding.
performance assessments.  Construction of good high-level
recognition items is difficult.

2. Alternative Assessment
It refers to the use of alternative assessment strategies or tools to collect
information on student learning. Forms of assessment are performance-oriented or
product-oriented assessment methods. It can lead to more authentic assessment
learning.
Alternative Assessment Features (Silvestre-Tipay 2009):
1. The alternative is based on authentic tasks that demonstrate the learner’s
ability to accomplish communication goals;
2. Instructors and learners focus on communication, not on right and wrong
answers;
3. Learners help to set criteria for successful completion of communication
tasks; and
4. Learners have opportunities to assess themselves and their peers.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Flexible design • Time-consuming
• Able to meet the needs of diverse • Very subjective and hard to grade
learners.
• Help students to reflect.
• Provide life skills
• Foster the ability to learn how to learn.
3. Portfolio Assessment
It refers to assessing student learning by requiring students to perform a task or
develop a product as a demonstration of one’s learning. the focus of the assessment
is on providing an opportunity for students to apply what they have learned through
task performance and product creation.
Advantages Disadvantages
• Can track progress over time • Hard to score fairly
• Realistic examples of every product. • Time consuming to make
• Collaborative Evaluation
• Personal significance
• Involve parent
 The different models of alternative assessment

1. Emergent Assessment
2. Developmental Assessment
3. Authentic Assessmen
Emergent Assessment (Assessing by discovery)

- based on Michael Scriven’s (1967) goal-free evaluation model.

- examines how and what the educational program and instruction are doing to
address the needs of students.
- tends to be more qualitative in nature.
- the assessor should have no preconceived notions or biases regarding learning
outcomes or instructional goals.
- the assessor uses multiple methods to record the data accurately. Direct and
indirect evidence are both collected. Direct evidence – refers to tangible and
compelling evidence of what students have and have not learned. Indirect
evidence - refers to proxy signs for learning that are less tangible and less
compelling compared to direct evidence.
Developmental Assessment (Assessing by progress)

- Focus on determining the extent to which students have developed their

competencies from instruction.
- These models adopt a pre-test and post-test methodology to collect
information if a student has developed or improved after instruction.
- Useful for assessing learning outcomes based on students' developments rather
than a final product.
- Ex. Evolution of laboratory skills
Authentic Assessment (Assessing by doing)

- It is the most popular model of alternative assessment.

- It refers to the use of assessment strategies or tools that allow learners to
perform or create products that are meaningful to the learners as they are
based on real-world context.
- The ones that allow performances that most closely resemble real-world tasks
or applications in a real-world setting or environment.
- Ex. Biodiversity conservation project.
Criteria in determining if an assessment task or activity is authentic or not
(Silvestre-Tipay 2009)

1. Be built around topics or issues of interest to the students.

2. Replicate real-world communication context and situation.
3. Involve multistage tasks and real problems that require creative use of language
rather than simple repetition.
4. Require learners to produce a quality product or performance.
5. Introduce the students to the evaluation criteria and standards.
6. Involve interaction between the assessor (instructor, peers, self) and the person
assessed;
7. Allow for self-evaluation and self-correction as they proceed.
Different principles in assessing learning using an alternative method

1. Assessment is both process and product-oriented

An assessment gives equal importance to student performance or product
and the process they engage in to perform or produce a product.
2. Assessment should focus on higher-order cognitive outcomes
For the assessment to be valid and authentic. It should require students to
demonstrate their knowledge.
3. Assessment can include a measure of noncognitive learning outcomes
Traditional assessment focuses on knowledge and other cognitive learning
outcomes.
4. Assessment should reflect real-life or real-world contexts
Assessment tasks or activities should be authentic. The assessment should
closely, if not fully approximate real-life situations or experiences.
5. Assessment Must be comprehensive and holistic
Assessment should be performed using a variety of strategies and tools
designed to assess student learning in a more integrative way.
6. Assessment should lead to student learning
This means that assessment should be like classroom instruction.

Establishing High-Quality Assessments

1. Quality assessments are by contemporary view of active learning and motivation.

This means that learners discover and construct meaning (Santrock, 2009). High-
quality assessments involve learners in the assessment process beginning with the
setting of goals, monitoring of their learning, and building self-confidence because
learners are intrinsically motivated to learn.

2. Assessment of high quality is valid. Assessment is valid if it measures what it is

supposed to measure, i.e., how well the learning outcomes have been attained. A
teacher must be true to his/her intended learning outcome/s. The idea of the
alignment of intended learning outcomes, teaching-learning activities, and
assessment is what John Biggs (2003) called constructive alignment, the essence of
outcome-based education.

3. Assessment of high quality is reliable. Assessment is reliable when the test

produces consistent scores. If you give a test-retest in Science and find out that
those who got high scores in the first take also got high scores in the second take of
the same test and those who got low scores in the first take also got low in the re-
test of the same test, then the assessment is reliable. The assessment is not reliable
if the opposite happens.

4. Assessment of high quality is fair. It is fair if it assesses what is supposed to be

assessed as stated in the learning outcome which is expected to have been taught.
This is the principle of constructive alignment in action. Assessing learners on
something they have not been taught is unfair.

Assessment is also unfair if it is biased against subgroups of students.

Assessment unfairly penalizes a student based on the student's ethnicity, socio-
economic status, gender, religion, and disability (Hargis, 2006). For example, when a
teacher decides to see how well students can collaboratively solve problems that
require students to work together synchronously online where only affluent students
who can afford to have laptops and internet connectivity can participate while
students from lower economic status will be deprived of collaborative problem-
solving.

Current Trends in Assessment

Here are current trends in assessment cited by Santrock (2009) and Watermark
Insights (2023);

1. Using at least some performance-based assessment - This means that the

use of objective tests such as alternate response, multiple choice, and matching type
is no longer adequate.

2. Examining higher-level cognitive skills and emphasizing integrated rather

than isolated skills - These higher-level cognitive skills include problem-solving,
critical thinking, decision-making, drawing inferences, and strategic thinking. That is
why it is not enough to make use of objective tests that assess simple recall.

3. Using multiple assessment methods - To assess students, a current trend is to

use multiple methods from multiple-choice tests to essays, interviews, projects, a
portfolios to self-evaluation. Again it is emphasized that we have not to do away with
objective tests that measure simple recall. These tests that require simple recall
complement authentic assessment tools.

4. Having high-performance standards including world-class standards for

interpreting assessment results - Let us set standards high. Research says "one's
level of performance is lower than one's level of aspiration." It is therefore sound to
challenge students to meet high-performance standards.

5. Involving students in all aspects of assessment - It works if the students are

involved from the setting of expected targets to be demonstrated after instruction to
checking on their progress in the course of the teaching-learning process and finally
determining the extent to which they realize expected targets.
6. Making standards and criteria public rather than private and secretive -
(Santrock, 2009) Mc Tighe (2013) says "the evaluative criteria (such as rubrics) are
presented and explained at the beginning. Models of excellence, aligned to the
criteria, are shown to provide a clear 'picture 'of desired performance. This may
eliminate students' fear or unwelcoming attitude toward assessment.

7. Using computers as part of assessment - With computers, a bank of questions

can be created which makes it possible for each student to be presented with
different questions that are of equivalent standard. With computerized marking,
immediate feedback may be given to students. Recording of assessment results and
their statistical analysis are likewise facilitated with computers.

8. Increasing inclusivity - Watermark Insights (2023) noted that each student who
enters higher education has a background that influences their learning. Students
from privileged backgrounds often find it easier to transition to the demands of higher
education. In contrast, students from less privileged backgrounds may require more
support to receive equal access to different resources and experiences.

9. Focusing on processes and experiences - Integrating high-impact learning

practices requires a change in assessment to facilitate quality interaction between
students and faculty. It allows faculty members to provide frequent formal and
informal feedback to students. In addition, taking assessments beyond outcomes
benefits students in all areas of their higher education, shaping experiences and
processes to elevate student success.

10. Valuing authentic learning measures - Authentic measures allow institutions to

measure a broader range of student learning outcomes, making them a helpful
assessment tool for understanding high-impact learning practices. With authentic
measures, institutions can go beyond measuring what students have learned and
understand how and why they learn.