CHAPTER 2: TRAFFIC SURVEY AND DATA COLLECTION

2.1 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS

Traffic can be divided into two primary categories:

• Interrupted flow

• Un-interrupted flow

Interrupted flow: occurs when vehicles traversing a length of roadway are not required

to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream such as traffic control devices.

Un-interrupted flow: flow regulated by vehicle-to-vehicle interactions on one side and

by the interactions between vehicles and the roadway environment and geometry on

the other side.

Traffic stream characteristics represent the engineers’ quantitative measure for

understanding and describing traffic flow. Traffic stream characteristics fall into two

broad categories:

• Macro-scopic parameters: characterize traffic stream as a whole

• Microscopic parameters: behavior of individual vehicles in the traffic stream

with respect to each other

2.1.1 Macroscopic characteristics

There are three macro-scopic parameters that describe traffic stream:

• Volume- rate of flow

• Speed

• Density

Volume and flow rate

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Volume is the number of vehicles that pass a given point on the roadway or a given

lane or direction of a highway in a specified period of time. The unit of volume is

simply vehicles, although it is often expressed as annual, daily, hourly peak and off-

peak.

Density

Density is the number of vehicles present on a given length of roadway or lane.

Normally, density is reported in terms of vehicles per mile or per kilometer. High

densities indicate that individual vehicles are very close to each other, while low

densities imply greater distances between vehicles.

Density is a difficult parameter to measure directly in the field. Direct measurements of

density can be obtained through aerial photography, which is an expensive method or it

can be estimated from the density, floe and speed relationship.

Speed

The average speed on a section of a road

2.1.2 Microscopic characteristics

Headway, gap and occupancy are microscopic measures for describing the space

between individual vehicles.

Headway

Headway is a measure of the temporal space between two vehicles or more specifically

the time that elapses between the arrival of the leading vehicle and the following

vehicle at the designated test point along a lane. Headway between two vehicles is

measured by starting a chronograph when the front bumper of the first vehicle crosses

the selected point and subsequently recording the time that the second vehicles front

bumper crosses over the designated point. Headway is reported in terms of seconds.

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Gap

Gap is similar to the headway measure except that it is a measure of the time that

elapses between the departure of the first vehicle and the arrival of the second at the

designated test point. Gap is a measure of the time between the rear bumper of the first

vehicle and the front bumper of the second vehicle. Gap is also reported in terms of

seconds

Occupancy

Occupancy denotes the proportion or percentage of time a point on the road is occupied

by vehicles. It is measured, using loop detectors as the fraction of time that vehicles are

on the detector. Therefore, for a specific time interval T, occupancy is the sum of the

time that vehicles cover the detector, divided by T. for each individual vehicle, the time

spent on the detector is determined as function of the vehicles speed, its headway, its

length L plus the length of the detector itself C

2.2 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC MEASUREMENT

2.2.1 Data

Data are an essential input for the effective planning and design of transport systems,

either directly by describing the current state of the system or indirectly by allowing the

calibration of study models.

2.2.2 Defining data requirements

The requirement for information needs to be defined into a precise specification of data

requirements in terms of:

• Variables of interest to be studied

• Hypotheses to be tested

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The specification of the variables and the hypotheses at an early stage concentrates the

mind on the real purpose of the survey and ensures that all subsequent efforts are

properly targeted.

Secondary data sources

Once the data requirements have been specified it is important to consider whether they

can be met by making use of existing data thereby avoiding the need for a special

survey/ new data collection.

Use of existing data or secondary sources can save time and money and is particularly

desirable when a survey is likely to cause disruption and annoyance to the travelling

public.

The accuracy and relevance of the data could be a challenge.

The sources of secondary data: -

• Published databases

• Local area surveys

• Data produced as a by-product of a control or management system

Published databases- a wide range of data is available or could be available in existing

databases. Much of it is collected by government agencies as part of regular monitoring

exercises. Such data are useful for establishing background trends.

Detailed local data- available if there have been previous surveys in the study area. It

could be part of the local monitoring program or part of an adhoc study.

Databases produced as a by-product of management and control systems- examples

of these include data captured during operations of traffic control systems, usage of car

parks or flow through set traffic barriers.

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Resource requirements

Assuming that after careful consideration of all secondary sources of data the need for

further data collection is established, the next stage would be to produce detailed

specification.

The specifications must take account of the resources available and what can be

achieved in terms of accuracy and coverage.

Choice of survey equipment

Once the decision to proceed has been made the survey planner must define the survey

instrument.

Definition of survey instrument involves choosing the most appropriate technique to be

employed in carrying out the survey.

Design of sampling strategy

It is associated with the definition of the experimental hypotheses and of the variables

of interest and involves definition of the sampling units, the target population, the

sampling frame, the sampling method and the sample size.

Sampling units- basic units whose characteristics or behavior are to be determined.

Target population- indicates which sample units are in the survey. If the data

requirements have been well specified the definition of the target population is straight

forward.

Sampling frame- it is a register of the target population which defines all the sampling

units within the target population and which provides the framework for the sampling

process.

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Sampling methods

The choice of sampling method will depend on the objectives of the survey and perhaps

the survey technique being employed.

Common sampling techniques: -

• Random sampling- every sampling unit has an equal opportunity

• Systematic sampling- selection of every nth unit from the sampling frame

• Stratified sampling- division of population into groups on the basis of some

characteristic

• Cluster sampling- selection of groups of adjacent units

2.2.3 Types of surveys that can be done: -

• Traffic counts

o Automatic traffic counts

o Manual traffic counts

• Number plate surveys/ ANPR- automatic number plate recognition

• Roadside interview surveys

• Origin- destination surveys

• Video surveys

o Traffic flow

o Turning movements

o Speeds

o Congestion and delays

o Parking and loading

o Pedestrian movements

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 • Axle load surveys

2.3 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Generally, "in-situ" technologies refer to traffic data measured by the means of detectors

located along the road. Generally, traffic count technologies can be split into two

categories:

• Intrusive methods

• Non-intrusive methods.

2.3.1 Intrusive methods

The intrusive methods basically consist of a data recorder and a sensor placed on or in

the road. They have been employed for many years and the most important ones are

briefly described hereafter:

• Pneumatic road tubes: rubber tubes are placed across the road lanes to detect

vehicles from pressure changes that are produced when a vehicle tyre passes

over the tube. The pulse of air that is created is recorded and processed by a

counter located on the side of the road. The main drawback of this technology is

that it has limited lane coverage and its efficiency is subject to weather,

temperature and traffic conditions. This system may also not be efficient in

measuring low speed flows.

• Piezoelectric sensors: the sensors are placed in a groove along roadway

surface of the lane(s) monitored. The principle is to convert mechanical energy

into electrical energy. Indeed, mechanical deformation of the piezoelectric

material modifies the surface charge density of the material so that a potential

difference appears between the electrodes. The amplitude and frequency of the

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 signal is directly proportional to the degree of deformation. This system can be

used to measure weight and speed.

• Magnetic loops: it is the most conventional technology used to collect traffic

data. The loops are embedded in roadways in a square formation that generates

a magnetic field. The information is then transmitted to a counting device placed

on the side of the road. This has a generally short life expectancy because it can

be damaged by heavy vehicles, but is not affected by bad weather conditions.

This technology has been widely deployed in Europe (and elsewhere) over the

last decades. However, the implementation and maintenance costs can be

expensive.

2.3.2 Non-intrusive methods

Non-intrusive techniques are based on remote observations. Even if manual counting is

the most used method, new technologies have recently emerged which seem very

promising:

• Manual counts: Traffic flows can be measured by manual observation, instead

of using an automatic counter. Traffic flowing past a survey point is counted by

an observer, who would record the flow using either a tally counter by taking a

manual count of vehicles and recording it on paper, typically using a five bar

gate counting technique, or by using a hand-held computer.

Counts are classified, to identify the volume and mix of types of vehicles using

the road at the survey point. For example, it may be adequate to use a simpler

form of classification, such as cars and taxis, buses and commercial vehicles. The

engineer should choose an appropriate level of classification for each study. If a

data collection survey is only planned to cover a short period of time, then the

expense of installing an automatic counter may not be justified when compared

with the cost of using a surveyor. The surveyor also has the ability to
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 discriminate between classes of vehicles. Manual counts generally offer better

value for money when data is required for a single day or for less than the full

24-hour day but collected over 2 or 3 days.

Manual classified counts (MCCs) become more difficult where flows are very

high, and where any break in concentration can introduce high error rates in the

count. If the engineer wishes to gain a quick insight to traffic conditions over a

wider area, short period, sample traffic counts can be taken over a wide area and

factored up, to represent the hourly flow. Thus, for example, if one wished to

have an understanding of traffic levels at a complex junction, traffic could be

counted at each arm for 5–10 minutes and then factored up to hourly counts, to

give an understanding of conditions. This is a good method of gaining a quick

insight into traffic levels but should not be used as a substitute for a properly

organized traffic survey.

• Passive and active infra-red: the presence, speed and type of vehicles are

detected based on the infrared energy radiating from the detection area. The

main drawbacks are the performance during bad weather, and limited lane

coverage.

• Passive magnetic: magnetic sensors are fixed under or on top of the roadbed.

They count the number of vehicles, their type and speed. However, in operating

conditions the sensors have difficulty differentiating between closely spaced

vehicles.

• Microwave radar: this technology can detect moving vehicles and speed

(Doppler radar). It records count data, speed and simple vehicle classification

and is not affected by weather conditions.

• Ultrasonic and passive acoustic: these devices emit sound waves to detect

vehicles by measuring the time for the signal to return to the device. The
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 ultrasonic sensors are placed over the lane and can be affected by temperature or

bad weather. The passive acoustic devices are placed alongside the road and can

collect vehicle counts, speed and classification data. They can also be affected by

bad weather conditions (e.g., low temperatures, snow).

• Video image detection: The use of video as a data collection tool in traffic

engineering is a relatively new but potentially very powerful concept. A strategically

placed camera can be used to observe traffic and parking activity in a street and,

depending on location and equipment, it is possible to survey up to 400 metres of road

from a single vantage point. Cameras are mounted high to minimize the obstruction of

the longer view from vehicles near to the camera. One of the key advantages of a

camera is that it records everything that happens. Other survey techniques inevitably

only record partial data, collecting just those aspects of traffic behaviour which the

survey is designed to record. With a video survey, it is possible to review the video and

observe other activities which were thought to be unimportant when the survey was

planned. The video has a particular advantage when flows are very high and it is

difficult to count manually, or when we wish to study a particular location where we

are not absolutely sure what the key issue is. With a video we can simultaneously

record:

• Traffic flow

• Turning movements

• Speeds

• Congestion and delays

• Parking and loading pedestrian movements.

Most importantly, a video allows us to see the interaction of all these factors. The video

also offers the unique advantage of allowing us the opportunity to view the situation

repeatedly, until we are satisfied we understand what is happening. Video surveys are

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not cheap. Although the data collection may only require the presence of a single

technician, to monitor the equipment, the subsequent recording and analysis of data

from the video can take up to six times as long as the real-time recording; depending on

what data is to be collated from the video and whether or not computer-assisted

techniques are available.

• ANPR and probe vehicles

ANPR systems are now being commonly used for measuring traffic speeds by

recording at two camera sites the times of vehicles passing and their registration

number plates. From this information the speed profile of vehicles over a section

of road can be determined. Instrumented Probe vehicles can provide spot speeds

and are equipped with:

• On-board equipment for continuous measurement of the vehicle’s speed;

• GPS to record the vehicle’s location;

• An accurate time clock;

• A GSM mobile device to communicate location, speed and time information

to a central location.

The Floating Car Data (FCD)

The principle of FCD is to collect real-time traffic data by locating the vehicle via mobile

phones or GPS over the entire road network. This basically means that every vehicle is

equipped with mobile phone or GPS which acts as a sensor for the road network.

Data such as car location, speed and direction of travel are sent anonymously to a

central processing centre. After being collected and extracted, useful information (e.g.

status of traffic, alternative routes) can be redistributed to the drivers on the road.
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FCD is an alternative or rather complement source of high quality data to existing

technologies. They will help improve safety, efficiency and reliability of the

transportation system. They are becoming crucial in the development of new Intelligent

Transportation Systems (ITS).

The focus is on floating vehicle technologies based on cellular and GPS probe data. This

is one category within the family of mobile traffic probes. The other category of "in-

vehicle" collection methods refers to Automotive Vehicle Identification (AVI)

techniques. In this case, probe vehicles are sampled at fixed location by means of

electronic transponders (tags) that are read as the vehicles pass the sensors. Basically,

there are two main types of FCD, namely GPS and cellular-based systems:

• GPS-based FCD

Even though GPS is becoming more and more used and affordable, so far only a

limited number of cars are equipped with this system, typically fleet

management services (e.g. taxi drivers). The vehicle location precision is

relatively high, typically less than 30m.

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 Figure 1: Communication from GPS

Generally, traffic data obtained from private vehicles or trucks are more suitable

for motorways and rural areas. In case of urban traffic, taxi fleets are particularly

useful due to their high number and their on-board communication systems

already in place. Currently, GPS probe data are widely used as a source of real-

time information by many service providers but it suffers from a limited number

of vehicles equipped and high equipment costs compared to floating cellular

data.

• FCD based on cellular phones

Since nowadays most of the driving vehicles are equipped with at least one or

several mobile phones, it may be worth using mobile phones as anonymous

traffic probes. The mobile phone positioning is regularly transmitted to the

network usually by means of triangulation or by other techniques (e.g. handover)

and then travel times and further data can be estimated over a series of road

segments before being converted into useful information by traffic centres.

Mobile phones need to be turned on, but not necessarily in use. This approach is

particularly well adapted to deliver relatively accurate information in urban

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 areas (where traffic data are most needed) due to the lower distance between

antennas.

Contrary to stationary traffic detectors and GPS-based systems, no special

device/hardware is necessary in cars and no specific infrastructure is to be built

along the road. It is therefore less expensive than conventional detectors and

offers larger coverage capabilities. Traffic data are obtained continuously instead

of isolated point data. It is faster to set up, easier to install, and needs less

maintenance.Note however that sophisticated algorithms are required to extract

and treat high-quality data before sending them back to end-users. Even if the

location precision is generally low (typically 300m), this weakness is partially

compensated by the large number of devices.

Figure 2: Communication from cellular phone source

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Pros and cons of the technologies

Figure 3: Pros and cons of in-situ censors

Pros and cons of FCDs

• Floating Car Data is typically based on GPS or cellular probe data.

• Benefits/pros

o High accuracy

o Cost effective

• Cons

o Limited sample size

o Time/spatial limitations

2.4 AXLE LOAD SURVEYS

2.4.1 Axle

• A pin or shaft on or with which a wheel or pair of wheels revolves.

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2.4.2 Axle load

• The total weight of a wheeled vehicle which is felt by the road for all wheels

connected to a given axle

• It is the fraction of total vehicle weight resting on a given axle.

• Axle load is an important design consideration in the engineering design of

roadways as they are designed to tolerate a maximum weight per axle.

Exceeding that set maximum load causes damage to roadways.

A sufficiently accurate estimate of the current traffic loading is essential for an

appropriate pavement design. Traffic volumes can be determined by traffic counts, but

for current vehicle loads, where no recent reliable data are available, the information

can only be obtained by an axle load survey. It is not sufficient to base designs on legal

axle load limits because of the widespread problem of overloading and because of the

unknown proportion of vehicles that may be only partially loaded.

An axle load survey is carried out to determine the axle load distribution of the heavy

vehicles using the road. These survey data are then used to calculate the mean number

of equivalent standard axles for a typical vehicle in each vehicle class. These values are

then combined with traffic flows and forecasts to determine the total predicted traffic

loading that the road will carry over its design life

If the flow of such vehicles is too high, a sample will need to be selected for weighing.

However, not all types of vehicles need to be weighed. This is because almost all of the

structural damage to a road pavement is caused by the heavy goods vehicles, medium
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goods vehicles, and large buses. Thus, it is not necessary to weigh vehicles of less than

1.5 tons for example; motorcycles, cars, small buses or small trucks with single rear

tyres.

Large buses often have quite high axle loads and should be weighed in the survey.

However, since many buses will pass the survey station repeatedly during the day with

fairly similar payloads, to avoid unnecessary inconvenience it is often sufficient to

weigh a smaller sample of buses than the sampling rate chosen for other vehicle types.

There are three main ways of measuring axle loads, using:

i) A fixed weighbridge;

ii) Portableweigh pads;

iii) weigh-in-motion equipment.

If a fixed weighbridge exists near to the study road, then making use of this specialized

facility and equipment is often a good idea. However, if there is no weighbridge in the

area, directing traffic to the nearest weighbridge will be impractical, especially if large

distances are involved.

The most common method of carrying out an axle load survey is to weigh a sample of

vehicles at the roadside using portable weighpads. Using this method, it is possible to

weigh about sixty vehicles per hour per set of weigh pads. In some circumstances up to

a hundred vehicles per hour can be weighed but this will depend upon many factors

including traffic levels, site layout, type of equipment, number of staff and their

experience.

Weigh-in-motion equipment has also become quite popular but it is less accurate and

more expensive.

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If hourly classified traffic count data are available before the axle load survey is carried

out, an estimate could be made of the maximum hourly flow of heavy and medium

goods vehicles for the site. This information can be used to determine whether (for each

hour throughout the day) all commercial vehicles can be weighed or if sampling is

necessary.

On many roads it will be necessary to consider whether the axle load distribution of the

traffic travelling in each direction is the same. Significant differences between the two

flows can occur on many roads, particularly, for example, on roads leading to docks,

quarries, cement works, timber or oil extraction areas and mining areas. The survey

results should be kept separate for each direction and the results from the more heavily

trafficked direction should be used for pavement design purposes. An axle load survey

will also provide important information about the degree of overloading.

Legal axle load limits vary from country to country. In most countries there will be a

maximum gross vehicle weight and a maximum permitted legal axle load (usually 8, 10

or 13 tons for single axles). There may also be a maximum permitted axle load for

multiple axles, i.e., two or three closely spaced axles, and this is usually lower than the

total that would be permitted if each axle were separated. However, the amount of

damage caused to the road by multiple axles can be either more or less than would be

caused by the axles if they were to be separated, depending on the spacing of the axles

and the design of the road.

2.4.3 EQUIPMENT

Permanent weighbridges

Permanent weighbridges are large, fixed weighing platforms used for vehicle and axle

load regulation and certification. They are usually located at purpose-built sites on the

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main arterial routes of a network, and are often operated by a Government department.

An example is shown in in the figures below:

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Permanent weighbridges have the advantages of specialized site and staff and a large

weighing platform that is usually level with the surrounding ground. These factors can

increase the speed and accuracy of the axle load survey within a safe environment.

However, their fixed location means that they are only appropriate for surveys on a

small number of roads near to each weighbridge site.

There are various designs of permanent weighbridge but most comprise a single large

weighing platform. With such a design, the vehicles must be driven onto the platform

and must be stopped and weighed as each axle in turn mounts the platform. In this way

the weight of each axle can be calculated by difference.

When using a permanent weighbridge for an axle load survey, it is important to ensure

that the weighing equipment has been recently calibrated.

Portable weighpads

Portable weighpads are small loadometers that can be used singly or in pairs to

measure the individual wheel or axle load of a vehicle. They have the advantage of

being able to be set up almost anywhere and are available at a relatively low cost, hence

they are the tools most frequently used for axle load surveys. The disadvantages are:

i. Weighing at the roadside is not as safe as at an off-site location;

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 ii. There will almost certainly be more disruption to traffic; and

iii. The weighing rate will be slower than can be achieved at a fixed weighbridge,

hence the sample size of the vehicles that are weighed will be smaller.

There are many different types of weighpads available around the world, varying in

size, complexity and cost. Variations in design include; the weighing mechanism (e.g.

hydraulic, hydrostatic load cell, and strain gauge mechanisms); the readout display (e.g.

dial or digital LCD); the ability to connect weighpads together (to give axle loads rather

than two separate wheel loads); use of cable or cable-less technology; battery size and

working time; the ability to store data; the ability to print data; and methods of

downloading data to a computer.

Many of the differences are simply differences of convenience and ease of use, but it is

vital that the weighing range of the weighpad is sufficient to weigh the heaviest axles,

taking into account the severe overloading that occurs worldwide.

Some examples of different types are shown in the figures below: -

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It is important that weighpads are regularly and accurately calibrated. This is usually

carried out by the manufacturer using a calibrated proving ring. It is also prudent for

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the user to check the calibration from time to time using the same vehicle of known axle

load.

Use of a recessed pit for the weighpads.

The size and thickness of the weighpads can affect both the speed and accuracy of the

survey because one of the main problems with the use of portable weighpads is the

difficulty of getting the vehicles to mount the weighpads properly. The thickness of

many weighpads is such that ramps are needed either side to enable a vehicle’s wheels

to mount and dismount smoothly. Alternatively, the weighpad can be placed inside a

small pit constructed in the road to such a depth that the surface of the weighpad can be

made level with the road surface. Such a pit is essential for very thick weighpads (>

60mm) but it is usually well worth the extra effort even for thinner ones. A pit ensures

that all of the vehicle wheels being weighed are level and eliminates the errors that can

be introduced by even a small twist or tilt of the vehicle. More importantly, it also

eliminates the large errors that can occur if all the wheels on one side of a multiple axle

group are not kept in the same horizontal plane, thereby distorting the normal

operation of the suspension system.

The pit should have a concrete base with adequate drainage. A channel should be

provided for the cable to prevent it being damaged by tyres, and the pit should be

sufficiently wide to allow the weighpad to be moved laterally by about 200 mm to

enable the wheels of large vehicle and trailer combinations to be aligned more easily.

The sides should also be lined with concrete to prevent the edges from collapsing.

Before use, the weighpad(s) should be levelled using a spirit level. It is often a good

idea to place levelled sand under the weighpads; this will make levelling easier and

provide uniform support. Care is required because a weighpad resting on sand may

slide out from under a spinning wheel and could cause injury.
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Weighing without constructing a pit

If only one weighpad is being used, and it is not in a pit, then a level platform should be

provided to support all wheels on one side of the vehicle that are part of the same

suspension unit. This ensures that the wheel being weighed remains level (in the

longitudinal direction) with the others in the unit. It does not prevent a slight transverse

tilt from one side of the vehicle to the other (camber effect) but the errors created by this

tilt are very much less than those that occur if the wheel is not level, longitudinally,

with the others in its suspension group. Raising an individual wheel by only20 mm can

lead to errors in the axle load of greater than 10%. For even greater accuracy the

transverse tilt can also be eliminated by placing a dummy weighpad and platform to

support the opposite wheels of the axle being weighed. This keeps the axle level and

reduces any possible error due to a camber effect. Errors due to longitudinal tilt (i.e. a

hill effect) are negligible provided that the site itself is level.

Some modern weighpads are now becoming so thin that they do not need either a pit or

a ramp at all, using only a small chamfered edge that is usually integral with the

weighpad itself.

Width of weighpads

When weighing heavy vehicles the size of the weighpad is important, especially the

width. This should be as wide as, or wider than, a set of twin tyres; these are usually

about 45 to 55 cm wide. If the whole base of each tyre is not resting on the weighpad,

then the loading of the vehicle is concentrated on only part of each tyre. This could

cause a tyre blow-out, especially if the tyre is worn or damaged, and hence constitutes a

safety hazard for any staff nearby. With the variations in tyre and wheel sizes that have

occurred in recent years, selecting a weighpad that is of adequate size to cover the

vehicle population is more important than ever.

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In addition to the safety aspect, the weighing operation will be slower because it is more

difficult to line up and manoeuvre a vehicle onto a small weighpad.

Weigh-in-motion

Weigh-in-motion systems use a weight sensor set into the road surface so that all

vehicle axle loads are recorded at low (or sometimes normal) traffic speeds. This system

is capable of giving the most complete information but it is less accurate and often the

most expensive of the three options. However, the technology associated with weigh-in-

motion devices has progressed rapidly in the past few years and this type of survey is

becoming increasingly popular. The accuracy of many systems is now quite good, but

care must be taken with the installation site to minimize possible errors.

An axle load measured at normal traffic speed can be very different to the measured

static load because of dynamic effects caused by the motion of the vehicle. These

depend on undulations in the pavement, the axle load itself, the suspension system and

the speed of the vehicle. For a smooth road the dynamic effects should be relatively

small, but could be significant for an undulating surface. Often multiple sensors are

used and an average taken.

The most common types of WIM are either a recording weighbridge or piezo sensor

system.

Recording weighbridge

A recording weighbridge is set into or on the road surface. The weighpad for a typical

weigh-in- motion system is similar to a thin static weighpad.

Piezoelectric cables

Weigh-in-motion systems that use piezoelectric cables as the weight sensor look rather

like traffic counters. As a vehicle passes over the cable, instead of a pulse of compressed

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air being produced, an electrical signal proportional to the load at a particular instant of

time is generated.

To determine the total load on a wheel the speed of the wheel (vehicle) passing over the

cable is also required and this is normally obtained as an integral part of the weigh-in-

motion system.

Extra care must be taken with piezoelectric sensor installations because they are

sensitive to possible errors, especially those deriving from an uneven profile of the road

surface and the speed of the vehicles.

Pavement condition and the sensor installation at each site. Since these differ with each

placement, a significant calibration effort is required each time WIM equipment is

placed on the ground. If the scale is not calibrated, the static weight estimates provided

by the scale can be very inaccurate, even if the scale accurately reports the vertical

forces applied to its surface. The expense of calibrating portable WIM scales each time

they are installed is another significant impediment to their regular us.

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