Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EC3271 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LABORATORY

Name of the Student : ……………………………….

Register Number : ……………………………….

Year / Semester : I YEAR / II SEMESTER

Branch : Electronics & Communication Engg.

1
Register No:

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this is the bonafide record of work done by

Mr./Ms.………………………………………………………of …… semester B.E Electronics &
Communication Engineering in the ……………………………….
………………………………………………………… Laboratory during the academic year
……............................

Staff – in – Charge Head of the Department

Submitted for the University Practical Examination held on …………………………

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Date: …………… Date: ……………...

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 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Vision of the Institution:

To develop a world class centre of excellence in Engineering and

Technology Education that is renowned for Competence, Innovation,
Professional Ethics, Values, and Culture.

Vision of the Department:

To transform aspirants into Electronics and communication

engineers by Empowering and enriching the knowledge to become
Global Leaders in Core values and competiveness.

Program Educational Objectives:

PEO1: Contribute to the industry as an Engineer through sound knowledge acquired in core
engineering to develop new processes and implement the solutions for industrial problems.
PEO2: Establish an organization / industry as an Entrepreneur with professionalism, leadership
quality, teamwork, and ethical values to meet the societal needs.
PEO3: Create a better future by pursuing higher education / research and develop the sustainable
products / solutions to meet the demand.

Program specific outcomes:

PSO1: To analyze, design and develop quality solutions in Communication Engineering by

adapting the emerging technologies.

PSO2: To innovate ideas and solutions for real time problems in industrial and domestic
Automation using Embedded & IoT tools.

3
 Department of Electronics and communication Engineering

PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics,

science, engineeringfundamentals, and an engineering specialization to
the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and
analyze complexengineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions
using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering
sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design system components or processes that
meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for the public
health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments,
analysis and interpretation of data, andsynthesis of the information to
provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineeringactivities with an understanding of the
limitations.

4
 6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the
contextual knowledge toassess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural
issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional
engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the
professional engineeringsolutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities andnorms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as
a member orleader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering
activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such as,
being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design
documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage
projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation
and ability to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change.

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 Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

EC3271 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LABORATORY

Course Objectives:

 To gain hands on experience in designing simple electric circuits using resistors

 To design circuits for verifying KVL & KCL
 To design circuits for verifying the fundamental network theorems like Thevenin ,Norton ,
Superposition and Maximum power transfer theorem
 To differentiate Characteristics of Series and Parallel Resonant circuits.
 To analyze the transient nature of RL and RC circuits

Course Outcomes:

CO Course
No. Outcomes
CO1 Design electric circuits using resistors to verify fundamental network
laws and theorems
CO2 Design and verify Characteristics of Series and Parallel Resonant circuits.
Design and analyze the transient nature of RL and RC circuits
CO3

CO-PO mapping Matrix:

PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO PO1 PO1 PO1 PSO PSO

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 1 2
CO1 2 3 3 3 - - - 1 3 1 2 1 1 1

CO2 1 3 2 2 - - - 3 3 1 2 1 1 1

CO3 1 3 3 2 - - - 1 3 1 2 1 1 1

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 EC3271 CIRCUIT ANALYSIS LABORATORY

List of Experiments:
1. Verifications of KVL & KCL.
2. Verifications of Thevenin & Norton theorem.
3. Verification of Superposition Theorem.
4. Verification of maximum power transfer Theorem
5. Determination of Resonance Frequency of Series & Parallel RLC Circuits.
6. Transient analysis of RL and RC circuits.

Additional Experiments
1. Study of Mesh analysis & Nodal analysis
2. Study of Star to Delta & Delta to Star conversion
3. Study of frequency response of the transformer

KNOW ABOUT THE ELECTRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS AND AC SOURCES

i. A.STUDY OF DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM)
ii. B.STUDY OF BREAD BOARD
iii. C.STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR
iv. D.STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
o RESISTANCE COLOUR CODING CHART
o ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRECAUTION RULES IN THE LAB
o CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

TOTAL: 15 PERIODS

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS CONTENTS

PO’S &
EXP. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Page CO’S
PSO’S
NO. NO. MAPPED
MAPPED

LIST OF PRESCRIBED EXPERIMENTS

1 Verifications of KVL & KCL. CO1

2 Verifications of Thevenin & Norton CO1

theorem.

3 Verification of Superposition Theorem. CO1

Verification of maximum power transfer
4 CO1
Theorem

5 Determination of Resonance Frequency CO2

of Series & Parallel RLC Circuits.

6 Transient analysis of RL and RC CO3

circuits.
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS

7 Study of Mesh analysis & Nodal analysis CO1

8 Study of Star to Delta & Delta to Star CO1

conversion

9 Study of frequency response of the CO2

transformer

8
 EXPERIMENT - 1
VERIFICATION OF KVL AND KCL

AIM:
To verify the K i r c h h o f f ’ s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) in a
Passive Resistive Network.

APPARATUS:

S. No Apparatus Rang Typ Quantity

Name e e
1 RPS
2 Ammeter
3 Voltmeter
4 Resistors
5 Bread Board - - 01
6 Connecting - - As
Wires required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS:

Figure – 1.1 Verification of KVL

Figure – 1.2 Verification of KCL

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 PROCEDURE: To Verify KVL
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 1.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage (say 5v) and note the voltmeter readings.
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps.
5. Note the readings of voltmeters.
6. Sum up the voltmeter readings (voltage drops) , that should be equal to applied
voltage .
7. Thus KVL is verified practically.
To Verify KCL
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 2.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage (say 5v) and note the Ammeter readings.
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps.
5. Note the readings of Ammeters.
6. Sum up the Ammeter readings (I1 and I2) , that should be equal to total current (I).
7. Thus KCL is Verified practically
OBSERVATIONS: For KVL
Appli V1 (volts) V2 (volts) V3 (volts) V1+V2+V3 (volts)
ed
Voltag Theoreti Practic Theoreti Practic Theoreti Practic Theoreti Practical
e V cal al cal al cal al cal
(volts)

For KCL
Appli I (A) I1 I2 I1+I2 (A)
ed (A) (A)
Voltag Theoreti Practic Theoreti Practic Theoreti Practic Theoreti Practic
e V cal al cal al cal al cal al
(volts)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply
2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.
RESULT:

10
 EXPERIMENT – 2

(A) VERIFICATION OF THEVENIN’S THEOREM

AIM: To Verify Thevenin’s theorem using passive resistive network

APPARATUS:
S.No Equipment Range Type Quantity
.
1 Ammeter
2 Voltmeter
3 R.P.S
4 Bread Board
5 Resistors
6 Connecting Wires As
required
STATEMENT:

Any linear, bilateral network having a number of voltage, current sources and
resistances can be replaced by a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single
voltage source in series with a resistance, where the value of the voltage source is
equal to the open circuit voltage and the resistance is the equivalent resistance
measured between the open circuit terminals with all energy sources replaced by
their ideal internal resistances

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig-2.1 Measurement of VTH or VOC Fig – 2.2 Measurement of RTH

Fig – 2.3 Measurement of IL (IL = VTH or VOC/ RTH +RL )

11
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig.2.1

2. Measure current in RL.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in fig2.2.
4. Measure open circuit voltage Voc by open circuiting terminals i.e, VTH
5. Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as shown in fig2.3
6. Measurement current in RL

TABULAR COLUMN:

Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

Voc
RTH
IL

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply
2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.

RESULT:

12
 EXPERIMENT – 2

(B)VERIFICATION OF NORTON ’S THEOREM

AIM: To Verify Norton’s theorem using passive resistive network.

STATEMENT

Any linear, bilateral network with current sources, voltage sources and resistances
can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel
with a resistance. The value of the current source is the current flowing through the
short circuit terminals of the network and the resistance is the equivalent resistance
measured between the open circuit terminals of the network with all the energy
sources replaced by their internal resistances.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig – 2.4 Norton’s Fig – 2.5 Norton’s Fig – 2.6

Norton’s Current Circuit Equivalent Resistance circuit Equivalent

Circuit

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig 2.4.

2. Measure the current Isc (or) IN through AB by short-circuiting the resistance between
A and B.
3. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in fig 2.5.
4. The resistance between A and B are obtained by using. Voltmeter, ammeter
method and the ratio of V and I gives RN.
5. Draw Norton's equivalent circuit by connecting IN & RN in parallel as shown in
fig 2.6and find load current.

13
TABULAR COLUMN:

Parameters Theoretical Values Practical

Values
Isc/ IN
RN
IL

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS

14
 EXPERIMENT - 3
VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

AIM:
To verify the principle of Superposition theorem, theoretically and practically.

STATEMENT:

In a linear, bilateral network the response in any element is equal to sum of

individual responses while all other sources are non-operative.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Rang Type Quantity

. e
1. Resistors - -
2. Ammeter
3. R.P.S
4. Bread Board - -
5. Connecting Wires required

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig- 3.1 Both Voltage Sources are acting (V1&V2) Fig - 3.2 Voltage Source V1 is
acting alone

Fig - 3.3 Voltage Source V2 is acting alone

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3.1) and note down the current flowing through
R3 and let it be I.
2. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3.2) and note down the ammeter Reading, and
let it be I1.
3. Connect the circuit as shown in figure (3.3) and note down the ammeter reading, and
let it be I2.
4. Verify for I=I1+I2 .
5. Compare the practical and theoretical currents.

TABULAR COLUMN:

WHEN WHEN WHEN

PARAMETERS BOTH V1 & V1≠0 & V1=0&
V2≠0 V2=0 V2≠0(I2)
(I) (I1)
Current through R3 (Theoretical
Values)
Current through R3 (Practical
Values)
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply

2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected

RESULT

16
 EXPERIMENT – 4

VERIFICATION OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM

AIM:
To design the load resistor that ,absorbs maximum power from source.

STATEMENT:
The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power is delivered from
a source to an load resistance when the load resistance is equal to source resistance.
(RL = Rs is the condition required for maximum power transfer).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig – 4.1Maximum Power Transfer Circuit

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.4.1
2. Vary the load resistance in steps and note down voltage across the load and
current flowing through the circuit.
3. Calculate power delivered to the load by using formula P=V*I.
4. Draw the graph between resistance and power (resistance on X- axis and power on Y-
axis).
5. Verify the maximum power is delivered to the load when RL = Rs for DC.

TABULAR COLUMN:
S. No RL V I P=VI

1
2
3
4
5

17
MODEL GRAPH:

Fig – 4.2 Output Graph of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply

2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected

RESULT

VIVA QUESTIONS

18
 EXPERIMENT – 5

A) DETERMINATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY OF THE SERIES RESONANCE

AIM:
To design a series resonant circuit and finding the resonant frequency, quality factor and
band width of the series resonant circuit.
APPARATUS:

S. No. Name of the Range Type Quantity

Equipment
1 Signal generator
2 Required resistors
3 Required Inductors
4 Required capacitors
5 CRO probes
6 Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig – 5.1 Series Resonance

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.12.1 for series resonant circuit
2. Set the voltage of the signal from function generator to 10V.
3. Vary the frequency of the signal in steps and note down the magnitude of
response on CRO respectively.( response wave form is observed across element
R)
4. Form the observation table between the frequency and magnitude of
response in CRO for series resonance circuit.
5. Draw a graph between frequency and magnitude of response on the semi-log
sheet and determine theresonant frequency, quality factor and bandwidth of
series RLC circuit\.
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THEORETICAL
CALCULATIONS: Series
Resonance
Resonant Frequency (fr) =
1/(2π√LC) Lower cut off frequency
(f1) = fr-R/4 π L
Upper cut off frequency (f2) = fr+R/4
π L Quality factor Qr = ωrL/R =
1/ωrRC
Band Width f2-f1 = R/2 π L

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No Frequency (Hz) Magnitude of

. response
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

MODEL GRAPH:

Fig – 5.2 Series Resonance

RESULT:

20
 EXPERIMENT – 5
B.DETERMINATION OF RESONANT FREQUENCY OF THE PARALLEL
RESONANCE
AIM:
To design a parallel resonant circuit and finding the resonant frequency, quality
factor and band width of the parallel resonant circuit.
APPARATUS:

S. No. Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1 Signal generator
2 Required resistors
3 Required Inductors
4 Required capacitors
5 CRO probes
6 Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Signal Generator

Fig – 6.1 Parallel Resonance

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.2 for parallel resonant circuit.
2. Set the voltage of the signal from function generator to 10V.

3. Vary the frequency of the signal in steps and note down the magnitude of response
on CROrespectively.( response wave form is observed across element R)
4. Form the observation table between the frequency and magnitude of response in
CRO firstly for parallelresonance circuit.
5. Draw a graph between frequency and magnitude of response on the semi-log sheet
and determine theresonant frequency, quality factor and bandwidth of parallel RLC
circuit.
21
 THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
Parallel Resonance

Resonant Frequency (fr) = 1/(2∏√LC)

Lower cut off frequency (f1) =fr-
1/4∏RC Upper cut off frequency
(f2) =
fr+1/4∏RC Qualityfactor Qr = ωrCR
= fr/B.W
Band Width f2-f1 = 1/2∏RC

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No. Frequency (Hz) Magnitude of response

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

MODEL GRAPH:

Fig – 6.2. Parallel Resonance

RESULT

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 EXPERIMENT – 6
TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS

AIM:
To design RC and RL Circuits with switches to analyze the transient nature of the RC
and RL circuits .
APPARATUS:

S. No. Name of the Equipment Range Type Quantity

1 Signal generator
2 Required resistors
3 Required Inductors
4 Required capacitors
5 DSO CRO ,probes
6 Connecting wires

THEORY:
All Electrical or Electronic circuits or systems suffer from some form of “time-delay” between
its input and output terminals when either a signal or voltage, continuous, ( DC ) or alternating
( AC ), is applied to it.
This delay is generally known as the circuits time delay or Time Constant which represents
the time response of the circuit when an input step voltage or signal is applied. The resultant
time constant of any electronic circuit or system will mainly depend upon the reactive
components either capacitive or inductive connected to it. Time constant has units of, Tau – τ

RC Charging Circuit
The figure below shows a capacitor, ( C ) in series with a resistor, ( R ) forming a RC Charging
Circuit connected across a DC battery supply ( Vs ) via a mechanical switch. at time zero,
when the switch is first closed, the capacitor gradually charges up through the resistor until
the voltage across it reaches the supply voltage of the battery. The manner in which the
capacitor charges up is shown below.

Let us assume above, that the capacitor, C is fully “discharged” and the switch (S) is fully
open. These are the initial conditions of the circuit, then t = 0, i = 0 and q = 0. When the switch
is closed the time begins at t = 0 and current begins to flow into the capacitor via the resistor.
Since the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, ( Vc = 0 ) at t = 0 the capacitor appears to
be a short circuit to the external circuit and the maximum current flows through the circuit
restricted only by the resistor R. Then by using Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), the voltage
drops around the circuit are given as:

The current now flowing around the circuit is called the Charging Current and is found by
using Ohms law as: i = Vs/R.

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 OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Frequency Tim Voltage across the

(Hz) e(s) capacitor VC
(v)

MODEL CALCULATION:

24
 This current is maximum at t=0+ which is charging current. As the capacitor
starts charging, the voltage across capacitor VC starts increasing and charging
current starts decreasing. After some time, when the capacitor charges to V
volts, it achieves steady state. In steady state it acts as an open circuit and
current will be zero finally.

The term RC in equation of VC or IC is called Time constant and denoted by

measured in seconds.
When, then, VC
= 0.632Vin
So time constant of series RC circuit is defined as time required by the
capacitor voltage to rise from zero to 0.632 of its final steady state value
during charging.
Thus, time constant of RC circuit can be defined as time seconds,
during which voltage across capacitor (stating from zero) would reach its
final steady state value if its rate of change was maintained constant at its
initial value throughout charging period.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the frequency by using function generator.
3. For different frequencies tabulate the value of voltage across the capacitor .
4. Calculate the time period.
5. Plot the graph for time period Vs voltage across the capacitor.

The practically measured valued are compared with the theoretical value

Sl.no Description of Theoretical Practical

parameters value value

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TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUITS:

The voltage/current relationship for these two passive elements are defined by the
derivative (voltage across the inductor

Our problem is to study the growth of current in the circuit through two stages, namely; (i) dc
transient response (ii) steady state response of the system

D.C Transients: The behavior of the current and the voltage in the circuit switch is closed until
it reaches its final value is called dc transient response of the concerned circuit. The response of a
circuit (containing resistances, inductances, capacitors and switches) due to sudden application of
voltage or current is called transient response. The most common instance of a transient response
in a circuit occurs when a switch is turned on or off –a rather common event in an electric circuit.

Growth or Rise of current in R-L circuit

To find the current expression (response) for the circuit shown in fig. 10.6(a), we can write the
KVL equation around the circuit
26
The table shows how the current i(t) builds up in a R-L circuit.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Vary the frequency by using function generator.
3. For different frequencies tabulate the value of voltage across the inductor.
4. Calculate the time period.
5. Plot the graph for time period Vs voltage across the inductor .

27
 The practically measured valued are compared with the theoretical value

Sl.no Description of Theoretical Practical

parameters value value

RESULT

VIVA QUESTIONS

28
 EXPERIMENT -7
(A) MESH ANALYSIS
AIM
The study of mesh analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in
multi-source DC circuits. Its application in finding circuit currents and voltages will be
investigated.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Range Type Quantity

.
1. Resistors - -
2. Ammeter
3. R.P.S
4. Bread Board - -
5. Connecting Wires required

THEORY:
Multi-source DC circuits may be analyzed using a mesh current technique. The
process involves identifying a minimum number of small loops such that every
component exists in at least one loop. KVL is then applied to each loop. The loop
currents are referred to as mesh currents as each current interlocks or meshes with the
surrounding loop currents. As a result there will be a set of simultaneous equations
created, an unknown mesh current for each loop. Once the mesh currents are
determined, various branch currents and component voltages may be derived.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Figure – 7.1 Mesh analyses

29
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 7.1.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage (say 15v).
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps.
5. Connect ammeters in the loop and find the currents I1, I2 and I3.
6. Verify the practical results obtained with theoretical results

OBSERVATIONS:

Applied Loop Loop current (I2) Loop current(I3)

Voltage current(I1)
V (volts)
Theore Practic Theoreti Practical Theoretic Practica
tical al cal al l

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply
2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.
RESULT:

30
 EXPERIMENT – 7
B. NODAL ANALYSIS

AIM
The study of nodal analysis is the objective of this exercise, specifically its usage in
multi-source DC circuits. Its application in finding circuit node voltages will be
investigated.

APPARATUS:

S.No Equipment Rang Type Quantity

. e
1. Resistors - -
2. Voltmeter
3. R.P.S
4. Bread Board - -
5. Connecting Wires required
THEORY:
In electric circuits analysis, nodal analysis, node-voltage analysis, or the branch
current method is a method of determining the voltage (potential difference) between
"nodes" (points where elements or branches connect) in an electrical circuit in terms
of the branch currents.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:FIG 7.1

Figure – 7.1 Nodal analysis

31
PROCEDURE
.
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Figure 7.1.
2. Switch ON the supply to RPS.
3. Apply the voltage (say 15v) and note the voltmeter readings.
4. Gradually increase the supply voltage in steps.
5. Note the readings of voltmeters.
6. Verify the practical results obtained with theoretical results.

OBSERVATIONS:

Applied Node voltage(v1) Node voltage(v2) Node voltage(v3)

Voltage
V Theoretica Practical Theoretica Practical Theoretica Practical
(volts) l l l

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Check for proper connections before switching ON the supply

2. Make sure of proper color coding of resistors
3. The terminal of the resistance should be properly connected.

RESULT

VIVA QUESTIONS

32
 EXPERIMENT – 8
STAR –DELTA & DELTA –STAR CONVERSION

Aim – To study the Star –Delta & Delta –Star conversion by practically connected
resistors.
APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Equipment Range Type Quantity

.
1. Resistors - -
2 Multimeter
3. Bread Board - -
4. Connecting Wires required

Three branches in an electrical network can be connected in numbers of forms but

most common among them is either star or delta form. In delta connection, three branches
are so connected, that they form a closed loop. As these three branches are connected nose
to tail, they form a triangular closed loop, this configuration is referred as delta connection.
On the other hand, when either terminal of three branches is connected to a common point to
form a Y like pattern is known as star connection. But these star and delta connections can be
transformed from one form to another. For simplifying complex network, delta to star or star
to delta transformation is often required.

Delta To Star Conversion

The replacement of delta or mesh by equivalent star connection is known as delta – star
transformation. The two connections are equivalent or identical to each other if the
impedance is measured between any pair of lines. That means, the value of impedance will
be the same if it is measured between any pair of lines irrespective of whether the delta is
connected between the lines or its equivalent star is connected between that lines.

33
Consider a delta system that’s three corner points are A, B and C as shown in the figure.
Electrical resistance of the branch between points A and B, B and C and C and A are R1, R2
and R3 respectively.
The resistance between the points A and B will be,

Now, one star system is connected to these points A, B, and C as shown in the figure. Three
arms RA, RB and RC of the star system are connected with A, B and C respectively. Now if we
measure the resistance value between points A and B, we will get,

Since the two systems are identical, resistance measured between terminals A and B in both
systems must be equal.

Similarly, resistance between points B and C being equal in the two systems,

And resistance between points C and A being equal in the two systems,

Adding equations (I), (II) and (III) we get,

Subtracting equations (I), (II) and (III) from equation (IV) we get,

34
The relation of delta – star transformation can be expressed as follows.
The equivalent star resistance connected to a given terminal, is equal to the product of the
two delta resistances connected to the same terminal divided by the sum of the delta
connected resistances.
If the delta connected system has same resistance R at its three sides then equivalent star
resistance r will be,

Star To Delta Conversion

For star – delta transformation we just multiply equations (v), (VI) and (VI), (VII) and (VII),
(V) that is by doing (v) × (VI) + (VI) × (VII) + (VII) × (V) we get,

Now dividing equation (VIII) by equations (V), (VI) and equations (VII) separately we get,

35
Procedure
 Connect three different resistors in the delta configuration and find the resistance in
between any terminals by using multimeter.
 Compare the theoretical and practical values – Find the equivalent resistance values
for the above delta mode connected resistors in star configuration
 Connect three different resistors in the star mode and find the resistance in between
any terminals by using multimeter.
 Compare the theoretical and practical values –Repeat the above procedure for at least
three different sets of resistors

TABULATIONS

Sl Resistance Delta configuration Equivalent Star configuration

no values Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Remarks

Sl Resistance Star configuration Equivalent Delta configuration

no values Theoretical Practical Theoretical Practical Remarks

RESULT

VIVA QUESTIONS

36
 8. STUDY OF FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE TRANSFORMER

Aim – To study the frequency response of the transformer

APPARATUS REQUIRED

S.No Equipment Range Type Quantity

.
1. 12 V transformer - -
2 Function generator
3. CRO - -
4. Connecting Wires required

Theory: The transformer works normally in the line frequency 50Hz .But if you increase the
frequency in the KHz ,it behaves like non linear element .This nature is explained by the
equivalent circuit of the Transformer .The exact equivalent circuit of the transformer is shown
in the figure. In which, the resistance R1 is the primary winding resistance and resistance
R2 is the resistance of secondary winding. Likewise, the inductive reactance X1 is the primary
winding leakage reactance and the reactance X2 is the secondary winding leakage
reactance. The parallel circuit R0 – Xm is the no-load equivalent circuit of the transformer.

As in the exact equivalent circuit of the transformer, all the Imperfections are represented by
various circuit elements. Therefore, the transformer is now an ideal one. From the exact
equivalent circuit, it can be seen that there are two electrical circuits which are separated by
an ideal transformer that changes the voltage and current as per the equation given below.

K=E2/E1=N2/N1=I′2/I2
Due to the presence of frequency dependent elements the transformer response changes
with the applied frequency of primary voltage .
37
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Procedure:
o Connect the function generator to the input primary terminal of the transformer
o Connect the CRO at the secondary terminal of the transformer
o Set 20 V ac and vary the input square wave above 100KHz
o Find the distorted square wave at the output
o Plot the input and output waveforms in the graph .

RESULT

VIVA QUESTIONS

38
 A.STUDY OF DIGITAL MULTIMETER (DMM)

A digital multimeter, DMM is a test instrument used to measure electrical values

including voltage, current and resistance, although modern DMMs often make many more
measurements. Digital multimeters or DMMs can measure a variety of different parameters
within an electrical circuit. The basic DMMs can measure amps, volts and ohms, as the older
analogue meters did, but with the ease of incorporating further functionality into an
integrated circuit, many digital multimeters are able to make a number of other
measurements as well.Many of them include functions enabling measurement of capacitance,
frequency, continuity (with a buzzer to facilitate easy measurements when looking at the
circuit board), temperature, transistor functionality, and often a number of other
measurements as well.
Typical DMM controls and connections
The interfaces on the front of a digital multimeter are normally very straightforward. The
basic digital multimeter will typically have a switch, display, and the connections for the test
probes.
The main connection on a typical digital multimeter are given in the image and description
below, but obviously the exact layout and capabilities will be dependent upon the particular
test instrument in use.

Digital multimeter showing the controls & connections

1. Display The display on a DMM is normally easy to see and read. Most have four
digits, the first of which can often only be either a 0 or 1, and there will normally be a +
/ - indication as well. There may also be a few other smaller indicators such as AC /
DC etc dependent upon the model of DMM
2. Main connections There will be some main connections for the probes to connect to.
Although only two are needed at any one time, there may be three or four. Typically
these may be:

1. Common - for use with all measurements and this will take the negative or black lead
and probe
2. Volts, ohms, frequency - this connection is used for most measurements and will take
39
the positive or red lead and probe.
3. Amps and milliamps - this connection is used for the current measurements and will
again take the red lead and probe.
4. High current - there is often a separate connection for high current measurements.
Care must be taken to use this rather than the low current connection if high levels of current
are anticipated
These are typical connections for a multimeter and each model of multimeter may have its
own requirements and connections.
3. Main switch There will usually be a single main rotary switch to select the type of
measurement to be made and the range that is needed.
4. Additional connections There may be additional connections for other
measurements such as temperature where a thermocouple will need its own
connections. Some meters are also able to measure the gain of transistors, and these
will require separate connections on the meter.
5. Additional buttons and switches There will be a few additional buttons and switches.
The main one will obviously be the on/off button. Other functions including items such
as peak hold may also be available
The switches and controls are normally set out with the main range switch occupying the
central position within the multimeter panel. The display typically occupies a position at the
top of the instrument so that it is easy to see and it is free from being obscured by leads and
also it can still be seen if the switch is being operated.
Any additional switches are typically located around the main switch where they can be
reached very easily.

How to use a digital multimeter

The operation of a DMM itself is normally very straightforward. With a knowledge of how to
make voltage, current and resistance measurements it is then a matter of putting the
multimeter to use.
If the meter is new then it will obviously be necessary to install a battery to power it. This is
normally simple and straightforward and details can be found in the operating instructions
for the DMM.
When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:
1. Turn the meter on
2. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because there may be
a number of different connections that can be used.
3. Set switch to the correct measurement type and range for the measurement to be
made. When selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is above that
anticipated. The range on the DMM can then be reduced as necessary. However by
selecting a range that is too high, it prevents the meter being overloaded.
4. Optimise the range for the best reading. If possible enable all the leading digits to not
read zero, and in this way the greatest number of significant digits can be read.
5. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the
voltage measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage. In this way if
the meter is accidentally connected without thought for the range used, there is little
chance of damage to the meter. This may not be true if it left set for a current reading,
and the meter is accidentally connected across a high voltage point!

40
 B. STUDY OF BREADBOARD
Aim: To study the connection principle and construction of Breadboard and how to use it to
built electronic circuits in the devices lab.
A breadboard is a rectangular plastic board with a bunch of tiny holes in it. These holes let
you easily insert electronic components to prototype (meaning to build and test an early
version of) an electronic circuit, like this one with a battery, switch, resistor, and an LED
(light-emitting diode).

The connections are not permanent, so it is easy to remove a component if you make a
mistake, or just start over and do a new project. This makes breadboards great for beginners
who are new to electronics. You can use breadboards to make all sorts of fun electronics
projects, from different types of robots or an electronic drum set, to an electronic rain
detector to help conserve water in a garden, just to name a few.
Modern breadboards are made from plastic, and come in all shapes, sizes, and even
different colors. While larger and smaller sizes are available, the most common sizes you will
probably see are "full-size," "half-size," and "mini" breadboards. Most breadboards also
come with tabs and notches on the sides that allow you to snap multiple boards together.
However, a single half-sized breadboard is sufficient for many beginner-level projects.

What is a "solderless" breadboard?

Technically, these breadboards are called solderless breadboards because they do not
require soldering to make connections. Soldering (pronounced SAW-der-ing) is a method
where electronic components are joined together by melting a special type of metal called
solder. Electronic components can be soldered directly together, but more commonly they
are soldered onto printed circuit boards (PCBs). PCBs are what you will see if you take the
cover off many electronic devices, like a computer or cell phone. Frequently, engineers will
use solderless breadboards to prototype and test a circuit before building the final,
permanent design on a PCB. This image shows the same circuit (battery, switch, resistor, and
LED) built three different ways: on a solderless breadboard (left), with the components
soldered directly together (middle), and on a printed circuit board (right):
Soldering is a great technique to learn if you are interested in electronics, but the
connections are much more permanent and it requires purchasing some tools to get started.
The rest of this tutorial will focus on solderless breadboards, but you can read our soldering
tutorial to learn more about soldering.

41
Which electronic parts are compatible with breadboards?
So, how do electronic components fit into a breadboard? Many electronic components have
long metal legs called leads (pronounced "leeds"). Sometimes, shorter metal legs are
referred to as pins instead. Almost all components with leads will work with a breadboard
(to learn more about these components and which types work with a breadboard, see the
Advanced section).
Breadboards are designed so you can push these leads into the holes. They will be held in
place snugly enough that they will not fall out (even if you turn the breadboard upside-
down), but lightly enough that you can easily pull on them to remove them.

. A pair of miniature needle nose pliers or tweezers may make it easier to pick up small
components.
What is inside a breadboard?
The leads can fit into the breadboard because the inside of a breadboard is made up of rows
of tiny metal clips. This is what the clips look like when they are removed from a breadboard.

When you press a component's lead into a breadboard hole, one of these clips grabs onto it.
Some breadboards are actually made of transparent plastic, so you can see the clips inside.

Most breadboards have a backing layer that prevents the metal clips from falling out. The
backing is typically a layer of sticky, double-sided tape covered by a protective layer of
paper. If you want to permanently "stick" the breadboard to something (for example, a
robot), you just need to peel off the paper layer to expose the sticky tape underneath. In this
picture, the breadboard on the right has had its backing removed completely (so you can
see all the metal clips). The breadboard on the left still has its sticky backing, with one
corner of the paper layer peeled up.
42
 C.STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR
Aim: To study the electronic waveform generators and measuring instruments used in
electronic devices lab. The study focuses on working principle of laboratory function
generator. The study also includes specifications of the above and front panel’s controls in
the above instruments and finally how to use the above equipments in the construction of
electronic circuits in the devices lab.
Function generators are items of test equipment that are able to generate a variety of simple
repetitive waveforms. Straightforward signal generators such as RF signal generators or
simple audio oscillators focus on producing a good sine waves, but in many cases other
waveforms are needed. In addition to producing sine waves, function generators may
typically produce other repetitive waveforms including sawtooth and triangular waveforms,
square waves, and pulses. Another feature included on many function generators is the
ability to add a DC offset.
Often some of the low end function generators may only operate up to frequencies of
possibly around 100 kHz as the various shaped waveforms are normally only needed at
lower frequencies. However many other more comprehensive function generators are able
to operate at much higher frequencies, often up to 10 or 30 MHz.

Function generator capabilities

Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally
from the list below:
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a
standard sinusoidal shape.

43
Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to produce.
It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is
effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to 1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point.

Sawtooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the waveform
faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a sawtooth.

There are a variety of specifications that are applicable to function generators.

When choosing a test instrument for a given application, it is necessary to assess the
specification of the function generator to understand whether it is suitable.
Function generator specifications vary widely because of the number of different types
available ranging from analogue to digital, and according to their cost.
Main function generator specifications
Although there are many different function generator specifications, the main ones are
summarised below:
Waveforms: Function generators generally produce sine wave, square wave, pulse,
triangular and sawtooth or ramp waveforms. It is worth checking the specifications of these
individual waveforms.
Sine wave distortion: Analogue function generators create a sine wave from the triangular
waveform using a pair of back to back diodes to shape the waveform. Although this produces
a good representation of a sine wave, the distortion levels will be higher than sine waves
produced by other means. Accordingly the function generator specification for sine wave
distortion needs to be checked if this may be an issue. Typical levels may be < 2%
Triangular wave linearity: There will be some departure from a straight line on the triangular
wave. Typically linearity is better than 99% between levels of 10 and 90% of the waveform
amplitude.
Square wave rise & fall times: Another important function generator specification can be the
square wave edge rise and fall times. This can be an issue when driving some logic chips.
Chips that are synchronous and use a clock may require an edge of a certain speed.
Typically a function generator may provide a rise time of 100ns between 10 and 90% of the
waveform. The fall time may also be of the same order as well, although possibly different to
the rise time
Output symmetry: The function generator specification will give a range over which the
output symmetry can be changed. This might be 20% - 80% ± 10%.
Output level: The output level on most function generators will be continuously variable.
Often it will be able to easily adjust to so that it is TTL compatible. However maximum limits
will vary from generator to generator. Typical maximum levels may be 10 or 12 Volts peak to
44
peak.
Output impedance: In many instances the load that can be driven by the function generator
is of importance. The figure is measured in ohms, Ω and is typically 50Ω. Any output level
readings will assume this, and at this impedance the output will drop by half from its no load
value.
DC offset: One facility that some function generators provide is a DC offset. This enables
the base voltage level of the signal to be varied over a given range. It may be variable over a
range +5V to -5V for example.
Frequency range: Function generators have a limited frequency range. There are a number
of elements to the specification:
Lower frequency limit: The lower frequency limits tend to be below 1 Hz, often 0.1 or 0.2 Hz.
Often the lower limits are able to go well below normal requirements.
Upper frequency limit: The upper frequency limit tends to be a headline specification for the
function generator. Limits vary considerably from figures around 1 MHz up to 20 MHz or
more.
Ranges: There may be several switched ranges to the coverage. Often they tend to cover a
decade in frequency, i.e. 1 - 10. However this specification is dependent upon the particular
function generator.
Frequency stability: The stability of function generators can vary considerably. Analogue
versions tend to be much less stable, but digital ones will use a crystal for the clock in the
generator. Typical figures may be around 0.1% per hour for analogue function generators,
and 500 parts per million for digitally based test instruments. The specification may be given
in terms of the time base stability
Phase lock capability: Some generators may be able to phase lock the signal generator to
an external clock signal. This would enable the function generator to provide a much more
accurate, or synchronised output.
Modulation: Some test instruments may have the capability for the output signal to be
modulated, typically either amplitude or frequency modulation, but this is not true of many
test instruments.
There will naturally be the usual function generator specifications for parameters such as
size, weight and operating temperature. Power supply requirements and power consumption
will also be given.
HOW TO USE A FUNCTION GENERATOR
This is how to use a function generator to test a circuit’s behaviour:
Power on the generator and select the desired output signal: square wave, sine wave or
triangle wave.
Connect the output leads to an oscilloscope to visualize the output signal and set its
parameters using the amplitude and frequency controls.
Attach the output leads of the function generator to the input of the circuit you wish to test.
Attach the output of your circuit to a meter or oscilloscope to visualize the resulting change in
signal.
A function generator, which is used for testing the response of circuits to commonplace input
signals, produces various voltage patterns at different frequencies and amplitudes. You
connect the function generator’s electrical leads to the ground and the signal input terminals
to the device under test (DUT).
The majority of function generators enable you to pick the shape of the output from several
options including square wave, in which the signal immediately goes from high to low
voltage; sine wave, in which the signal curves from high to low voltage like a sinusoid; and
triangle wave, in which the signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate

45
 D.STUDY OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides
accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general
purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown
schematically in Fig. 1.

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode
(negative electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen. The assembly of the
cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an
electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus.
Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one
oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot give vertical
deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates. The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any
portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor
is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light
allows us to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified
and then applied to the vertical (deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the
same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection)
plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The
signal applied to the verical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The
horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a
sweep generator that is incorporated in the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such
a generator is that of a sawtooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one cycle of this
voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the
beam to be deflected linearly with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls
to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the beam flies back to its initial
position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this
periodicity is adjustable by external controls.

46
 To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown
signal that is applied to the vertical plates must be associated with each cycle of the sweep
generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections, the pattern
on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistance of
vision in the human eye and of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a
stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked) during flyback so that
the retrace sweep is not observed.
CRO Operation: A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In
general, the instrument is operated in the following manner. The signal to be displayed is
amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection plates of the CRT. A
portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering
signal. The sweep trigger then generates a pulse coincident with a selected point in the
cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the
sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied
to the horizontal deflection plates. Usually, additional provisions signal are made for
appliying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering. Also the
sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the horizontal
amplifier.
CRO Controls
The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating
conditions and thus make the instrument especially versatile. Since many of these controls
are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

CATHODE-RAY TUBE
47
Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION

Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated
steps. Normally the sensitivity is calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully
clockwise position.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical
amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input. Selecting dc couples the input directly to the
amplifier; selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the amplifier thus
blocking any constant component.
HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION
Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal
to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is
fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal
aplifier through Ext. Horiz. connector.
TRIGGER
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of
trigger signal.
Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 50 cycle trigger
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also
allows automatic (auto) triggering of allows sweep to run free (free run).
CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical)
amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case.
Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier.
The lower terminal is graounted to the case of the oscilloscope.
External Tigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 millivolts for use in
calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.
Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable.
Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the
controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
48
 (f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall recepticle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not
advance the Intensity Control.
Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, then turn the Intensity Control
until the beam is visible on the screen.

WARNING: Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot
appears. Bright spots imply burning of the screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity
(great brightness) should never be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the screen for
any length of time as damage to the screen may occur.
Adjust Horizontal and Vertical Centering Controls. Adjust the focus to give a sharp trace. Set
trigger to internal, level to auto.
PROCEDURE:
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output from
the generator to the vertical input of the oscilloscope. Establish a steady trace of this input
signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal generator controls until you
become familiar with the function of each. The purpose fo such "playing" is to allow the
student to become so familiar with the oscilloscope that it becomes an aid (tool) in making
measurements in other experiments and not as a formidable obstacle. Note: If the vertical
gain is set too low, it may not be possible to obtain a steady trace.
II. Measurements of Voltage: Consider the circuit in Fig. 4(a). The signal generator is used to
produce a 1000 hertz sine wave. The AC voltmeter and the leads to the verticle input of the
oscilloscope are connected across the generator's output. By adjusting the Horizontal Sweep
time/cm and trigger, a steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed on the screen. The
trace represents a plot of voltage vs. time, where the vertical deflection of the trace about the
line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage at any instant of time.

49
 To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of terminals of the signal
generator, an AC (Alternating Current) voltmeter is connected in parallel across these terminals (Fig. 4a).
The AC voltmeter is designed to read the dc "effective value" of the voltage. This effective value is also
known as the "Root Mean Square value" (RMS) value of the voltage.
The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope face (Fig. 4b) is Vm volts and is
represented by the distance from the symmetry line CD to the maximum deflection. The
relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the scope and the
effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is
VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave).
Thus

Agreement is expected between the voltage reading of the multimeter and that of the
oscilloscope. For a symmetric wave (sine or cosine) the value of Vm may be taken as 1/2 the
peak to peak signal Vpp
The variable sensitivity control a signal may be used to adjust the display to fill a concenient
range of the scope face. In this position, the trace is no longer calibrated so that you can not
just read the size of the signal by counting the number of divisions and multiplying by the
scale factor. However, you can figure out what the new calibration is an use it as long as the
variable control remains unchanged.
Caution: The mathematical prescription given for RMS signals is valid only for sinusoidal
signals. The meter will not indicate the correct voltage when used to measure non-sinusoidal
signals.
III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage
measurements can still be taken from the vertical deflection. Moreover, the signal is
displayed as a function of time. If the time base (i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such
measurements as pulse duration or signal period can be made. Frequencies can then be
determined as reciprocal of the periods.
Set the oscillator to 1000 Hz. Display the signal on the CRO and measure the period of
the oscillations. Use the horizontal distance between two points such as C to D in Fig. 4b.
Set the horizontal gain so that only one complete wave form is displayed.
Then reset the horizontal until 5 waves are seen. Keep the time base control in a
calibrated position. Measure the distance (and hence time) for 5 complete cycles and
calculate the frequency from this measurement. Compare you result with the value
determined above. Repeat your measurements for other frequencies of 150 Hz, 5 kHz,
50 kHz as set on the signal generator.
50
 STANDARD VALUES OF FIXED RESISTORS AVAILABLE IN THE LAB (E12 SERIES -
10% TOLERANCE)
RANGE 1Ω TO 99 100Ω TO 1KΩ TO 9.9 10KΩ TO 100KΩ TO 1MΩ TO 10MΩ
Ω 999 Ω KΩ 99 KΩ 999 KΩ 9MΩ TO 99 Ω

SL.NO BASIC ‘R’ × 10 ‘R’ × 100 ‘R’ × 1000 ‘R’ × 10000 ‘R’ × 10*5 ‘R’ ×
‘R’VALUE 10*6
1 10 Ω 100 Ω 1KΩ 10 K Ω 100 K Ω 1 MΩ 10 MΩ
2 12 Ω 120 Ω 1.2 KΩ 12 KΩ 120 KΩ 1.2 MΩ 12 MΩ
3 15 Ω 150 Ω 1.5 KΩ 15 KΩ 150 KΩ 1.5 MΩ 15 MΩ
4 18 Ω 180 Ω 1.8 KΩ 18 KΩ 180 KΩ 1.8 MΩ 18 MΩ
5 22 Ω 220 Ω 2.2 KΩ 22 KΩ 220 KΩ 2.2 MΩ 22 MΩ
6 27 Ω 270 Ω 2.7 KΩ 27 KΩ 270 KΩ 2.7 MΩ 27 MΩ
7 33 Ω 330 Ω 3.3 KΩ 33 KΩ 330 KΩ 3.3 MΩ 33 MΩ
8 39 Ω 390 Ω 3.9 KΩ 39 KΩ 390 KΩ 3.9 MΩ 39 MΩ
9 47 Ω 470 Ω 4.7 KΩ 47 KΩ 470 KΩ 4.7 MΩ 47 MΩ
10 56 Ω 560 Ω 5.6 KΩ 56 KΩ 560 KΩ 5.6 MΩ 56 MΩ
11 68 Ω 680 Ω 6.8 KΩ 68 KΩ 680 KΩ 6.8 MΩ 68 MΩ
12 82 Ω 820 Ω 8.2 KΩ 82 KΩ 820 KΩ 8.2 KΩ 82 MΩ

51
 ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Thamaraikulum , Coimbatore – Pollachi Highway ,Coimbatore- 642 120
Approved by AICTE ,New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution

D.ELECTRICAL SAFETY PRECAUTION RULES IN THE LAB

1. Care in handling all electrical apparatus and equipment is the only effective
safeguard against injury and fatal accident.
2. Never use appliances and equipments etc that have damaged or frayedleads. Do
not use wires with poor insulation.
3. Wear closed-toe shoes, long pants or skirts which fully cover the legs, anda lab coat.
4. Check that all metallic parts of electric equipments are effectively earthed.
5. Use correct rating of fuses. Before replacing blown fuse always remember to put the
main switch off.
6. Never tamper unnecessarily with any live apparatus .Do not disconnect a plug by
pulling a flexible cable when the switch is ON.
7. Safety demands a good earthing hence always keep earth connections in good
conditions. Do not disconnect earthing connections or render ineffective the safety
gadgets installed on mains and apparatus.
8. Be aware of the location of the first aid kit, fire extinguisher, and other emergency
contact for ambulance service.
9. Don’t eat or drink in the lab. Do not bring or store food, drinks, and related eating
Utensils in a laboratory.
10. Don’t wear Jewelry items such as necklaces, earrings, bracelets or watches that
could become electrical short when made contact with live wires/circuits.
11. Never look into the open end of a waveguide or transmission line that is connected
to other equipment. Do not place any part of your body against the open end of a
waveguide or transmission line.
12. After verification of the circuit connection by the Lab handling faculty/Lab assistant
only, switch on the power supplies and other equipments like CRO.

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 ARJUN COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Thamaraikulum , Coimbatore – Pollachi Highway ,Coimbatore- 642 120
Approved by AICTE ,New Delhi & Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
An ISO 9001:2015 Certified Institution

CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

-toed shoes are NOT allowed.

r your laboratory session.

due to their own negligence.

Place after use.

the laboratory without the Lab Instructor

Before leaving the lab

Place the stools under the lab bench.
Turn off the power to all instruments.
Turn off the main power switch to the lab bench.
from the lab instructor

BEST OF LUCK

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