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Design, material, function, and fabrication
of metamaterials
Cite as: APL Mater. 11, 020401 (2023); https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0144454
Submitted: 30 January 2023 • Accepted: 31 January 2023 • Published Online: 21 February 2023

Amir A. Zadpoor, Mohammad J. Mirzaali, Lorenzo Valdevit, et al.

COLLECTIONS

Paper published as part of the special topic on Design, Material, Function, and Fabrication of Metamaterials

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 APL Materials EDITORIAL scitation.org/journal/apm

Design, material, function, and fabrication

of metamaterials
Cite as: APL Mater. 11, 020401 (2023); doi: 10.1063/5.0144454
Submitted: 30 January 2023 • Accepted: 31 January 2023 •
Published Online: 21 February 2023

Amir A. Zadpoor,1 Mohammad J. Mirzaali,1,a) Lorenzo Valdevit,2 and Jonathan B. Hopkins3

AFFILIATIONS
1
Department of Biomechanical Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical, Maritime, and Materials Engineering,
Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD Delft, Netherlands
2
University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA
3
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA

Note: This paper is part of the Special Topic on Design, Material, Function, and Fabrication of Metamaterials.
a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Metamaterials are engineered materials with unusual, unique properties and advanced functionalities that are a direct consequence of their
microarchitecture. While initial properties and functionalities were limited to optics and electromagnetism, many novel categories of meta-
materials that have applications in many different areas of research and practice, including acoustic, mechanics, biomaterials, and thermal
engineering, have appeared in the last decade. This editorial serves as a prelude to the special issue with the same title that presents a number
of selected studies in these directions. In particular, we review some of the most important developments in the design and fabrication of
metamaterials with an emphasis on the more recent categories. We also suggest some directions for future research.
Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0144454

I. INTRODUCTION computing,28,29 distributed computing,30,31 GPU (graphic process-

ing unit) computing,32,33 parallel computing,34,35 and TPU (tensor
The last decade has witnessed an explosive growth in the processing unit),36,37 has enabled improved canvassing of the space
breadth and depth of the studies aiming to design, simulate, of possible designs and more powerful approaches to the rational
fabricate, and characterize metamaterials of different kinds. This design of metamaterials.
unprecedented growth has primarily happened at the intersection The current special issue presents a collection of selected arti-
of three major developments that have reinforced each other and cles from various areas of research within the broad spectrum of
have facilitated the study of metamaterials. First, the design of meta- designer materials that are referred to as “metamaterials.” It, there-
materials that was initially limited to optical and electromagnetic fore, features multiple studies employing elements from all the
properties has now expanded to mechanical (both quasi-static and three above-mentioned trends. In this editorial, we try to focus on
elastodynamic),1,2,183 acoustic,3–5 biomedical,6–10 and thermal11,12 the most important recurrent themes not only in the studies pub-
properties. Second, the additive manufacturing (AM) techniques, lished within this special issue but also in the relevant literature,
which are also referred to as 3D printing techniques, have come in general. Electromagnetic and optical metamaterials have been
of age during the last decade. In particular, it is now possible extensively reviewed in other (recent) papers. Moreover, the guest
to fabricate functional materials and structures at different length editors’ expertise and the topic of the many of the articles pub-
scales,13–16 from different materials,17–21 and with arbitrarily com- lished in this special issue is non-electromagnetic metamaterials.
plex distributions of multiple phases with vastly different mechanical This editorial will, therefore, focus on highlighting the most impor-
and physical properties within one single construct.19,22–27 Third, tant trends seen in the current research into metamaterials that
the development and widespread availability of computational target properties and functionalities beyond optics and electromag-
techniques, including those based on artificial intelligence (AI), as netism. We will particularly focus on mechanical and biomedical
well as readily available computational capacity in the form of cloud metamaterials.

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II. DESIGN associated with any specific objective. That is because the space of
When designing metamaterials, the principal design objective all possible microarchitectural designs is too large and complex to
be realistically canvassed by any viable computational method avail-
is to devise small-scale architectures that give rise to a desired set
able today. It is, therefore, important to start off by limiting the
of large-scale properties. The methods applied for such a design
space of possible designs to a specific parametrization of the pos-
purpose often rely on physical reasoning, analytical models, and
sible microarchitectures. To be as minimally restrictive as possible,
computational models and are collectively referred to as “rational
such parametrizations require a masterful application of physical
design” approaches. In this context, the term “rational” highlights
reasoning and an intuitive understanding of the underlying physics
the contrast with “creative” or “artistic” design approaches that rely
(Fig. 1). This somewhat blurs the boundaries between “rational”
on one’s artistic, creative, and (even) intuitive design capabilities. and “intuitive” designs but is a worthy price to pay given the need
In their purest form, rational design approaches aim at solving an to compensate for the inadequacy of computational hardware and
inverse design problem in which the microarchitectures giving rise software.
to a specific set of physical parameters are sought. However, solv- Recently, the application of machine learning techniques has
ing such inverse design problems is often notoriously difficult. The enabled two other approaches to the design of metamaterials
vast majority of studies found in the literature, therefore, start off [Figs. 2(a) and 2(d)]. First, it has become now possible to solve the
with a design idea that stems in physical reasoning. Such design inverse design problems with the help of deep learning and other
ideas are then supported by parametric studies in which “forward” AI tools.38–44 Second, generative models, such as generative adver-
computational models are used to relate the designed microarchi- sarial networks (GANs)45,46 and variational autoencoders (VAEs),47
tectures to the large-scale properties. Starting off from a specific can now take over some parts of the rational design process by
design idea not only is important for such hybrid approaches but generating designs that correspond to some given sets of target
also is required when trying to solve the actual inverse problem properties.48

FIG. 1. Mechanical metamaterials can show unusual properties. As an example, three categories of metamaterials with different values of Poisson’s ratio, ν, are shown
here. This includes dilational behavior with ν = −1 [(a) and (b)], auxetic behavior with ν < 0 [(c) and (d)], and penta-mode properties with ν = 0.5 [(e) and (f)]. Subfigure (b)
is reprinted with permission from Bückmann et al., “On three-dimensional dilational elastic metamaterials,” New J. Phys. 16, 033032 (2014). Copyright 2023 IOP Publishing.
Subfigure (d) is reprinted with permission from Kolken and Zadpoor, “Auxetic mechanical metamaterials,” RSC Adv. 7, 5111–5129 (2017). Copyright 2017 The Royal Society
of Chemistry. Sub-figures (f)-left and (f)-right are, respectively, reprinted with permission from Kadic et al., “On the practicability of pentamode mechanical metamaterials,”
Appl. Phys. Lett. 100, 191901 (2012), and Hedayati et al., “Additively manufactured metallic pentamode meta-materials,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 110, 091905 (2017) with the
permission of AIP Publishing LLC.

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FIG. 2. An example of physics-informed deep learning models (a) that can be used for the rational design of the microarchitectures of mechanical metamaterials.38 An
example of self-folding lattices composed of passive and active materials (b), reprinted with permission from van Manen et al., “Theoretical stiffness limits of 4D printed self-
folding metamaterials,” Commun. Mater. 3, 43 (2022). Copyright 2023 Springer Nature Limited. An example of the applications of mechanical metamaterials in biomedical
engineering for creating meta-biomaterials (c), reprinted with permission from Kolken et al., “Rationally designed meta-implants: A combination of auxetic and conventional
meta-biomaterials,” Mater. Horiz. 5, 28–35 (2018). Copyright 2023 Royal Society of Chemistry. An example of mechanical neural networks (d) that demonstrates the unique
features for learning various mechanical behaviors simultaneously. Sub-figure (d) is reprinted with permission from Lee et al., “Mechanical neural networks: Architected
materials that learn behaviors,” Sci. Rob. 7, eabq7278 (2022) with the permission of AAAS.

It is important to understand what constitutes a microar- III. MATERIAL

chitecture. Partially motivated by the unavailability of free-form While the properties and functions of metamaterials are, to
multi-material (additive) manufacturing technologies, the first a large extent, determined by their microarchitecture, the bulk
microarchitectural designs of metamaterials were focused on geom- material from which they are made also plays an important role in
etry. Even in such single-material constructs, there has usually been determining the properties of the metamaterial. In particular, the
a second phase that constitutes the voids often seen in the design bulk material properties may define the boundaries of the enve-
of architected materials. In such material–void composites,49–52 the lope of (absolute) properties that can be achieved through various
design problem reduces to that of devising a small-scale geometry microarchitectural designs.
that gives rise to the desired properties. Multi-material 3D printing Metamaterials made from various material categories, includ-
techniques have, however, become increasingly available during the ing metals,60–64 polymers,65–69 and ceramics,51,70–73 have been
last 5–10 years.53–55 It is, therefore, possible nowadays to combine reported in the literature. As the number and complexity of the
arbitrarily complex geometries with an arbitrary spatial distribution materials that can be processed with advanced manufacturing tech-
of materials with different properties and functionalities. The space niques, such as AM, increases, more examples of architected mate-
of possible designs has, thus, greatly expanded and now includes rials with exotic properties appear in the literature. An interest-
not only the topology and geometry of the individual repetitive unit ing application of AM techniques to produce metamaterials with
cells making up the design but also the exact mechanical and physi- exceptional constituent properties is the fabrication of polymeric
cal properties of each voxel within the construct19,38,56,57 [Fig. 2(b)]. structures with nanoscale resolution via two-photon polymerization
Computational methods, such as topology optimization, can be used Direct Laser Writing (2pp-DLW) followed by pyrolysis,51,72,74,75 or
to design the microarchitecture of both single- and multi-material ALD coating and polymer removal by plasma etching.76 The result
metamaterials.53,58,59 However, there are multiple challenges that is an architected ceramic material with local dimensions at the sub-
need to be addressed to enable the efficient application of such tech- micron scale. At this scale, the intrinsic cracks are too small to grow
niques. For example, it is not always feasible to find differentiable by brittle fracture and the material locally approaches its theoret-
objective functions that can be combined with the available gradient ical strength (approximately one tenth of its Young’s modulus).77
descent-based topology optimization techniques. Future research These size effects can be combined with near optimally stiff and
should, therefore, address the above-mentioned challenges to enable strong unit-cell architectures to achieve metamaterials with specific
more objective design approaches and the discovery of metamate- strengths higher than diamond.51
rial concepts that can hardly be conceived through intuition and In some cases, the role of the bulk material properties goes
physical reasoning alone. beyond defining the boundaries of what is possible. In fact, some

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FIG. 3. Examples of programmable morphing using active (a) and passive (b) materials. Even more complex geometries can be considered in the design of such active
metamaterials (c). An example of nano-architected ceramics with ultrahigh energy absorption (d). An example of a tensegrity metamaterial with failure-resistant property
(e). Subfigures (a), (b), and (c) are, respectively, reprinted with permission from Lai-Iskandar et al., “Programmable morphing, electroactive porous shape memory polymer
composites with battery-voltage Joule heating stimulated recovery,” APL Mater. 10, 071109 (2022); Zhang and Krushynska, “Programmable shape-morphing of rose-shaped
mechanical metamaterials,” APL Mater. 10, 080701 (2022); and Ashraf et al., “On the computational modeling, additive manufacturing, and testing of tube-networks TPMS-
based graphene lattices and characterizing their multifunctional properties,” APL Mater. 10, 121107 (2022) with the permission of AIP Publishing. Subfigures (d) and (e)
are, respectively, reprinted with permission from Guell Izard et al., “Ultrahigh energy absorption multifunctional spinodal nanoarchitectures,” Small 15, 1903834 (2019), and
Bauer et al., “Tensegrity metamaterials: Toward failure-resistant engineering systems through delocalized deformation,” Adv. Mater. 33, 2005647 (2021). Copyright 2023
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

metamaterial functionalities may be impossible to realize without such as conductors and semiconductors. Simultaneous 3D print-
very specific bulk properties. For example, many designs of shape- ing of structural, conductive, and semiconductive materials into a
shifting metamaterials, such as self-folding origami,78–81 are depen- coherent architected construct with arbitrarily complex geometries
dent on the shape memory behavior found in some polymers82,83 remains a major challenge that needs to be addressed in the coming
and metallic alloys84,85 to program the underlying shape transforma- years.
tion behavior. Another example is metallic meta-biomaterials86–88 Regardless of the type of the properties pursued in the design
[Fig. 2(c)] that require a specific set of biomedical requirements, of metamaterials, a recurrent theme is the need to incorporate
such as biocompatibility, bioactivity, and biodegradability.89–91 differential material response into a single construct because many
Bioactivity and biocompatibility are relatively less challenging to advanced functionalities are dependent on the co-existence of
address. That is because there are metals (e.g., tantalum92 ) that are highly different material properties next to each other and within
intrinsically highly biocompatible. Moreover, it has been possible to the fabric of a single metamaterial construct. Examples include
use traditional surface treatment techniques, such as anodizing93–95 conductive vs non-conductive vs semiconductive materials for elec-
and plasma electrolytic oxidation,96–98 to enhance the bioactiv- tronics applications,107,108 magnetic vs non-magnetic properties for
ity of metals and their alloys. Biodegradability is, however, a magnetic applications,109–112 soft vs hard materials for creating
relatively new addition to the possibilities offered by metallic simultaneously tough and stiff materials,113–115 and shape-shifting vs
meta-biomaterials.99,100 Most reports related to metal biodegradabil- delayed shape-shifting vs passive materials for programming com-
ity are limited to Mg,101,102 Zn,103 Fe,104,105 and their alloys. The first plex (e.g., sequential) shape transformations116–124 (Fig. 3) and phase
reports of architected meta-biomaterials made from biodegradable transitions.125 Creating this type of differential responses remains
metals have only recently appeared in the literature.87,100,102 This has one of the major challenges of AM techniques to be tackled in the
to do with the difficulty of processing some biodegradable metals coming years.
with currently available AM processes. For example, Mg is highly
inflammable and creates safety concerns, while Zn has a relatively
low evaporation temperature that makes it difficult to process with IV. FUNCTION
direct metal printing techniques. Depending on the type of the metamaterial, the design objec-
A final example concerns the integration of electronics into tive may be different. Indeed, there has been a gradual shift over the
architected materials such that the structural properties can be years from a primarily property-driven approach to a functionality-
combined with other functionalities, such as sensing, actuation, driven one. In this context, property refers to the effective properties
and processing.106 The incorporation of electronics into architected of the metamaterial at the macroscale when the size of the meta-
materials requires the ability to print the main structural material material specimen is large enough as compared to its microarchi-
while also distributing the other materials needed for the electronics, tecture. The “design for property” approaches generally aim at the

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creation of metamaterials with unusual properties that are not found is because the form-freedom offered by AM techniques is essen-
in ordinary engineering materials, including the dilational behav- tial for the creation of the often highly complex microarchitectures
ior [Fig. 1(a)],126–128 negative Poisson’s ratios [i.e., auxetic behav- that result from rational design processes and are required for
ior, Fig. 1(b)],2,124,129–131 negative stiffness,132–134 negative thermal the realization of unusual properties and advanced functionalities.
expansion,67,71 ultra-high stiffness,15,63,135 directional compliance,136 AM techniques have been under development for more than three
and penta-mode [i.e., fluid-like, Fig. 1(c)] properties.62,127,137,138 decades, initially under the names “rapid prototyping” and “3D
On the other hand of the property–functionality spectrum, printing” and later under the umbrella of “additive manufactur-
one finds the “design for functionality” paradigm where the ing technologies,” which, according to the American Society for
designed metamaterial exhibits functionalities that are gener- Testing and Materials (ASTM) classification, consists of seven dif-
ally observed in devices. The boundary between the material ferent categories.159 While the first attempts at “rapid prototyping”
and device is thereby somewhat blurred. This has given rise to were primarily focused on the fabrication of physical models
terms such as “machine matter,”139–142 where the material is the without necessarily requiring the use of industrial-grade, stress-
machine. Examples of such functionalities include shape-morphing worthy materials, the recent research since the turn of the century
behaviors,143–150 self-folding origami,78,151,152 information storage and particularly in the last decade has been focused on the pro-
(i.e., memory metamaterials),120,153 power transmission and motion cessing of stress-worthy materials to create fully functional parts
conversion,154 and digital logic in the format of mechanical logic with complex geometries and high fidelities that are on a par with
gates.155,156 industrially made parts.
There are also design concepts that take an intermediate The recent developments of AM have expanded the length
position in the spectrum from a material to a device. An exam- scales, types, and number of co-printed materials. As far as the
ple of such intermediate concepts from mechanical metamaterials length scales are concerned, it is currently possible to additively
is strain rate-dependent switching in the properties (e.g., from manufacture materials with a few nanometer resolutions using elec-
auxetic to conventional or the other way around) and functional- tron beam induced deposition,160,161 with submicron resolutions
ity (e.g., from clockwise to counterclockwise rotation)23,139,141 of a using two photon polymerization,1,162,163 with a few micrometer res-
metamaterial. Another example from meta-biomaterials is the olutions using variants of stereolithography,71,164,165 with sub-100
hybrid auxetic–non-auxetic meta-implants,6 where a rational dis- micron resolutions using polyjetting57,166 as well as with microse-
tribution of the Poisson’s ratio is used to enhance the longevity of lective laser melting,167,168 and with submillimeter resolutions using
orthopedic implants. a variety of techniques (e.g., selective laser melting169 and elec-
The move from property-driven design approaches to tron beam melting170 for metals; fused deposition modeling171 and
functionality-driven ones is a welcome change in the direction of selective laser sintering49 for polymers).
this research area because the scope of possible designs is much Even though printing with very fine resolutions has become
broader when dealing with functionalities as opposed to properties, possible, there are two major obstacles that need to be tackled
which are limited both in number and in their possible ranges in future studies. First, the additive nature of printing processes
due to, among other factors, thermodynamics constraints. Indeed, means that the fabrication of objects with dimensions that are
there are well-defined theoretical limits for the range of various a few orders of magnitude larger than the printing resolution
properties that could be achieved through the microarchitectural takes a formidably long time. To date, this limitation has been
design of metamaterials. For example, the Poisson’s ratio of primarily addressed through the use of indirect AM techniques
isotropic materials is limited to the specific range [−1, 0.5],157 where molds,9,17,140,172 (lithography) masks,173,174 or (imprinting)
while the possible ranges of elastic modulus and bulk modulus of stamps175–177 are created using AM and are then applied to scale
metamaterials are coupled and limited by the Hashin–Shtrikman up the manufacturing of the target devices both in number and
bounds.158 As a result of the latter theoretical bound, it is, for in dimensions [Figures 3(d) and 3(e)]. An emerging approach to
example, theoretically impossible to design metamaterials that design and fabricate scalable nano-architected materials is the use of
are simultaneously highly auxetic and highly stiff. The envelope self-assembly approaches (e.g., spinodal decomposition178,179 ).
of functionalities that can be realized with metamaterials is, on While the unit cell topology is somewhat limited by the natu-
the other hand, only dependent on the availability of suitable ral process, recent studies have shown that spinodal shell-based
materials and (additive) manufacturing techniques. For example, metamaterials [Fig. 3(d)] have exceptional mechanical180,181 and
the availability of AM techniques that could process both stress- biomechanical182 properties.
worthy materials (e.g., hard polymers, metals, or composites) and The second limitation concerns the limited number of mate-
(semi)conductors would enable the development of metamaterials rials that can be processed with small-scale AM techniques. As a
with both structural and (distributed) electronic functionalities. rule of thumb, AM techniques working with the finest resolutions
Given the ever-expanding range of materials that can be processed can only process a limited number of materials with a relatively lim-
with (multi-material) AM techniques, it is expected that we will ited range of (mechanical) properties. Once more, indirect AM may
see many novel functionalities appearing in the literature in the be used to address this limitation to some extent. However, indi-
coming years. rect AM techniques have their own limitations, including a lower
degree of design freedom as compared to direct AM techniques. It
is, therefore, important to address both the above-mentioned chal-
V. FABRICATION lenges more directly and through the development of AM machines
The fabrication of metamaterials can be performed using that are specifically designed for scalable manufacturing of metama-
several techniques, of which AM is the most important one. That terials (e.g., machines with many laser sources) as well as through

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Author Contributions M. J. Mirzaali et al., “Multi-material 3D printed mechanical metamaterials:
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(supporting); Supervision (supporting); Visualization (lead); instability in soft mechanical metamaterials,” Phys. Rev. Appl. 9(6), 064013
Writing – original draft (supporting); Writing – review & editing (2018).
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